The Cinchona Missions (1942–1945) were a series of expeditions led by the United States to find natural sources of quinine in South America during World War II .
107-610: Bark of species from the genus Cinchona produces the alkaloid quinine, a potent anti- malarial treatment. Although originally native to South America, cinchona plantations were established in India , Ceylon , and the Dutch East Indies during the 19th century. By 1913, 95 percent of quinine production was controlled by the Dutch Kinabureau through large plantations on Java . With the outbreak of World War II,
214-661: A bi-national Fulbright Commission administers and oversees the Fulbright Program. In countries without a Fulbright Commission but that have an active program, the Public Affairs Section of the US Embassy oversees the Fulbright Program. More than 360,000 persons have participated in the program since it began. Fifty-four Fulbright alumni have won Nobel Prizes ; eighty-two have won Pulitzer Prizes . The National Security Language Initiative (NSLI-Y)
321-599: A botanist to identify cinchona species, as well as a forester to calculate the volume of bark and logistics of harvest. They began their search in the high altitude rainforests of the Cordillera Oriental and the Rio Magdalena , making an inventory of all available species. Once cleared for harvest, bark from an area was gathered with native labor. It was transported on the backs of people or mules to rivers and airstrips. Eventually, it would arrive at one of
428-621: A civilian workforce, and normally uses the Foreign Service personnel system for positions that require service abroad. Employees may be assigned to diplomatic missions abroad to represent the United States, analyze and report on political, economic, and social trends; adjudicate visas; and respond to the needs of US citizens abroad. The US maintains diplomatic relations with about 180 countries and maintains relations with many international organizations, adding up to 273 posts around
535-659: A claim that the plant had cured the wife of the Count of Chinchón , a Spanish viceroy in Lima , in the 1630s, though the veracity of this story has been disputed. Linnaeus used the Italian spelling Cinchona , but the name Chinchón (pronounced [tʃinˈtʃon] in Spanish) led to Clements Markham and others proposing a correction of the spelling to Chinchona , and some prefer the pronunciation / tʃ ɪ n ˈ tʃ oʊ n ə / for
642-558: A curriculum vitae, a statement of interest and a written essay. Opportunity is provided to upload letters of recommendations and nominations to support one's application. The Franklin Fellows Program was established in 2006 by the DoS to bring in mid-level executives from the private sector and non-profit organizations to advise the department and to work on projects. Fellows may also work with other government entities, including
749-731: A dark-coloured phlobaphene called red cinchonic, cinchono-fulvic acid, or cinchona red. In 1934, efforts to make malaria drugs cheap and effective for use across countries led to the development of a standard called "totaquina" proposed by the Malaria Commission of the League of Nations . Totaquina required a minimum of 70% crystallizable alkaloids, of which at least 15% was to be quinine with not more than 20% amorphous alkaloids. There are at least 24 species of Cinchona recognized by botanists. There are likely several unnamed species and many intermediate forms that have arisen due to
856-513: A former Confederate in the American Civil War . Postwar Confederates were enticed there by Maury, now the "Imperial Commissioner of Immigration" for Emperor Maximillian of Mexico, and Archduke of Habsburg. All that survives of those two colonies are the flourishing groves of cinchonas established by Maury using seeds purchased from England. These seeds were the first to be introduced into Mexico. The cultivation of cinchona led from
963-400: A handsome gift from ( King Pedro ) on condition that he should reveal to him the secret of its composition and withhold it from the public". In 1738, Sur l'arbre du quinquina , a paper written by Charles Marie de La Condamine , lead member of the expedition, along with Pierre Godin and Louis Bouger that was sent to Ecuador to determine the length of a degree of the 1/4 of meridian arc in
1070-492: A large, rather than homeopathic, dose of Peruvian bark. After two weeks, he said he felt malaria-like symptoms. This idea of "like cures like" was the starting point of his writings on homeopathy. Hahnemann's symptoms have been suggested by researchers, both homeopaths and skeptics, as being an indicator of his hypersensitivity to quinine. The bark was very valuable to Europeans in expanding their access to and exploitation of resources in distant colonies and at home. Bark gathering
