Patriots :
158-462: Mapuche allies: Royalists : Mapuche allies: The Chilean War of Independence ( Spanish : Guerra de la Independencia de Chile , 'War of Independence of Chile') was a military and political event that allowed the emancipation of Chile from the Spanish Monarchy , ending the colonial period and initiating the formation of an independent republic. It developed in the context of
316-426: A royal decree freeing all slaves who fled to Spanish Florida and accepted Catholic conversion and baptism (since 1690), most went to the area around St. Augustine , but escaped slaves also reached Pensacola and Cuba . Also, a substantial number of blacks from Haiti (a French colony) arrived as refugees to Spanish Louisiana because of these greater freedoms. The Spanish Santa Teresa de Mose (Florida) became
474-657: A Portuguese term, however, differs in that it refers to Brazilians of African ancestry . Spaniards born in the Spanish East Indies were called insulares . Whites born in colonial Brazil, with both parents born in the Iberian Peninsula, were known as mazombos . Europeans began arriving in Latin America during the Spanish conquest; and during the colonial period most European immigration
632-443: A breathing space. Abascal had no intention of honoring the treaty, and that very year sent a much more decisive force southwards, under the command of Mariano Osorio . The royalist force landed and moved to Chillán , demanding complete surrender. O'Higgins wanted to defend the city of Rancagua , while Carrera wanted to make the stand at the pass of Angostura, a more felicitous defensive position but also closer to Santiago. Because of
790-529: A bride who was an accomplished weaver. In addition, the Mapuche used their textiles as an important surplus and an exchange trading good. Numerous sixteenth-century accounts describe their bartering the textiles with other indigenous peoples, and with colonists in newly developed settlements. Such trading enabled the Mapuche to obtain those goods that they did not produce or held in high esteem, such as horses. Tissue volumes made by Aboriginal women and marketed in
948-569: A cause for this turmoil. It was only "under the rule of non criollos such as the Indian Benito Juárez and the Mestizo Porfiro Díaz " that Mexico "experienced relative [periods of] calm." By the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the criollo identity "began to disappear," with the institution of mestizaje and Indigenismo policies by the national government, which stressed a uniform homogenization of
1106-429: A chronicle of 1673. Among the Mapuche, "the spirits are interested in machi's gendered discourses and performances, not in the sex under the machi's clothes". In attracting the filew (possessing spirit), "Both male and female machi become spiritual brides who seduce and call their filew – at once husband and master – to possess their heads ... The ritual transvestism of male machi ... draws attention to
1264-574: A conservation group, has led an international campaign for preservation, resulting in the Home Depot chain and other leading wood importers agreeing to revise their purchasing policies to "provide for the protection of native forests in Chile". Some Mapuche leaders want stronger protections for the forests. In recent years , the crimes committed by Mapuche armed insurgents have been prosecuted under counter-terrorism legislation, originally introduced by
1422-648: A definitive separation from the Spanish Crown; and Royalists , who sought to maintain unity with her. Traditionally, Chilean historiography covers this period between the establishment of the First Government Junta of Chile (September 18, 1810) and the resignation of Bernardo O'Higgins as Supreme Director of Chile (January 28, 1823). It is also subdivided into three stages: the Patria Vieja (1810–1814), Reconquista (1814–1817) and
1580-723: A direct link between the liberalism and federalism of the United States with the principles of the Chilean independence movement. Finally, he founded the Instituto Nacional de Chile and the National Library of Chile . Both of these prestigious institutions have survived to the present day. The triumph of rebellions—both in Chile and Argentina—disquieted the Viceroy of Peru , José Fernando de Abascal . As
1738-588: A fully-fledged independence movement. At the conspiración de los machetes , soldiers and criollo traders attacked colonial properties "in the name of Mexico and the Virgen de Guadalupe." As news of Napoleon I 's armies occupying Spain reached Mexico, Spanish-born peninsulares such as Gabriel de Yermo strongly opposed criollo proposals of governance, deposed the viceroy, and assumed power. However, even though Spaniards maintained power in Mexico City, revolts in
SECTION 10
#17327757448681896-514: A junta! We want a junta!"). Count Toro Zambrano, faced with this very public show of force, acceded to their demands by depositing his ceremonial baton on top of the main table and saying "Here is the baton, take it and rule." The Government Junta of the Kingdom of Chile , also known as the First Junta , was organized with the same powers as a Royal Governor . Their first measure was to take
2054-546: A legitimate Governor, Francisco Javier de Elío , had already been appointed by the Viceroy of Peru . Count Toro Zambrano was, by all standards, a very unorthodox selection. He was a very old man already (82 years old at the time) and moreover a "criollo" (someone born in the colonies) as opposed to a "peninsular" (someone born in Spain). Immediately after his appointment in July, the juntistas began to lobby him in order to obtain
2212-529: A long-standing pillar of Spanish rule, was dissolved for its alleged "complicity" with the mutiny. The idea of full independence gained momentum for the first time. During this time, a well-connected young man and a veteran of the Peninsular War , José Miguel Carrera , returned to Chile from Spain. Quickly, he was involved with the intrigues of various Extremists who plotted to wrest power from Martínez de Rozas through armed means. After two coups, both in
2370-405: A loyalty oath to Ferdinand VII as legitimate King. Count Toro Zambrano was elected President, and the rest of the positions were distributed equally among all parties, but the real power was left in the hands of the secretary, Juan Martínez de Rozas . The Junta then proceeded to take some concrete measures that had been long-held aspirations of the colonials: it created a militia for the defense of
2528-419: A machi sacrificed a young boy, throwing him into the water after an earthquake and a tsunami . The Mapuche have incorporated the remembered history of their long independence and resistance from 1540 (Spanish and then Chileans and Argentines) and of the treaty with the Chilean and Argentine governments in the 1870s. Memories, stories, and beliefs, often very local and particularized, are a significant part of
2686-535: A number of cities," his forces failed to capture Mexico City. In the summer of 1811, Hidalgo was captured by the Spanish and executed. Despite being led by a criollo, many criollos did not initially join the Mexican independence movement, and it was reported that "fewer than one hundred criollos fought with Hidalgo," despite their shared caste status. While many criollos in the period resented their "second-class status" compared to peninsulares , they were "afraid that
2844-621: A period of severe economic decline," internal political turmoil, and substantial loss of territory. Leadership "changed hands 48 times between 1825 and 1855" alone, "and the period witnessed both the Mexican-American War and the loss of Mexico's northern territories to the United States in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo and the Gadsden Purchase ." Some credit the " criollos ' inexperience in government" and leadership as
3002-567: A privileged economic situation, they faced limitations in accessing the high administrative positions that the Spanish empire reserved for the peninsular. This is how, after the independence of the United States and the French Revolution , among the enlightened Criollo elite, the spirit of independence from the Spanish Empire arose from the general captaincy of Guatemala. This would be consolidated by 1821 although time later
3160-485: A pro-independence secret society). Carrera's influence begun to fade and ended finally when he was executed by firing squad in 1821. While San Martín and O'Higgins organized an army to recross the Andes and recapture Santiago, they charged the lawyer Manuel Rodríguez with the task of mounting a guerrilla campaign. The goals of the campaign were to keep the Spanish forces off balance, ridicule San Bruno, and generally bolster
3318-464: A result, in 1813, he sent a military expedition by sea under the command of Antonio Pareja to deal with the situation in Chile, and sent another force by land to attack northern Argentina. The troops landed in Concepción , where they were received with applause. Pareja then attempted to take Santiago. This effort failed, as did a subsequent inconclusive assault led by Gabino Gaínza . However, this
