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65-753: Successful coup d'état by Zhao Kuangyin The Chenqiao mutiny was a mutiny and coup d'état on 2 February 960 during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period of China that resulted in the overthrow of the Later Zhou dynasty and the foundation of the Song dynasty . In response to an invasion by the Northern Han and Liao dynasty , general Zhao Kuangyin led his troops to Chenqiao . His troops soon mutinied and installed him as emperor. Although

130-526: A boat; and the famous mutiny on the Bounty . Those convicted of mutiny often faced capital punishment . Until 1689, mutiny was regulated in England by Articles of War instituted by the monarch and effective only in a period of war. In 1689, the first Mutiny Act was approved, which passed the responsibility to enforce discipline within the military to Parliament . The Mutiny Act, altered in 1803, and

195-772: A body of royal marine forces on shore, and of keeping them in exact discipline, and it brings into force the Army Act for one year. Until 1998, mutiny and another offence of failing to suppress or report a mutiny were each punishable with death. Section 21(5) of the Human Rights Act 1998 completely abolished the death penalty in the United Kingdom . (Prior to this, the death penalty had already been abolished for murder, but it had remained in force for certain military offences and treason , although no executions had been carried out for several decades.) This provision

260-468: A century after the passing of the first Mutiny Act. From 1689 to 1803, the Mutiny Act occasionally expired during times of peace. Yet statutory power was given to the crown to make Articles of War that operated in the colonies and elsewhere beyond the seas in the same manner as those made by prerogative in times of war. In 1715, in consequence of the rebellion, this power was created in respect of

325-505: A joint Liao- Northern Han invasion was launched against the Later Zhou in early 960. Many officials, including inspector-general Han Tong's son, were concerned about Zhao's growing influence. Despite these officials’ warnings against further empowering Zhao, he was still sent to lead an army to counter the northern invasion. after the Later Zhou court consulted its chancellors , Fan Zhi and Wang Pu . After marching his troops out of

390-411: A joint Liao-Northern Han invasion empowered a mutinous general to leave the capital with elite troops. In The Cambridge History of China , Lau Nap-Yin and Huang Kuan-Ch’ung argue that the northern invasion may not have occurred at all. The Liao dynasty had recently been defeated by Chai Rong and may have wanted to recover the lands it had lost while the Later Zhou was preoccupied with succession. In

455-730: A muscular young man skilled at mounted archery , while also possessing a basic understanding of Chinese classics , history, and the Huang-Lao philosophy. When he was an adult, he handled household affairs for Guo Wei, and often went out to do business, traveling back and forth between the Central China and the Jiangnan area. After the establishment of the Later Han in 947, the Guo family's condition improved dramatically. Guo Wei became

520-464: A newly enthroned emperor should not personally inspect society because Heaven would protect him. Several powerful individuals opposed the Chenqiao mutiny, namely Guo Chong , Yuan Yan , Li Yun , and Li Chongjin . Guo and Yuan, who had helped establish the Later Zhou, would eventually submit to Song authority. Li Yun, the military governor of Luzhou (in modern-day Shanxi ), sought an alliance with

585-500: A rebellion, but Wang Jun vetoed it for fear that Guo Rong would hold too much military power. At the end, Guo Wei had to personally lead the troops as an emperor. It was not until Wang's banishment in early 953 that Guo Rong finally got a chance to come back to the capital, when in April 953 he was named Prince of Jin ( 晉王 ). By this time he was again married, to a Lady Fu , a widowed daughter of general Fu Yanqing . His son Chai Zongxun

650-538: A significant break from the violent transitions of the previous Five Dynasties. Zhao's popularity was preserved and the Song dynasty was strong enough to resume the unification of China. Zhao nonetheless compensated for the inherent illegitimacy of usurpation by claiming the Mandate of Heaven ; this was established via auspicious signs of Heaven's approval. To appear confident in his legitimacy, Zhao laughed off warnings that

715-485: Is a fixed permanent code. But constitutional traditions are fully respected by the insertion in it of a section providing that it shall come into force only by virtue of an annual act of parliament. This annual act recites the illegality of a standing army in time of peace unless with the consent of parliament, and the necessity nevertheless of maintaining a certain number of land forces (exclusive of those serving in India) and