1177-582: A merit-based system of promotions. The Rogers Act also created the Board of the Foreign Service, which advises the Secretary of State on managing the Foreign Service, and the Board of Examiners of the Foreign Service, which administers the examination process. The post-Second World War period saw an unprecedented increase in funding and staff commensurate with the US's emergence as a superpower and its competition with
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#17328021916701284-524: A new chapter in international relations between the United States and other nations in the Americas . The bark of trees in this genus is the source of a variety of alkaloids , the most familiar of which is quinine , an antipyretic (antifever) agent especially useful in treating malaria. For a while the extraction of a mixture of alkaloids from the cinchona bark, known in India as the cinchona febrifuge,
1391-486: A routine in quinology to examine the contents of these components in assays. The yields of quinine in the cultivated trees were low and time was needed to develop sustainable methods to extract bark. In the meantime, Charles Ledger and his native assistant Manuel Incra Mamani collected another species from Bolivia. Mamani was caught and beaten by Bolivian officials, leading to his death, but Ledger obtained seeds containing high levels of quinine. These seeds were offered to
1498-478: A single person responsible for that duty. A mail division was established in 1872 and the office of Keeper of Rolls was made independent of the Chief Clerk's Bureau in 1873. Congress legally recognized the bureau system and provided official salaries for some bureau positions in 1873. Following Congressional recognition, several acts of Congress modified the structure of the bureaus between 1874 and 1882. At
1605-726: A supply of quinine was essential for successful military operations. In 1942, the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies cut off the supply of quinine to the allies . Recognizing the need for a new source of quinine, a program was established by the United States Board of Economic Warfare under the operation of the Defense Supplies Corporation (DSC). Professor William C. Steere was brought on as assistant director. The objective
1712-798: A wave took them off their ship. The Dutch sent Justus Hasskarl , who brought plants that were then cultivated in Java from 1854. English explorer Clements Markham went to collect plants that were introduced in Sri Lanka and the Nilgiris of southern India in 1860. The main species introduced were C. succirubra , or red bark, (now C. pubescens ) as its sap turned red on contact with air, and Cinchona calisaya . The alkaloids quinine and cinchonine were extracted by Pierre Joseph Pelletier and Joseph Bienaimé Caventou in 1820. Two more key alkaloids, quinidine and cinchonidine, were later identified and it became
1819-686: Is a genus of flowering plants in the family Rubiaceae containing at least 23 species of trees and shrubs. All are native to the tropical Andean forests of western South America . A few species are reportedly naturalized in Central America , Jamaica , French Polynesia , Sulawesi , Saint Helena in the South Atlantic , and São Tomé and Príncipe off the coast of tropical Africa, and others have been cultivated in India and Java , where they have formed hybrids. Cinchona has been historically sought after for its medicinal value, as
1926-525: Is a US Department of State ECA competitive merit-based scholarship to develop the foreign language skills of American high school students in eight critical-need languages. Korean , Mandarin , Russian , Arabic , Hindi , Bahasa Indonesian , Tajiki , and Turkish are all taught in summer and academic year programs abroad, as well as in online classes. NSLI-Y is the most prestigious foreign language program available to American high schoolers and has nearly 9,200 alumni. The Jefferson Science Fellows Program
2033-415: Is a small capsule containing numerous seeds . A key character of the genus is that the flowers have marginally hairy corolla lobes. Some species display heterostyly . The tribe Cinchoneae includes the genera Cinchonopsis , Jossia , Ladenbergia , Remijia , Stilpnophyllum , and Ciliosemina . In South America, natural populations of Cinchona species have geographically distinct distributions. During
2140-474: Is headed by the U.S. secretary of state , who reports directly to the U.S. president and is a member of the Cabinet . Analogous to a foreign minister , the secretary of state serves as the federal government's chief diplomat and representative abroad, and is the first Cabinet official in the order of precedence and in the presidential line of succession . The position is currently held by Antony Blinken , who
2247-512: Is managed by a senior official. The senior official in most bureaus is an Assistant Secretary of State , with some senior officials having other titles such as Director or Ambassador-at-Large . The final tier of senior leadership below Assistant Secretary is Deputy Assistant Secretary, of which there are several dozen. Staff below the Deputy Assistant Secretary rank are generally considered "working level." Officials from