SECTION 20
#17327757448683476-574: A separate people or nation. However, not everybody agreed; 19th-century Argentine writer and president Domingo Faustino Sarmiento presented his view of the Mapuche-Chile relation by stating: Spanish Criollo peoples In Hispanic America , criollo ( Spanish pronunciation: [ˈkɾjoʝo] ) is a term used originally to describe people of full Spanish descent born in the viceroyalties . In different Latin American countries,
3634-530: A small powerful elite. However, Spaniards were often the most numerous ethnic group in the colonial cities, and there were menial workers and people in poverty who were of Spanish origin throughout all of Latin America. The criollos allowed a syncretism in their culture and gastronomy, and they, in general, felt more identified with the territory where they were born than with the Iberian peninsula. Evidence
3792-411: A special sign of distinction carried by tribal chiefs. Many kinds of clubs are known. This is an object associated with masculine power. It consists of a disk with an attached handle; the edge of the disc usually has a semicircular recess. In many cases, the face portrayed on the disc carries incised designs. The handle is cylindrical, generally with a larger diameter at its connection to the disk. In
3950-524: A stunning blow to the remaining royalist forces in a successful attack on a complex of fortifications at Valdivia . Later Cochrane disembarked troops under commander William Miller at northern Chiloé Island in order to conquer the last Spanish stronghold in Chile, the Archipelago of Chiloé . This failed attempt ended in the minor but significant Battle of Agüi . Later on, Georges Beauchef headed from Valdivia an expedition to secure Osorno so that
4108-423: A supporter of the carlotist group, managed to magnify the political problems by taking arbitrary and harsh measures, such as the arrest and deportation to Lima without due process of well-known and socially prominent citizens under simple suspicions of having been sympathetic to the junta idea. Among those arrested were José Antonio de Rojas , Juan Antonio Ovalle and Bernardo de Vera y Pintado . Inspired by
4266-543: A traitor." Carrera also created patriotic emblems for the Patria Vieja such as the flag, shield, and insignia. Also during his government, the first Chilean newspaper, the La Aurora de Chile was published under the editorship of Friar Camilo Henríquez . It supported the independence movement. Additionally, Carrera was responsible for bringing the first American consul to Chile. This was important, as it established
4424-537: A wide-ranging ethnicity composed of various groups who share a common social, religious, and economic structure, as well as a common linguistic heritage as Mapudungun speakers. Their homelands once extended from Choapa Valley to the Chiloé Archipelago and later spread eastward to Puelmapu , a land comprising part of the Argentine pampa and Patagonia . Today the collective group makes up over 80% of
4582-696: A wider musical scale than the indigenous pentatonic , and a melodic and poetic repertoire, transmitted by writings such as songbooks, common of it is the sung voice, common in the European baroque music, the mixed aesthetics are the fruit of diverse contributions indigenous, African and especially, Spanish and European. Instruments introduced by the Spanish are the chirimías , sackbuts , dulcians , orlos, bugles , violas , guitars , violins , harps , organs , etc., along with percussions (that can be indigenous or African), everything converges on music heard by everyone. The Dominican Diego Durán in 1570 writes, "All
4740-681: A writing system. Since that time, a writing system for Mapudungun was developed, and Mapuche writings in both Spanish and Mapudungun have flourished. Contemporary Mapuche literature can be said to be composed of an oral tradition and Spanish-Mapudungun bilingual writings. Notable Mapuche poets include Sebastián Queupul, Pedro Alonzo, Elicura Chihuailaf , and Leonel Lienlaf. Among the Mapuche in La Araucanía, in addition to heterosexual female machi shamanesses, there are homosexual male machi weye shamans, who wear female clothing. These machi weye were first described in Spanish in
4898-821: A young man, and a young woman. They believe in worlds known as the Wenu Mapu and Minche Mapu . Also, Mapuche cosmology is informed by complex notions of spirits that coexist with humans and animals in the natural world, and daily circumstances can dictate spiritual practices. The most well-known Mapuche ritual ceremony is the Ngillatun , which loosely translates as "to pray" or "general prayer". These ceremonies are often major communal events that are of extreme spiritual and social importance. Many other ceremonies are practiced, and not all are for public or communal participation but are sometimes limited to family. The main groups of deities and/or spirits in Mapuche mythology are
Chilean War of Independence - Misplaced Pages Continue
5056-527: Is the Mapuche heartland. The Mapuche population between Itata River and Reloncaví Sound has been estimated at 705,000–900,000 in the mid-sixteenth century by historian José Bengoa . The Spanish expansion into Mapuche territory was an offshoot of the conquest of Peru . In 1536, Diego de Almagro set out to conquer Chile, after crossing the Itata River they were intercepted by a numerous contingent of Araucanian Mapuche armed with many bows and pikes in
5214-425: Is their authorship of works demonstrating an attachment to and pride in the natives and their history. They sometimes criticized the crimes of the conquistadores , often denouncing and defending natives from abuse. In the colony's last two centuries criollos rebelled in response to the harsh suppression of Indigenous uprisings. They allowed the natives and the mestizos (indigenous/European mixed) to be schooled in
5372-613: Is used both to refer collectively to the Picunche, Huilliche, and Moluche or Nguluche from Araucanía , at other times, exclusively to the Moluche or Nguluche from Araucanía. However, Mapuche is a relatively recent endonym meaning "People of the Earth" or "Children of the Land", with mapu meaning "earth" or "land", and che meaning "person". It is preferred as a term when referring to
5530-665: The Pillan and Wangulen (ancestral spirits), the Ngen (spirits in nature), and the wekufe (evil spirits). Central to Mapuche belief is the role of the machi (shaman). It is usually filled by a woman, following an apprenticeship with an older machi, and has many of the characteristics typical of shamans . The machi performs ceremonies for curing diseases, warding off evil, influencing weather, harvests, social interactions, and dreamwork . Machis often have extensive knowledge of regional medicinal herbs . As biodiversity in
5688-630: The criollos ." Despite being descendants of Spanish colonizers, many criollos in the period peculiarly "regarded the Aztecs as their ancestors and increasingly identified with the Indians out of a sense of shared suffering at the hands of the Spanish." Many felt that the story of the Virgin of Guadalupe , published by criollo priest Miguel Sánchez in Imagen de la Virgen María (Appearance of
5846-573: The Patria Nueva (1817–1823). Although the war itself began in 1812, the year in which the first hostile actions took place, and lasted until the end of the 1820s, when the last royalists forces were defeated in the Chiloé Archipelago in 1826 and in Araucanía in 1827. A declaration of independence was officially issued by Chile on February 12, 1818 and formally recognized by Spain in 1844, when full diplomatic relations were established. At
6004-481: The Battle of Marihueñu he defeated Governor Villagra and devastated the city. In 1555 Lautaro went to the city of Angol and destroyed it, he also returned to Concepción, rebuilt by the Spanish and destroyed it again. In 1557 Lautaro headed with his army to destroy Santiago, fighting numerous battles with the Spanish along the way, but he and his army were devastated in the Battle of Mataquito . From 1558 to 1598 war
6162-479: The Battle of Reynogüelén . Discouraged by the ferocity of the Mapuches, and the apparent lack of gold and silver in these lands, Almagro decided its full retreat the following year to Peru. In 1541, Pedro de Valdivia reached Chile from Cuzco and founded Santiago . The northern Mapuche tribes, known as Picunches had recently gained independence from Inca rule, being commanded by Michimalonco , who had defeated
6320-547: The Figueroa mutiny broke out. On April 1, Royalist colonel Tomás de Figueroa —considering the notion of elections to be too populist—led a revolt in Santiago. The revolt sputtered, and Figueroa was arrested and summarily executed. The mutiny was successful in that temporarily sabotaged the elections, which had to be delayed. Eventually, however, a National Congress was duly elected, and all 6 deputies from Santiago came from