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780-520: Is considered a highly successful emperor of the Five Dynasties period. He centralized military power by his reforms, and proved his military prowess by a series of victories against Northern Han , Later Shu , Southern Tang , and the Liao dynasty . Although his accomplishments were limited due to his premature death, they paved the way for the eventual unification of large parts of China proper by

845-600: Is not mutiny, which requires collaboration or conspiracy to disobedience. Chai Rong Chai Rong ( Chinese : 柴榮 ) (27 October 921 – 27 July 959 ), later known as Guo Rong ( 郭榮 ), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Shizong of Later Zhou , was the second emperor of the Later Zhou dynasty of China, during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period . He reigned from 954 until his death in 959. He succeeded his uncle-in-law Guo Wei (Emperor Taizu), whose surname he had adopted. Emperor Shizong

910-605: Is the obligation of every member of the U.S. military , a principle established by the Nuremberg and Tokyo Trials following World War II and reaffirmed in the aftermath of the My Lai Massacre during the Vietnam War . However, a U.S. soldier who disobeys an order after deeming it unlawful will almost certainly be court-martialed to determine whether the disobedience was proper. In addition, simple refusal to obey

975-590: Is to be emperor". The annoyed Chai thus replaced the previous inspector-general of the Palace Command with Zhao Kuangyin. The Sushui Jiwen , completed in the late 1000s, and the Dongdu Shilüe , published in 1186, both mention a rumor that circulated in the capital: Zhao's troops would mutiny because a child emperor under the regency of Empress Dowager Fu would not recognize the troops' services. In anticipation of this rumor's fruition, citizens fled

1040-595: The Xu Zizhi Tongjian Changbian , published in 1183; and the History of Song , published in 1346, all claim that an astrologer, Miao Xun , saw the sun being eclipsed by another sun. The Yuhu further states that the new sun appeared above the regular one, implying that a new emperor would replace the old one. Also mentioned in the Yuhu Qinghua is Han Xizai , a Southern Tang envoy sent to

1105-590: The Cambridge History of China , John W. Chaffee says that there was little to indicate that “[Song] dynasty would be anything more than the sixth of the short-lived dynasties that had ruled north China for a half-century.” Yet, the political and military structures that Zhao and his successor created successfully ensured the longevity and internal peace of their dynasty. For example, future Song emperors would personally control major aspects of military and fiscal policy; while provided legitimacy and stability for

1170-465: The Later Shu , Southern Tang (during the Later Zhou conquest of Huainan ), and Liao dynasty respectively. These administrative and military successes made Chai more legitimate than any emperor of the previous dynasties and enabled northern China to recover economically. Nonetheless, the Later Zhou's authority was not strong enough to sustain a child as emperor. Facilitating the military success of

1235-593: The Northern Song , founded by his trusted generals Zhao Kuangyin and Zhao Guangyi . Chai Rong was born in Xingzhou (邢州; modern Xingtai , Hebei ). As a child he came to live with his aunt — a younger sister of his father Chai Shouli ( 柴守禮 ) — and her husband Guo Wei , an official in the Later Tang military. The Guos had no sons, so they adopted the quiet nephew as their own. The youngster grew up into

1300-467: The Royal Navy and Royal Air Force . The military law of England in early times existed, like the forces to which it applied, in a period of war only. Troops were raised for a particular service and were disbanded upon the cessation of hostilities. The crown, by prerogative , made laws known as Articles of War for the government and discipline of the troops while thus embodied and serving. Except for

1365-525: The Sushui Jiwen , Zhao complained to his top generals at a drinking party in mid-971 that an incident similar to the Chenqiao mutiny could be committed against him. He pointed out that wealth, prestige, and prosperous descendants were the essence of happiness and persuaded his generals (some of whom had assisted in the mutiny) to give up their posts in exchange for appointment as regional military governors. Each general who resigned had his clan married into

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1430-493: The capital Bianzhou (汴州; today's Kaifeng , Henan ), they were all slaughtered as well. Guo Wei asked Guo Rong to stay behind at the frontier as he led his main army southbound towards Bianzhou. In a few months, Liu Chengyou was killed, Later Han was terminated, as Guo Wei founded the Later Zhou . Guo Rong became the military governor of Zhenning Command ( 鎮寧軍 ) and went to Chanzhou (澶州; today's Qingfeng County , Henan). At Chanzhou, he quickly eradicated militarized outlaws in