6478-765: The Huilliche and the Cunco lived as far south as the Chiloé Archipelago . In the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries, Mapuche groups migrated eastward into the Andes and Pampas , conquering, fusing and establishing relationships with the Poya and Pehuenche . At about the same time, ethnic groups of the Pampa regions, the Puelche , Ranquel , and northern Aonikenk , made contact with Mapuche groups. The Tehuelche adopted
Chilean War of Independence - Misplaced Pages Continue
6636-863: The Inca Empire are reported to have reached the Maule River and had a battle with the Mapuche between the Maule and the Itata Rivers there. The southern border of the Inca Empire is believed by most modern scholars to have been situated between Santiago and the Maipo River , or somewhere between Santiago and the Maule River. Thus the bulk of the Mapuche escaped Inca rule. Through their contact with Incan invaders Mapuches would have for
6794-552: The Law of Coartación or "slave law" was created since the 16th century, reaching its maximum peak in the 18th century, which made the black slaves to buy their freedom, through periodic payments to their owner, which eventually led to freedom. Others were freed and purchased by family members or allied whites. It was a consuetudinary act in Spanish America; it allowed the appearance of a large population of free blacks in all of
6952-656: The May Revolution in Argentina, the autonomy movement had also propagated through the criollo elite. They resented the illegal arrests and, together with the news that Cádiz was all that was left of a free Spain, finally solidified in their opposition to the Governor. Brigadier García Carrasco was suspended from office and forced to resign on July 16, 1810, to be in turn replaced by the next most senior soldier, Mateo de Toro Zambrano Count of la Conquista , even though
7110-791: The Oruro Rebellion prosecuted in Buenos Aires, and also for the lawsuit filed against Dr. Juan José Segovia , born in Tacna , and Colonel Ignacio Flores , born in Quito , who had served as President of the Real Audiencia of Charcas and had been Governor Mayor of La Plata (Chuquisaca or Charcas, current Sucre ). Until 1760, the Spanish colonies were ruled under laws designed by the Spanish Habsburgs , which granted
7268-538: The Spanish American Wars of Independence , criollos like Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla , Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín became the main supporters of independence from Spanish rule in their respective countries. The word is used today in some countries as an adjective defining something local or very typical of a particular Latin American country. The word criollo and its Portuguese cognate crioulo are believed by some scholars, including
7426-512: The Spanish American Wars of independence , a military and political process that began after the formation of self-government juntas in the Spanish-American colonies, in response to the capture of King Ferdinand VII of Spain by Napoleonic forces in 1808. The First Government Junta of Chile was formed for that purpose. But then, it began to gradually radicalize, which caused a military struggle between Patriots , who were looking for
7584-771: The military dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet to control political dissidents. The law allows prosecutors to withhold evidence from the defense for up to six months and to conceal the identity of witnesses, who may give evidence in court behind screens. Insurgent groups, such as the Coordinadora Arauco Malleco , use multiple tactics with the more extreme occurrences such as the burning of homes, churches, vehicles, structures, and pastures, which at times included causing deaths and threats to specific targets. As of 2005, protesters from Mapuche communities have used these tactics against properties of both multinational forestry corporations and private individuals. In 2010
7742-543: The spanish caste system of central america they had greater access to higher education. Many of them could receive a formal education, both in local schools and in universities in the colonial metropolis, Spain , or in other parts of America. This allowed them to have knowledge in law, administration and philosophy. In the Catholic church , many Criollos functioned as general officials of the church in America, such as bishops. Although many Central Americans who were part of
7900-459: The universities and art schools, and many natives and mestizos were actually notable painters and architects, mostly in the Andes, but also in Mexico. The mixed religious or secular music appears since the 16th century in Spanish and indigenous languages. Baroque music is imported from Spain but with European and African instruments (such as drums and congas ) appears. The Spanish also introduce
8058-606: The "Decreto de Libre Comercio". This allowed the country in the mid-19th century to exploit the opportunities that the California Gold Rush and the Australian gold rushes created for exporting wheat. In 1822 Bernardo O'Higgins government obtained a large loan in London to finance the independence struggle. The resulting Chilean independence debt took decades to regularize, ending the default in 1840s thanks to
SECTION 50
#17327757448688216-544: The American provinces broad autonomy. That situation changed by the Bourbon Reforms of 18th century during the reign of Charles III . Spain needed to extract increasing wealth from its colonies to support the European and global wars it needed to maintain the Spanish Empire . The Crown expanded the privileges of the peninsulares , who took over many administrative offices that had been filled by Criollos. At
8374-531: The Americas separated into a number of independent republics. The word criollo retains its original meaning in most Spanish-speaking countries in the Americas . In some countries, however, the word criollo has over time come to have additional meanings, such as "local" or "home-grown". For instance, comida criolla in Spanish-speaking countries refers to "local cuisine", not "cuisine of
8532-416: The Andes , royalist forces led by Rafael Maroto were encountered on the plain of Chacabuco, to the north of Santiago. The resulting Battle of Chacabuco , on February 12, 1817, was a decisive victory for the independence forces. As a result, the patriots re-entered Santiago. San Martín was proclaimed Supreme Director, but he declined the offer and put O'Higgins in the post, where he would remain until 1823. On
8690-653: The Araucanía and the north of Patagonia Argentina were considerable and constituted a vital economic resource for indigenous families. The production of fabrics in the time before European settlement was intended for uses beyond domestic consumption. At present, the fabrics woven by the Mapuche continue to be used for domestic purposes, as well as for gift, sale, or barter. Most Mapuche women and their families now wear garments with foreign designs and tailored with materials of industrial origin, but they continue to weave ponchos, blankets, bands, and belts for regular use. Many of
8848-411: The Argentinean and Chilean states aimed for territorial continuity, and second it remained the sole place for Argentinean livestock to expand and Chilean agriculture to expand. Between 1861 and 1879 Argentina and Chile incorporated several Mapuche territories in Wallmapu. In January 1881, having Chile decisively defeated Peru in the battles of Chorrillos and Miraflores , Chile and Argentina resumed
9006-511: The Central American nations. For the following centuries of Spanish domination, many Criollos in Central America owned large areas of land and agricultural businesses. There are several records of Spanish families in Central America with enormous fortunes who managed to obtain noble titles from the crown. Cities like Santiago de los Caballeros and Comayagua were political centers where many of them had properties and some of their economic activities were concentrated. Unlike other peoples of
9164-425: The Central American status quo, which in the following years began a civil war . Finally the Federation falls in 1841. In the middle of the 19th century the term "Criollos" would begin to disappear, this thanks to the fact that after the fall of the federation these republics would little by little begin to stop cataloging people by their origin or racial mix , thus the term Criollo would become only "White" although
9322-556: The Chilean countryside has declined due to commercial agriculture and forestry, the dissemination of such knowledge has also declined, but the Mapuche people are reviving it in their communities. Machis have an extensive knowledge of sacred stones and sacred animals. Like many cultures, the Mapuche have a deluge myth ( epeu ) of a major flood in which the world is destroyed and recreated. The myth involves two opposing forces: Kai Kai (water, which brings death through floods) and Tren Tren (dry earth, which brings sunshine). In