1495-693: The Articles of War defined the nature and punishment of mutiny until the latter were replaced by the Army Discipline and Regulation Act in 1879. This, in turn, was replaced by the Army Act in 1881. Today the Armed Forces Act 2006 defines mutiny as follows: (2)For the purposes of this section a person subject to service law takes part in a mutiny if— (a)in concert with at least one other person subject to service law, he— (i)acts with

1560-603: The Commissioner of Military Affairs ( 樞密使 ) in 948, and his adopted son became the Left Commandant for Palace-gate Security ( 左堅門衛將軍 ). On 4 May 950, Guo was promoted to military governor of Tianxiong Command ( 天雄軍 ) and delegated to garrison at Weizhou (魏州; modern Linzhang County , Hebei ) at the Later Han- Liao dynasty border to prevent a possible Liao incursion. Ten days later, his adopted son

1625-587: The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. However, he failed to conquer the Sixteen Prefectures from the Liao dynasty. Kuangyi would continue his predecessor's centralizing reforms and transform the Song dynasty into a state dominated by the literati, rather than by military generals. The account of the mutiny in the Old History of the Five Dynasties , published in 974, was officially endorsed by

1690-637: The Later Shu and Southern Tang. His promotion to inspector-general of the Palace Command (one of the Later Zhou's armies, the other being the Metropolitan Command) gave him the means to cultivate his troops’ personal loyalty. Zhao was therefore in a prime position to usurp the throne following the death of Chai Rong. The Later Zhou emperor Chai Rong died of illness in 959 and was succeeded by his five-year-old son, Guo Zongxun . Possibly capitalizing on their rival's preoccupation with succession,

1755-420: The Later Zhou court to congratulate Chai Rong on his succession. Upon his return, Han said little about Chai but heaped praise upon Zhao Kuangyin. Han had a history of accurately predicting the future, so his praise made Zhao seem even more remarkable. The History of Song claims that Chai Rong was reading his book collection after a northern campaign when he found a wooden plaque that said "The inspector-general

1820-417: The Later Zhou was Zhao Kuangyin , a talented general who would later become the subject of the Chenqiao mutiny. His father, Zhao Hongyin , was himself a general. Zhao Kuangyin joined the regional army of Guo Wei when he was 21 and helped the latter stage a successful coup against the Later Han . Zhao quickly rose through the ranks and endeared himself to Chai Rong by distinguishing himself in campaigns against

1885-614: The Northern Han, but his rebellion was defeated by Song forces in under two months. Li Chongjin, the former inspector-general of the Metropolitan Command and the governor of Yangzhou (in modern-day Jiangsu ), tried to rebel alongside Li Yun; however, his envoy defected to the Song and he too was defeated in under two months. These military successes, along with further structural reforms to the military dampened any remaining dissent amongst Zhao's generals. According to

1950-485: The Song dynasty since its compilation was ordered by Zhao Kuangyin. It places the responsibility of the mutiny on Zhao's officers but does not mention his drunkenness, the yellow robe, or the legitimizing portents, leaving much room for later embellishment. Ouyang Xiu , author of the Historical Records of the Five Dynasties (published in 1073), stressed that the last emperor of the Later Zhou "relinquished"

2015-527: The Tang court's ability to appoint regional governors; the warlords that filled the regional power vacuum would go on to found the Five Dynasties and Ten kingdoms . The Five Dynasties, the first of which was founded following Zhu Wen's usurpation of the throne from Emperor Ai of Tang in 907, ruled over northern China in quick succession, each supplanting the other via usurpation, war, and other violent means. The southern Ten Kingdoms were generally wealthier than

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2080-450: The act of Parliament. The Mutiny Act 1873 was passed in this manner. Such matters remained until 1879 when the last Mutiny Act was passed and the last Articles of War were promulgated. The Mutiny Act legislated for offences in respect of which death or penal servitude could be awarded. Meanwhile, the Articles of War, while repeating those provisions of the act, constituted the direct authority for dealing with offences for which imprisonment

2145-458: The administration of the act in many matters formerly dealt with by the Articles of War. These rules, however, must not be inconsistent with the provisions of the Army Act itself, and must be laid before parliament immediately after they are made. Thus in 1879, the government and discipline of the army became for the first time completely subject either to the direct action or the close supervision of Parliament. A further notable change took place at

2210-401: The army marched south to Kaifeng. On the way, Zhao threatened to refuse the throne if the mutineers did not pledge absolute loyalty to him and he vowed to execute those who "dared to loot the capital or to molest its inhabitants". Those who obeyed would be awarded handsomely. Although this version of the mutiny is the most commonly accepted version amongst traditional historians, the yellow gown

2275-650: The capital, Kaifeng , and crossing the Yellow River on 1 February, Zhao Kuangyin allowed his troops to rest at Chenqiao, a village 20 miles northeast of Kaifeng. He ordered his troops to camp on a piece of flatland near in front of the village's courier station, tied his horse to a pagoda tree , and entered a nearby house to drink some wine before falling asleep. That night, Zhao's officers agreed that he would properly reward them for service if he were emperor. The officers then consulted Zhao Kuangyi , Zhao Kuangyin's younger brother, and Zhao Pu , Kuangyin's advisor, about

2340-470: The capital, Kaifeng , en masse. Zhao Kuangyin was declared emperor by his troops on the dawn of 2 February 960. According to the History of Song , Zhao's armor-clad officers stormed his bedroom and said: "Now we do not have a master. We will make you Emperor!" Surprised, Zhao jumped out of his bed only to be forcibly draped in an imperial yellow gown. The officers helped the reluctant Zhao onto his horse and

2405-441: The congratulations of the other officials, proclaimed the Song dynasty , and rewarded his supporters. However, Zhao's mother, Empress Dowager Du , was unhappy. When questioned about this by her son, she said that it was impossible to become an ordinary man again if the emperorship was lost. Zhao bowed and vowed to always remember her teachings. The succession, which was so peaceful that street markets continued to trade, represented

2470-474: The forces in the kingdom, but apart from and in no respect affected the principle acknowledged all this time that the crown of its mere prerogative could make laws for the government of the army in foreign countries in time of war. The Mutiny Act 1803 effected a great constitutional change in this respect: the power of the Crown to make any Articles of War became altogether statutory, and the prerogative merged in

2535-509: The foundation of the Song dynasty, China had experienced a period of disunity in the aftermath of Huang Chao's rebellion and during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period . Military-backed rebellions and usurpations were especially common during this period. The largely bloodless Chenqiao mutiny therefore empowered Zhao to not only maintain the personal loyalty of the Song military, but also to institute centralization reforms that effectively prevented internal military threats from occurring in

2600-588: The future. This stability allowed Zhao and his younger brother, Emperor Taizong , to largely reunify China in 979 following the conquest of the Northern Han . Following the end of the An Lushan rebellion in the mid-700s, the Tang dynasty largely delegated its regional authority to the Jiedushi , or military governors. The government was further weakened by Huang Chao's rebellion in the late 800s, which destroyed

2665-399: The history of English military law up to 1879 may be divided into three periods, each having a distinct constitutional aspect: (I) prior to 1689, the army, being regarded as so many personal retainers of the sovereign rather than servants of the state, was mainly governed by the will of the sovereign; (2) between 1689 and 1803, the army, being recognised as a permanent force, was governed within

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2730-424: The incursion. When Chai Rong engaged Liu Chong at Gao Ping (in modern Jincheng, Shanxi), two of Chai's general Fan Aineng, He Hui fled from battlefield along with their troops. At this critical moment, Chai Rong risked his life to break through the defense and crushed Liu's forces. After this campaign, Chai Rong consolidated his power. He suffered an early death at the age of 38 when he died from illness while out on

2795-427: The intention of overthrowing or resisting authority; or (ii)disobeys authority in such circumstances as to subvert discipline; (b)he agrees with at least one other person subject to service law to overthrow or resist authority; or (c)he agrees with at least one other person subject to service law to disobey authority, and the agreed disobedience would be such as to subvert discipline. The same definition applies in