9480-423: The Commission for Historical Truth and New Treatments issued a report to defuse tensions calling for drastic changes in Chile's treatment of its indigenous people, more than 80% of whom are Mapuche. The recommendations included the formal recognition of political and "territorial" rights for indigenous peoples, as well as efforts to promote their cultural identities. Though Japanese and Swiss interests are active in
9638-411: The Criollos ' Viracocha '; also, he says that Criollos are born in the middle of the Indigenous, are respected, and also loved by many, that they speak the language of the natives (in addition to Spanish) and used to Indigenous customs. After suppressing the Túpac Amaru II Uprising of 1780 in the viceroyalty of Peru , evidence began against the criollos ill will from the Spanish Crown, especially for
SECTION 60
#17327757448689796-413: The Crown and a faster pace of reforms stopping just short of full independence. Their leader was Juan Martínez de Rozas. The Royalists were against any reform at all and for the maintenance of the status quo. By March 1811, 36 representatives had already been elected in all major cities with the exception of Santiago and Valparaíso . The great political surprise up to that point had been the results from
9954-551: The Inca governor Quilicanta. It would be the same Michimalonco who would lead the Picunche resistance against the Spanish between 1541 and 1545. His most famous stain is the Destruction of Santiago . In 1550, Pedro de Valdivia, who aimed to control all of Chile to the Straits of Magellan , campaigned in south-central Chile to conquer more Mapuche territory . Between 1550 and 1553, the Spanish founded several cities in Mapuche lands including Concepción , Valdivia , Imperial , Villarrica , and Angol . The Spanish also established
10112-416: The Mapuche Territory (Wallmapu) left in the hands of Argentina, the loss of land by Mapuches following the occupation caused severe erosion since Mapuches continued to practice a massive livestock herding in limited areas. Land disputes and violent confrontations continue in some Mapuche areas, particularly in the northern sections of the Araucanía region between and around Traiguén and Lumaco . In 2003,
10270-427: The Mapuche frequently laid siege to Spanish settlements in Araucanía . In 1553, the Mapuches held a council at which they resolved to make war. They chose as their " toqui " (wartime chief) a strong man called Caupolicán and as his vice toqui Lautaro , because he had served as an auxiliary to the Spanish cavalry; he created the first Mapuche cavalry corps. With six thousand warriors under his command, Lautaro attacked
10428-415: The Mapuche language and some of their culture, in what came to be called Araucanization , during which Patagonia came under effective Mapuche suzerainty. Mapuche in the Spanish-ruled areas, especially the Picunche , mingled with the Spanish during the colonial period, forming a mestizo population that lost its indigenous identity. But Mapuche society in Araucanía and Patagonia remained independent until
10586-411: The Mapuche launched many hunger strikes in attempts to effect change in the anti-terrorism legislation. As of 2019, the Chilean government committed human rights abuses against the Mapuche based on Israeli military techniques and surveillance according to the French website Orin21. Oil exploitation and fracking in the Vaca Muerta site in Neuquen, one of the biggest shale-oil and shale-gas deposits in
10744-415: The Mapuche people as Araucanians ( / ˌ æ r ɔː ˈ k eɪ n i ə n z / ARR -aw- KAY -nee-ənz ; Spanish : araucanos ). This term is now considered pejorative by some people. For others, the importance of the term Araucanian lies in the universality of the epic work La Araucana , written by Alonso de Ercilla , and the feats of that people in their long and interminable war against
10902-438: The Mapuche traditional culture. To varying degrees, this history of resistance continues to this day amongst the Mapuche. At the same time, a large majority of Mapuche in Chile identify with the state as Chilean, similar to a large majority in Argentina identifying as Argentines. We Tripantu is the Mapuche New Year celebration. One of the best-known arts of the Mapuche is their textiles . The oldest data on textiles in
11060-527: The Mexican population under the Mestizo identity. As a result, "although some Mexicans are closer to the ethnicity of criollos than others" in contemporary Mexico, "the distinction is rarely made." During the Chicano movement , when leaders promoted the ideology of the "ancient homeland of Aztlán as a symbol of unity for Mexican Americans , leaders of the 1960s Chicano movement argued that virtually all modern Mexicans are Mestizos." The first great wave of Spanish settlers to Central American lands occurred after
11218-412: The Moderate camp. Nonetheless, the mutiny also encouraged a radicalization of political postures. Although Moderates—who continued advocating political control of the elites and greater autonomy without a complete rupture from Spain—gained the majority of seats, a vocal minority was formed by Extremist revolutionaries who now wanted complete and instant independence from Spain. The Real Audiencia of Chile ,
11376-793: The Spaniards died, save a cleric named Bartolomé Pérez, who was taken prisoner, and a soldier named Bernardo de Pereda. The Mapuche then initiated a general uprising that destroyed all the cities in their homeland south of the Biobío River. In the years following the Battle of Curalaba , a general uprising developed among the Mapuches and Huilliches led to the Destruction of the Seven Cities . The Spanish cities of Angol, Imperial, Osorno , Santa Cruz de Oñez , Valdivia , and Villarrica were either destroyed or abandoned. The city of Castro
11534-434: The Spanish peninsulares , "they felt they were unjustly treated and their relationship with their mother country was unstable and ambiguous: Spain was, and was not, their homeland," as noted by Mexican writer Octavio Paz . They [ criollos ] felt the same ambiguity in regard to their native land. It was difficult to consider themselves compatriots of the Indians and impossible to share their pre-Hispanic past. Even so,
11692-526: The Spanish Empire. The name is probably derived from the placename rag ko (Spanish Arauco ), meaning "clayey water". The Quechua word awqa , meaning "rebel, enemy", is probably not the root of araucano . Scholars believe that the various Mapuche groups ( Moluche , Huilliche, Picunche, etc.) called themselves Reche during the early Spanish colonial period, due to what they referred to as their pure native blood, derived from re meaning "pure" and che meaning "people". The name Mapuche
11850-478: The Spanish authorities with a local junta of notable citizens, which would conform a provisional government to rule in the absence of the king and an independent Spain (known as juntistas ). In 1809, Governor García Carrasco himself was implicated in a flagrant case of corruption (the Scorpion scandal ) that managed to destroy whatever remnants of moral authority he or his office had left. From that moment on
12008-413: The Spanish monarchy, which suppressed expressions of open resentment from the criollos towards peninsulares for a short period. By 1623, criollos were involved in open demonstrations and riots in Mexico in defiance of their second-class status. In response, a visiting Spaniard by the name of Martín Carrillo noted, "the hatred of the mother country's domination is deeply rooted, especially among
12166-490: The Spanish would not reoccupy Valdivia from the land. Beauchef inflicted a decisive defeat on the royalists at the Battle of El Toro . In any case, San Martín and O'Higgins were in agreement that the danger would not be passed until the Viceroyalty of Peru itself was independent from Spain. Thus, a fleet and army was prepared for an expedition to the country, and in 1820, San Martín and Cochrane set off for Peru. However,
12324-537: The Virgin Mary) in 1648, "meant that God had blessed both Mexico and particularly criollos , as "God's new chosen people." By the eighteenth century, although restricted from holding elite posts in the colonial government, the criollos notably formed the "wealthy and influential" class of major agriculturalists, "miners, businessmen, physicians, lawyers, university professors, clerics, and military officers." Because criollos were not perceived as equals by
12482-474: The advance of the royalists. However, his forces were surprised and very badly beaten at the Second Battle of Cancha Rayada on March 18, 1818. In the confusion, a false rumor spread that San Martin and O'Higgins had died, and a panic seized the patriot troops, many of whom agitated for a full retreat back across the Andes to Mendoza. In these critical circumstances, the erstwhile Manuel Rodríguez jumped to