2860-476: The legislature, but by articles of war similar to those issued by the king and authorized by an ordinance of the Lords and Commons exercising in that respect the sovereign prerogative. This power of law-making by prerogative was however held to be applicable during a state of actual war only, and attempts to exercise it in times of peace were ineffectual. Subject to this limitation, it existed for considerably more than

2925-445: The military law of England. The act contained a proviso saving the right of the crown to make Articles of War, but in such a manner as to render the power in effect a nullity by enacting that no crime made punishable by the act shall be otherwise punishable by such articles. As the punishment of every conceivable offence was provided, any articles made under the act could be no more than an empty formality having no practical effect. Thus

2990-508: The new dynasty. Mutiny During the Age of Discovery , mutiny particularly meant open rebellion against a ship's captain . This occurred, for example, during Ferdinand Magellan 's journeys around the world, resulting in the killing of one mutineer, the execution of another, and the marooning of others; on Henry Hudson 's Discovery , resulting in Hudson and others being set adrift in

3055-435: The northern Five Dynasties. However, the Later Zhou , founded in 951 and the last of the Five Dynasties, did lay a "limited foundation of wealth" under the emperors Guo Wei and Chai Rong . Guo and Chai wore down the power of the regional military governors strengthened the bureaucracy, centralized the military, and initiated serious plans to reunify China. Chai in particular oversaw the conquest of significant territories from

3120-422: The official narrative recounts that a yellow imperial robe was forced upon Zhao and that he only accepted the emperorship reluctantly, most modern historians now agree that he helped orchestrate the mutiny. Many apocryphal events, such as a solar eclipse and a previous emperor's discovery of a mysterious wooden tablet, also surround the Chenqiao mutiny, decreasing the inherent illegitimacy of usurpation. Prior to

3185-407: The only serious opposition to Zhao's usurpation, was killed by a commander loyal to Zhao, and the child emperor Guo Zongxun was exiled after an organized abdication. While sitting in his office, Zhao cried to Fan Zhi and Wang Pu that he had been forced to take the throne. After a commander threatened them with a sword, Fan and Wang realized the theatre of the situation and kowtowed . Zhao then received

3250-507: The plan. Both men supported the usurpation and Kuangyi added that, to remain popular, the generals should "discipline the officers and men under [themselves] and strictly prohibit them from looting". Kuangyi then informed two of Kuangyin's loyal generals in Kaifeng about the imminent coup. Retrospective propaganda detailed many legitimizing portents that supposedly precipitated the Chenqiao mutiny. The Yuhu Qinghua (玉壺清話), completed in 1078;

3315-507: The punishment of desertion, which was made a felony by statute in the reign of Henry VI , these ordinances or Articles of War remained almost the sole authority for enforcing discipline until 1689. That year, the first Mutiny Act was passed and the military forces of the crown were brought under the direct control of Parliament. Even the Parliamentary forces in the time of Charles I and Oliver Cromwell were governed not by an act of

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3380-402: The realm by statute and without it by the prerogative of the crown; and (3) from 1803 to 1879, it was governed either directly by statute or by the sovereign under an authority derived from and defined and limited by statute. Although in 1879 the power of making Articles of War became in effect inoperative, the sovereign was empowered to make rules of procedure, having the force of law, to regulate

3445-475: The region and promoted literati to enforce laws more effectively, winning the support of the people. He also initiated projects to tear down dilapidated street walls and build new public office buildings and residential housings. Chancellor Wang Jun , the most powerful minister, did not see eye-to-eye with Guo Rong on some issues and prevented him from visiting the capital on more than one occasion. In 952, Guo Rong requested permission to lead an army to quell

3510-613: The royal family and lived the rest of their lives in comfortable retirement. This incident further increased Zhao's control over the military. The powerful clans that resulted from these royal marriages would continue to supply empresses for Song emperors and would act as aristocratic counterparts to the imperial examination -selected literati . The Song dynasty under Zhao Kuangyin would conquer Jingnan , Ma Chu , Later Shu, Southern Han , and Southern Tang, in that order. Kuangyin's brother and successor, Kuangyi, would conquer Wuyue , Qingyuan Circuit , and, in 979, Northern Han, thereby ending

3575-402: The same time. The Mutiny Act had been brought into force on each occasion for one year only, in compliance with the constitutional theory: that the maintenance of a standing army in time of peace, unless with the consent of parliament, is against law. Each session therefore the text of the act had to be passed through both Houses clause by clause and line by line. The Army Act, on the other hand,

3640-413: The task. In 1879, a measure was passed into law consolidating in one act both the Mutiny Act and the Articles of War, and amending their provisions in certain important respects. This measure was called the Army Discipline and Regulation Act 1879. After one or two years of experience highlighted the need for improvement, it was superseded by the Army Act 1881, which formed the foundation and main portion of

3705-533: The throne to Zhao Kuangyin; translator Richard L. Davis notes that this implies "obedience" to the Mandate of Heaven, likely to legitimize Zhao's usurpation of the throne. Ouyang's description of the mutiny is otherwise extremely short. Although this may have been done to avoid scrutiny, the Historical Records were never intended for publication. All traditional interpretations agree that Zhao Kuangyin

3770-602: Was appointed Tianxiong Command's Chief Director of Military Headquarters ( 牙內都指揮使 ) to follow him in Weizhou. Chai Rong — by now known as Guo Rong — was also given a nominal post of prefect of Guizhou ( 貴州 ). In 950, the Later Han emperor Liu Chengyou unexpectedly killed the entire family of Guo Wei as a plot to liquidate the most powerful ministers in his nation. Guo Wei decided to rebel. As Guo Rong's wife Lady Liu ( 劉氏 ) and children including 3 young sons also remained in

3835-454: Was born in late 953 in Chanzhou. Guo Rong (posthumously known as Shizong of Later Zhou) became emperor in 954 upon his adoptive father's death. Like his father, he was considered an able ruler. He continued reforms introduced by his father. More importantly, he began putting pressure on the Northern Han and even the Liao dynasty , though nothing substantial came of it. More success

3900-571: Was likely a later addition. Other sources, such as the Xu Zizhi Tongjian Changban and the Dongdu Shilüe , add that Zhao was intoxicated and reluctant to support the mutineers. According to the History of Song , Zhao Kuangyin marched his troops into Kaifeng the following day. Fan Zhi was so distressed that, upon receiving the news after attending court in the morning, he squeezed Wang Pu's hand until it bled. Han Tong,

3965-468: Was met in the south as some minor successes were made against the Southern Tang and Later Shu , paving the way to eventual unification by the Song dynasty . One month after Chai Rong took the throne, Liu Chong , Emperor of Northern Han , colluded with Liao dynasty to launch an assault on Later Zhou. Against the advice of Minister Feng Dao , Chai Rong decided to lead the army to fight against

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4030-407: Was motivated by the need for competent leadership against an imminent invasion. Regardless of his actual willingness to take the throne, Zhao Kuangyin quickly took control of the situation after being declared emperor. Johannes Kurz notes the accidental nature of the Chenqiao mutiny: The presence of a child emperor made it easy for strongmen outside of the royal family to contend for the throne, while

4095-660: Was not required by the European Convention on Human Rights , since Protocol 6 of the Convention permitted the death penalty in time of war, and Protocol 13, which prohibits the death penalty for all circumstances, did not then exist. The government introduced section 21(5) as a late amendment in response to parliamentary pressure. The United States ' Uniform Code of Military Justice defines mutiny thus: U.S. military law requires obedience only to lawful orders. Disobedience to unlawful orders (see Superior orders )

4160-496: Was the maximum punishment, as well as with many matters relating to trial and procedure. The act and the articles were found not to harmonize in all respects. Their general arrangement was faulty, and their language sometimes obscure. In 1869, a royal commission recommended that both should be recast in a simple and intelligible shape. In 1878, a committee of the House of Commons endorsed this view and made recommendations for performing

4225-442: Was unwillingly installed as emperor. They state that he was merely a victim of circumstance, whether heavenly or man-made, and they generally approve of his decision to usurp the throne. Most modern historians (such as Deng Guangming , Chen Dengyuan, and Wang Boqin) agree that Zhao Kuangyin, Zhao Kuangyi, and some key advisors engineered the Chenqiao mutiny. Thomas Bartlett corroborates this interpretation and further argues that Zhao

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