12640-455: The apprentice receives explicit instructions or help from their instructors. Knowledge is transmitted as the fabric is woven, the weaving and transmission of knowledge go together. There is a traditional stone hand club used by the Mapuche which has been called a clava (Spanish for club). It has a long flat body. Another name is clava mere okewa ; in Spanish, it may also be called a clava cefalomorfa . It has some ritual importance as
12798-467: The audacious and daring character of Cochrane conflicted with the excessive prudence of San Martín. San Martín let escape a number of opportunities to land the decisive blow against the viceroy, and in the end it was Simón Bolívar who launched the final offensive after coming down from Colombia , Peruvian independence was secured after the Battle of Ayacucho on December 9, 1824, in which forces led by Antonio José de Sucre —a lieutenant of Bolívar—defeated
12956-441: The beginning of criollo rule in Mexico as they became "firmly in control of the newly independent state." Although direct Spanish rule was now gone, "by and large, Mexicans of primarily European descent governed the nation." The period was also marked by the expulsion of the peninsulares from Mexico, of which a substantial source of " criollo pro-expulsionist sentiment was mercantile rivalry between Mexicans and Spaniards during
13114-586: The best among them, if rather hazily, admired the past, even idealized it. It seemed to them that the ghost of the Roman empire had at times been embodied in the Aztec empire . The criollo dream was the creation of a Mexican empire, and its archetypes were Rome and Tenochtitlán . The criollos were aware of the bizarre nature of their situation, but, as happens in such cases, they were unable to transcend it — they were enmeshed in nets of their own weaving. Their situation
13272-737: The church, where children learn to play European instruments. In Quito (1609): "there were many dances of tall and small Indigenous, and there was no lack of Moscas Indigenous who danced in the manner of the New Kingdom [European] (...) and dances of Spaniards and blacks and other dances of the Indigenous must dance before the Blessed Sacrament and in front of the Virgin Mary and the saints at parties and Easter, if they don't do it then they are punished". The well-known Zambra mora
13430-431: The colonial economy or who lost their property due to debt or conflict found themselves in situations of poverty. In the same way, a Spanish immigrant and his descendants had certain facilities in climbing the social ladder, since their condition of purity of blood meant that they had greater opportunities to prosper in America than many mestizos , indigenous people , and people of African descent . Although they enjoyed
13588-456: The conquest of Tenochtitlan when they began to reach the soil of what is today Guatemala and the coasts of Honduras . Creoles in metropolitan America would quickly begin to take advantage of local mining, agricultural, and livestock production. The latter was very good in regions such as Honduras and Nicaragua . The towns where this population was settled enjoyed the construcction of large colonial buildings that today continue to be heritage of
13746-549: The conquest of Wallmapu. The conquest of Wallmapu caused numerous Mapuches to be displaced and forced to roam in search of shelter and food. Scholar Pablo Miramán claims the introduction of state education during the Occupation of Wallmapu had detrimental effects on traditional Mapuche education. In the years following the occupation the economy of Araucanía changed from being based on sheep and cattle herding to one based on agriculture and wood extraction . About 70% of
13904-415: The conservative elites would vote to form part of the new Mexican empire , although this union would be ephemeral and by 1823 Central America would be an independent republic. At first it would be a conservative federal republic, although the liberal faction would come to take power under the command of General Francisco Morazan , who was a supporter of a liberal institution that challenged several aspects of
14062-705: The countryside were quickly spreading. Ongoing resentment between criollos and peninsulares erupted after Napoleon I deposed Charles IV of Spain of power, which, "led a group of peninsulares to take charge in Mexico City and arrest several officials, including criollos." This, in turn, motivated criollo priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla to begin a campaign for Mexican independence from Spanish colonial rule. Launched in Hidalgo's home city of Dolores , Guanajuato , in 1810, Hidalgo's campaign gained support among many "Amerindians and Mestizos, but despite seizing
14220-501: The criollos". In Portuguese, crioulo is also a racist slang term referring to blacks. In some countries, the term was extended or changed over the years: As early as the sixteenth century in the colonial period in New Spain , criollos , or the "descendants of Spanish colonists," began to "distinguish themselves from the richer and more powerful peninsulares ," whom they referred to as gachupines , as an insult. At
14378-523: The crown had not been able to appoint a new governor before the invasion. After a brief interim regency by Juan Rodríguez Ballesteros , and according to the succession law in place at the time, the position was laid claim to and assumed by the most senior military commander, who happened to be Brigadier Francisco García Carrasco . García Carrasco took over the post of Governor of Chile in April and in August
14536-466: The degree of political autonomy that they sought. The Moderates, under the leadership of José Miguel Infante , were a majority, and wanted a very slow pace of reforms since they were afraid that once the King was back in power he would think that they were seeking independence and would roll-back all changes. The Extremists were the second most important group and they advocated a larger degree of freedom from
14694-419: The deluge almost all humanity is drowned; the few not drowned survive through cannibalism . At last, only one couple is left. A machi tells them that they must give their only child to the waters, which they do, and this restores order to the world. Part of the Mapuche ritual is prayer and animal sacrifice, required to maintain the cosmic balance. This belief has continued to current times. In 1960, for example,
14852-467: The depleted royalists retreated to Concepcion, never again to launch a major offensive against Santiago. Independence was all but secured, and worries about internal divisions were allayed when O'Higgins saluted San Martín as savior of the country, a moment which came to be known as the Embrace of Maipú . To further secure Chilean independence, San Martín launched a series of actions against armed bands in
15010-600: The direction of a lonko or chief. In times of war, the Mapuche would unite in larger groupings and elect a toki (meaning "axe" or "axe-bearer") to lead them. Mapuche material culture is known for its textiles and silverwork . At the time of Spanish arrival , the Picunche inhabited the valleys between the Choapa and Itata , Araucanian Mapuche inhabited the valleys between the Itata and Toltén rivers, south of there,
15168-490: The disagreements and resulting lack of coordination, the independence forces were divided, and O'Higgins was obliged to meet the royalists at Rancagua without reinforcements. The resulting battle, the Disaster of Rancagua , on October 1 and 2 of 1814, was fought fiercely, but ended in stunning defeat for the independence forces of which only 500 of the original 5,000 survived. A little while later, Osorio entered Santiago and put
15326-522: The economy of Araucanía ( Ngulu Mapu ), the two chief forestry companies are Chilean-owned. In the past, the firms have planted hundreds of thousands of hectares with non-native species such as Monterey pine , Douglas firs , and eucalyptus trees, sometimes replacing native Valdivian forests , although such substitution and replacement is now forgotten. Chile exports wood to the United States, almost all of which comes from this southern region, with an annual value of around $ 600 million. Stand.earth ,
15484-450: The educational system. In recent years, it has started to be taught in rural schools of Bío-Bío, Araucanía, and Los Lagos Regions. Mapuche speakers of Chilean Spanish who also speak Mapudungun tend to use more impersonal pronouns when speaking Spanish. Central to Mapuche cosmology is the idea of a creator called ngenechen , who is embodied in four components: an older man ( fucha/futra/cha chau ), an older woman ( kude/kuse ),
15642-510: The efforts of the Ministers of Finance Manuel Rengifo and Joaquín Tocornal plus the favourable international markers for Chilean silver, copper and wheat. Mapuche The Mapuche ( / m ə ˈ p uː tʃ i / mə- POO -chee , Mapuche and Spanish: [maˈputʃe] ) are a group of indigenous inhabitants of south-central Chile and southwestern Argentina , including parts of Patagonia . The collective term refers to
15800-497: The elite or were respected landowners used to be Criollos, there were also those who were poor, since they were children of those Spaniards who migrated as laborers in the construction of churches and palaces in the general captaincy of Guatemala. It is also known that not all descendants of Spaniards in Central America had access to land, education or wealth. In some cases, Criollo families who were unable to prosper in
15958-554: The eminent Mexican anthropologist Gonzalo Aguirre Beltrán , to derive from the Spanish/Portuguese verb criar , meaning 'to breed' or 'to raise'; however, no evidence supports this derivation in early Spanish literature discussing the origin of the word. In Spanish colonies, an español criollo was an ethnic Spaniard who had been born in the colonies, as opposed to an español peninsular born in Spain. Crioulo as
16116-494: The end of 1811, the ambitious Carrera managed to take power, inaugurating a dictatorship. Prominent members of the government were Carrera's brothers Juan José and Luis , as well as Bernardo O'Higgins . Meanwhile, a provisional Constitution of 1812 was promulgated with a marked liberal character. An example of this is the stipulation that "no order that emanates from outside the territory of Chile will have any effect, and anyone who tries to enforce such an order will be treated as
16274-463: The fabrics are woven for trade, and in many cases, are an important source of income for families. Glazed pots are used to dye the wool. Many Mapuche women continue to weave fabrics according to the customs of their ancestors and transmit their knowledge in the same way: within domestic life, from mother to daughter, and from grandmothers to granddaughters. This form of learning is based on gestural imitation, and only rarely, and when strictly necessary,
16432-551: The first anniversary of the Battle of Chacabuco, O'Higgins formally declared independence. During the preceding time, Joaquín de la Pezuela was installed as a new viceroy in Peru. He resolved to recall his son-in-law, Mariano Osorio , sending him south with another expeditionary force. The troops disembarked at Concepcion, and recruited a number of Amerindians to join their ranks. Meanwhile, Bernardo O'Higgins moved north to somehow stop
16590-472: The first legally sanctioned free black town in the present-day United States. The popularity of the Law of coartación resulted in a large population of free black people in Spanish America. Also, Mexican historian Federico Navarrete comments: that "if they received the surname of the white father and incorporated them into their family, those children counted as American whites having the same rights, regardless of
16748-561: The first time met people with state organizations . Their contact with the Incas gave them a collective awareness distinguishing between them and the invaders and uniting them into loose geo-political units despite their lack of state organization. At the time of the arrival of the first Spaniards to Chile, the largest indigenous population concentration was in the area spanning from the Itata River to Chiloé Island – that
16906-606: The formation of a junta. In August the Royal Appeals Court ( Spanish : Real Audiencia ) took a public loyalty oath to the Regency Council in front of a massive audience, which put added pressure on the Governor to define himself. After vacillating for some time over which party to follow, Toro Zambrano finally agreed to hold an open Cabildo (city hall) meeting in Santiago to discuss the issue. The date
17064-414: The fort at Tucapel . The Spanish garrison was unable to withstand the assault and retreated to Purén. Lautaro seized and burned the fort and prepared his army certain that the Spaniards would attempt to retake Tucapel. Valdivia mounted a counter-attack, but he was quickly surrounded. He and his army was massacred by the Mapuches in the Battle of Tucapel . In 1554 Lautaro went to destroy Concepción where in
17222-538: The forts of Arauco , Purén , and Tucapel . Further efforts by the Spanish to gain more territory engaged them in the Arauco War against the Mapuche, a sporadic conflict that lasted nearly 350 years. Hostility towards the conquerors was compounded by the lack of a tradition of forced labor akin to the Inca mit'a among the Mapuche, who largely refused to serve the Spanish. From their establishment in 1550 to 1598,
17380-775: The hands of the criollo elite as well as the church under the authority of criollo Agustín de Iturbide who became Emperor Agustín I of the Mexican Empire . Iturbide was the son of a "wealthy Spanish landowner and a Mexican ( criolla ) mother" who ascended through the ranks of the Spanish colonial army to become a colonel . Iturbide reportedly fought against "all the major Mexican independence leaders since 1810, including Hidalgo, José María Morelos y Pavón , and Vicente Guerrero ," and according to some historians, his "reasons for supporting independence had more to do with personal ambition than radical notions of equality and freedom." Mexican independence from Spain in 1821 resulted in
17538-455: The heiress of her captured family. Allegedly among her plan was to send armies to occupy Buenos Aires and northern Argentina and to style herself as Queen of La Plata . Brigadier García Carrasco was a man of crude and authoritarian manners, who managed in a very short time to alienate the criollo elites under his command. Already in Chile, as in most of Latin America, there had been some independence agitation but minimal and concentrated in
17696-424: The indigenous peoples in Chile and about 9% of the total Chilean population. The Mapuche are concentrated in the Araucanía region. Many have migrated from rural areas to the cities of Santiago and Buenos Aires for economic opportunities, more than 92% of the Mapuches are from Chile. The Mapuche traditional economy is based on agriculture; their traditional social organization consists of extended families, under
17854-565: The infamous Vicente San Bruno . The patriots found in Santiago—among whom were members of the First Junta —were exiled to the Juan Fernández Islands . Far from pacifying the patriots, these actions served to incite them, and soon even the most moderate concluded that anything short of independence was intolerable. A large group of patriots (among them Carrera and O'Higgins) decided to flee to Mendoza , an Andean province of
18012-448: The kingdom, decreed freedom of trade with all nations that were allied to Spain or neutrals, a unique tariff of 134% for all imports (with the exception of printing presses, books and guns which were liberated from all taxes) and in order to increase its representativity, ordered the convocatory of a National Congress. Immediately, political intrigue began amongst the ruling elite, with news of the political turbulence and wars of Europe all
18170-495: The large and widely dispersed quantity of Spanish, Argentine, and Chilean silver coins. Mapuche also made headdresses with coins , which were called trarilonko, etc. Mapuche languages are spoken in Chile and Argentina. The two living branches are Huilliche and Mapudungun . Although not genetically related, lexical influence has been discerned from Quechua . Linguists estimate that only about 200,000 full-fluency speakers remain in Chile. The language receives only token support in
18328-436: The late eighteenth century and early nineteenth century, Mapuche silversmithing activity and artistic diversity reached its climax. All important Mapuche chiefs of the nineteenth century are supposed to have had at least one silversmith. By 1984 Mapuche scholar Carlos Aldunate noted that there were no silversmiths alive among contemporary Mapuches. The Mapuche culture of the sixteenth century had an oral tradition and lacked
18486-423: The late nineteenth century, when Chile occupied Araucanía and Argentina conquered Puelmapu . Since then the Mapuche have become subjects, and later nationals and citizens of the respective states. Today, many Mapuche and Chilean communities are engaged in the so-called Mapuche conflict over land and indigenous rights in both Argentina and Chile. Historically, the Spanish colonizers of South America referred to
18644-766: The later half of the eighteenth century, Mapuche silversmiths began to produce large amounts of silver finery. The surge of silversmithing activity may be related to the 1726 parliament of Negrete that decreased hostilities between Spaniards and Mapuches and allowed trade to increase between colonial Chile and the free Mapuches. In this context of increasing trade Mapuches began in the late eighteenth century to accept payments in silver coins for their products, usually cattle or horses. These coins and silver coins obtained in political negotiations served as raw material for Mapuche metalsmiths ( Mapudungun : rüxafe ). Old Mapuche silver pendants often included unmelted silver coins, something that has helped modern researchers to date
18802-400: The lead, haranguing and rallying the soldiers with the cry " There's still a country, citizens! " He named himself Supreme Director, a position which he would occupy for exactly 30 hours, which was the time the living, but wounded, O'Higgins took to return to Santiago and reclaim command. Then, on April 5, 1818, San Martín inflicted a decisive defeat on Osorio the Battle of Maipú , after which
18960-416: The locality was usually transmitted within the family, with mothers, grandmothers, and aunts teaching a girl the skills they had learned from their elders. Women who excelled in the textile arts were highly honored for their accomplishments and contributed economically and culturally to their kinship group. A measure of the importance of weaving is evident in the expectation that a man gives a larger dowry for
19118-402: The morale of the patriots. Through his subsequent daring exploits, Rodríguez became a romantic hero of the revolution. In one of his more celebrated actions, he disguised himself as a beggar and succeeded in obtaining alms from Governor Marcó del Pont himself, who by that time had put a price on Rodríguez's head. The liberating Army of the Andes was prepared by 1817. After a difficult crossing
19276-466: The mountains, consisting of assorted outlaws, royalists, and Indians who had taken advantage of the chaos of military expeditions and forced recruitments to pillage and sack the countryside. This time of irregular warfare was later called the Guerra a muerte ( Total war ) for its merciless tactics, as neither the guerillas nor the government soldiers took prisoners. Only after the band of Vicente Benavides
19434-519: The newly independent Argentina . At the time, the governor of this province was José de San Martín , a leader of the Argentine independence movement who would become regarded as the " Simón Bolívar " of the southern part of Spanish South America . Upon the arrival of the exiles, San Martín immediately began to favor O'Higgins (probably because of their shared membership in the Logia Lautaro ,
19592-813: The news of the Napoleonic invasion of Spain and of the conformation of a Supreme Central Junta to govern the Empire in the absence of a legitimate king reached the country. In the meantime, Charlotte Joaquina , sister of Ferdinand and wife of the King of Portugal , who was living in Brazil , also made attempts to obtain the administration of the Spanish dominions in Latin America . Since her father and brother were being held prisoners in France, she regarded herself as
19750-846: The nineteenth century, Argentina and Chile experienced a fast territorial expansion. Argentina established a colony at the Falkland Islands in 1820, settled Chubut with Welsh immigrants in 1865 and conquered Formosa, Misiones and Chaco from Paraguay in 1870. Later Argentina would also annex the Puna de Atacama in 1898. Chile on the other hand, established a colony at the Strait of Magellan in 1843, settled Valdivia , Osorno , and Llanquihue with German immigrants , and conquered land from Peru and Bolivia . Later Chile would also annex Easter Island . In this context, Wallmapu began to be conquered by Argentina and Chile due to two reasons. First,
19908-591: The objects. The bulk of the Spanish silver coins originated from mining in Potosí in Upper Peru . The great diversity in silver finery designs is because designs were made to be identified with different reynma (families), lof mapu (lands) as well as specific lonkos and machis . Mapuche silver finery was also subject to changes in fashion albeit designs associated with philosophical and spiritual concepts have not undergone major changes. In
20066-417: The other center of power, Concepción , in which Royalists had defeated the supporters of Juan Martínez de Rozas . In the rest of Chile, the results were more or less equally divided: twelve pro-Rozas delegates, fourteen anti-Rozas and three Royalists. So, the Santiago elections were the key to Rozas' desire to remain in power. This election was supposed to take place on April 10, but before they could be called
20224-468: The overthrow of the Spanish might mean sharing power with Amerindians and Mestizos, whom they considered to be their inferiors." Additionally, due to their privileged social class position, "many criollos had prospered under Spanish rule and did not want to threaten their livelihoods." Criollos only undertook direct action in the Mexican independence movement when new Spanish colonial rulers threatened their property rights and church power, an act which
20382-474: The people after the Arauco War. The Mapuche identify by the geography of their territories, such as: Archaeological finds have shown that Mapuche culture existed in Chile and Argentina as early as 600 to 500 BC. Genetically the Mapuche differ from the adjacent indigenous peoples of Patagonia. This suggests a "different origin or long-lasting separation of Mapuche and Patagonian populations". Troops of
20540-478: The peoples have parties, and therefore it is unthinkable to remove them (because it is impossible and because it is not convenient either)", himself parade like the natives with a bouquet of flowers at a Christian party that coincides with the celebration of Tezcatlipoca in Mexico. The Jesuits develop with great success a "pedagogy of theatricality", with this the Society of Jesus attracts the natives and blacks to
20698-449: The port of Callao in Peru the city of Valdivia was particularly badly hit by the decline of the trade with Peru. The fortune of this city would not shift until the arrival of German settlers in the late 1840s. Much of the war effort was financed with silver from Agua Amarga , a mining area south of Vallenar discovered in 1811. Chile adopted a free trade policy already in 1811 with
20856-526: The pressure for his removal began to build. In June 1810 news arrived from Buenos Aires that Napoleon Bonaparte's forces had conquered Andalusia and laid siege to Cádiz , the last redoubt against the French on Spanish soil. Moreover, the Supreme Central Junta , which had governed the Empire for the past two years, had abolished itself in favor of a Regency Council. García Carrasco, who was
21014-433: The race". Also, a fact is in every marriage, including the most mixed, they are characterized, portrayed and named the caste product that was according to their ancestry, and if this can not, according to their appearance and color. Several documents mention that indigenous people called Criollos with the same name as one of their gods. For example, Juan Pablo Viscardo relates (1797) that the Indigenous (from Peru) call to
21172-494: The rebellion of the Patria Vieja to an end. The viceroy Abascal confirmed Mariano Osorio as governor of Chile, although a later disagreement between the two would result in Osorio's removal and the installation of Francisco Casimiro Marcó del Pont as governor in 1815. In any case, the Spanish believed that it was necessary to teach the revolutionaries a good lesson and embarked on a campaign of fierce political persecution, led by
21330-443: The relational gender categories of spirit husband and machi wife as a couple ( kurewen )." As concerning "co-gendered identities" of " machi as co-gender specialists", it has been speculated that "female berdaches " may have formerly existed among the Mapuche. Following the independence of Chile in the 1810s, the Mapuche began to be perceived as Chilean by other Chileans, contrasting with previous perceptions of them as
21488-545: The royalist army for good. In Chilean historiography , the Patria Nueva generally ends in 1823, with the resignation of O'Higgins. However, the last Spanish territory in Chile, the archipelago of Chiloé , was not conquered until 1826, during the government of Ramón Freire , O'Higgins' successor. The independence wars in Chile (1810–1818) and Peru (1809–1824) had a negative impact on the Chilean wheat industry . Trade
21646-506: The same time, Mexican-born Spaniards were referred to as criollos , initially as a term that was meant to insult. However, over time, "those insulted who were referred to as criollos began to reclaim the term as an identity for themselves. In 1563, the criollo sons of Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés , attempted to remove Mexico from Spanish-born rule and place Martín , their half-brother, in power. However, their plot failed. They, along with many others involved, were beheaded by
21804-583: The same time, reforms by the Catholic Church reduced the roles and privileges of the lower ranks of the clergy, who were mostly Criollos. By the 19th century, this discriminatory policy of the Spanish Crown and the examples of the American and French revolutions, led Criollo factions to rebel against the peninsulares . With increasing support of the other castes, they engaged Spain in a fight for independence (1809–1826). The former Spanish Empire in
21962-837: The southernmost areas of the American continent (southern Chile and Argentina today) are found in some archaeological excavations, such as those of Pitrén Cemetery near the city of Temuco , and the Alboyanco site in the Biobío Region , both of Chile; and the Rebolledo Arriba Cemetery in Neuquén Province (Argentina). researchers have found evidence of fabrics made with complex techniques and designs, dated between AD 1300–1350. The Mapuche women were responsible for spinning and weaving. Knowledge of both weaving techniques and textile patterns particular to
22120-603: The start of 1808, the Captaincy General of Chile —one of the smallest and poorest colonies in the Spanish Empire —was under the administration of Luis Muñoz de Guzmán , an able, respected and well-liked Royal Governor . In May 1808 the overthrow of Charles and the start of the Peninsular War plunged the empire into a state of agitation. In the meantime, Chile was facing its own internal political problems. Governor Guzmán had suddenly died in February of that year and
22278-534: The term white in Central American countries can be broad since it includes populations that in other contexts are not classified as such. In the same way, it is known that there is still an important ethnic minority population descended from the Spanish in these countries. As the United States expanded westward , it annexed lands with a long-established population of Spanish-speaking settlers. This group became known as Hispanos . Prior to incorporation into
22436-536: The territory. Freedom could also be obtained through baptism , with the white recognizing his illegitimate children; his word was sufficient for the newborn child to be declared free. Legal freedom was more common in the cities and towns than in the countryside. Also, from the late 1600s to the 19th century, the Spanish encouraged slaves from the British colonies and the United States to come to Spanish Florida as refuge; King Charles II of Spain and his court issued
22594-487: The use of cavalry in war from the Spaniards , along with the cultivation of wheat and sheep . In the 300-year co-existence between the Spanish colonies and the relatively well-delineated autonomous Mapuche regions, the Mapuche also developed a strong tradition of trading with Spaniards, Argentines, and Chileans. Such trade lies at the heart of the Mapuche silver-working tradition, for Mapuche wrought their jewelry from
22752-471: The very ineffectual Conspiracy of the Tres Antonios back in 1781. The majority of the people were fervent royalists but were divided into two groups: those who favored the status quo and the divine right of Ferdinand VII (known as absolutists ) and those who wanted to proclaim Charlotte Joaquina as Queen (known as carlotists ). A third group was composed of those who proposed the replacement of
22910-676: The while coming in. It was eventually decided that elections for the National Congress, to be composed of 42 representatives, would be held in 1811. Three political factions started to coalesce: the Extremists ( Spanish : exaltados ), the Moderates ( Spanish : moderados ) and the Royalists ( Spanish : realistas ). These groups were all decidedly against independence from Spain and differentiated themselves only in
23068-494: The word has come to have different meanings, mostly referring to the local-born majority. Historically, they have been misportrayed as a social class in the hierarchy of the overseas colonies established by Spain beginning in the 16th century, especially in Hispanic America . They were locally-born people–almost always of Spanish ancestry, but also sometimes of other European ethnic backgrounds. Their identity
23226-606: The world, has produced waste dumps of sludge waste, polluting the environment close to the town of Añelo , which is about 1,200km south of Buenos Aires. In 2018, the Mapuche were suing Exxon, French company TotalEnergies and Pan American Energy . At the time of the arrival of Europeans, the Mapuche organized and constructed a network of forts and defensive buildings. Ancient Mapuche also built ceremonial constructions such as some earthwork mounds discovered near Purén. Mapuche quickly adopted iron metal-working ( Picunches already worked copper ) Mapuche learned horse riding and
23384-471: Was "deplored by most criollos " and therefore brought many of them into the Mexican independence movement. Mexico gained its independence from Spain in 1821 under the coalitionary leadership of conservatives, former royalists, and criollos , who detested Emperor Ferdinand VII 's adoption of a liberal constitution that threatened their power. This coalition created the Plan de Iguala , which concentrated power in
23542-413: Was Spanish. In the 19th and 20th centuries millions of European and European-derived populations from North and South America did immigrate to the region. According to church and censal registers for Acatzingo in 1792, during colonial times , 73% of Spanish men married with Spanish women. Ideological narratives have often portrayed criollos as a "pure Spanish" people, mostly men, who were all part of
23700-405: Was cause for pride and for scorn, for celebration and humiliation. The criollos adored and abhorred themselves. [...] They saw themselves as extraordinary, unique beings and were unsure whether to rejoice or weep before that self-image. They were bewitched by their own uniqueness. As early as 1799, open riots against Spanish colonial rule were unfolding in Mexico City, foreshadowing the emergence of
23858-517: Was commonly danced by blacks, to the sound of castanets and drums. The Spanish Sarabande was danced by whites and blacks. Blacks also have their chiefs. In these local events, the brotherhoods of the Congos give rise to the Congadas (Brazil, Caribbean). Actually, there were no relevant black artists during the colony; also, one must consider the fact that many of the pure blacks were slaves , but
24016-411: Was disrupted and armies in Chile pillaged the countryside. The Guerra a muerte phase was particularly destructive and ended only to see a period of outlaw banditry (e.g. Pincheira brothers ) occur until the late 1820s. Trade with Peru did not fully recover after the independence struggles. Being isolated from Central Chile by hostile Mapuche-controlled territory and dependent upon seaborne trade with
24174-510: Was liquidated in 1822 was the region around Concepcion finally pacified. As San Martín worked to establish internal stability, O'Higgins also looked to defend the country against further external threats by the Spanish and continue to roll back imperial control. He developed the Chilean navy as a line of defense against seaborne attacks, placing the Scotsman Lord Cochrane in the post of admiral. In 1820, Cochrane administered
24332-595: Was mostly a low-intensity conflict . Mapuche numbers decreased significantly following contact with the Spanish invaders; wars and epidemics decimated the population. Others died in Spanish-owned gold mines. In 1598 a party of warriors from Purén led by Pelantaro , who were returning south from a raid in the Chillán area, ambushed Governor Martín García Óñez de Loyola and his troops while they rested without taking any precautions against attack. Almost all
24490-512: Was not due to the military performance of Carrera, whose incompetence led to the rise of the moderate O'Higgins, who eventually took supreme control of the pro-independence forces. Harassed on all sides, Carrera resigned, in what is commonly taken to mark the beginning of the period of the Reconquista . After the attempt by Gaínza, the two sides had signed the Treaty of Lircay on May 14, nominally bringing peace but effectively only providing
24648-535: Was set for September 18, 1810 at 11 am. From the very beginning, the juntistas took the political initiative. As soon as the Cabildo was called, they were able to place their members in the committee charged with sending the invitations, thus manipulating the attendance lists to their own advantage. At the September 18 session, they grabbed center stage with shouts of "¡Junta queremos! ¡junta queremos!" ("We want
24806-500: Was strengthened as a result of the Bourbon reforms of 1700, which changed the Spanish Empire 's policies toward its colonies and led to tensions between criollos and peninsulares . The growth of local criollo political and economic strength in the separate colonies, coupled with their global geographic distribution, led them to each evolve separate (both from each other and Spain) organic national identities and viewpoints. During
24964-538: Was taken by a Dutch-Mapuche alliance in 1599, but reconquered by the Spanish in 1600. Only Chillán and Concepción resisted Mapuche sieges and raids. Except for the Chiloé Archipelago , all Chilean territory south of the Bíobío River was freed from Spanish rule. In this period the Mapuche Nation crossed the Andes to conquer the present Argentine provinces of Chubut, Neuquen, La Pampa, and Río Negro. In
#867132