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#17328021916702354-440: Is not quite equal to that of Yungas, but only second to it. There are four other classes of inferior bark, for some of which the bank pays fifteen dollars per quintal. The best, by law, is worth fifty-four dollars. The freight to Arica is seventeen dollars the mule load of three quintals. Six thousand quintals of bark have already been gathered from Yuracares. The bank was established in the year 1851. Mr. [Thaddäus] Haenke mentioned
2461-761: The State, War, and Navy Building in 1875. Since May 1947, the State Department has been based in the Harry S. Truman Building , which originally was intended to house the Department of Defense; it has since undergone several expansions and renovations, most recently in 2016. Previously known as the "Main State Building" , in September 2000 it was renamed in honor of President Harry S. Truman , who
2568-852: The Treasury Building and then the Seven Buildings at 19th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue. The State Department moved several times throughout the capital in the ensuing decades, including six buildings in September 1800; the War Office Building west of the White House the following May; the Treasury Building once more from September 1819 to November 1866; the Washington City Orphan Home from November 1866 to July 1875; and
2675-523: The census . President Washington signed the new legislation on September 15. Most of these domestic duties gradually were transferred to various federal departments and agencies established in the 19th century. However, the secretary of state still retains a few domestic responsibilities, such as serving as keeper of the Great Seal and being the officer to whom a president or vice president wishing to resign must deliver an instrument in writing declaring
2782-534: The "fever tree" in 1653. The legend was popularized in English literature by Markham, and in 1874, he also published a "plea for the correct spelling of the genus Chinchona ". Spanish physician and botanist Nicolás Monardes wrote of a New World bark powder used in Spain in 1574, and another physician, Juan Fragoso, wrote of bark powder from an unknown tree in 1600 that was used for treating various ills. Both identify
2889-664: The 1890s to a decline in the price of quinine, but the quality and production of raw bark by the Dutch in Indonesia led them to dominate world markets. The producers of processed drugs in Europe (especially Germany ), however, bargained and caused fluctuations in prices, which led to a Dutch-led Cinchona Agreement in 1913 that ensured a fixed price for producers. A Kina Bureau in Amsterdam regulated this trade. During World War II ,
2996-770: The 1996 reorganization, the Administrator of the US Agency for International Development (USAID), while leading an independent agency, also reports to the secretary of state, as does the US ambassador to the United Nations . From 1790 to 1800, the State Department was headquartered in Philadelphia , the national capital at the time. It occupied a building at Church and Fifth Street. In 1800, it moved from Philadelphia to Washington, D.C., where it briefly occupied
3103-425: The 19th century, the introduction of several species into cultivation in the same areas of India and Java, by the English and Dutch East India Company, respectively, led to the formation of hybrids . Linnaeus described the genus based on the species Cinchona officinalis , which is found only in a small region of Ecuador and is of little medicinal significance. Nearly 300 species were later described and named in
3210-707: The 2015–16 cycle, 17% and 24% of American applicants were successful in securing research and English Teaching Assistance grants, respectively. However, selectivity and application numbers vary substantially by country and by type of grant. For example, grants were awarded to 30% of Americans applying to teach English in Laos and 50% of applicants to do research in Laos. In contrast, 6% of applicants applying to teach English in Belgium were successful compared to 16% of applicants to do research in Belgium. The US Department of State's Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs sponsors
3317-605: The British, who were uninterested, leading to the rest being sold to the Dutch. The Dutch saw their value and multiplied the stock. The species later named Cinchona ledgeriana yielded 8 to 13% quinine in bark grown in Dutch Indonesia, which effectively outcompeted the British Indian production which focused on a range of alkaloids other than quinine. Only later did the English see the value and sought to obtain
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3424-580: The Committee of Correspondence that was used by the colony of Massachusetts to communicate with the other colonies. The Committee of Secret Correspondence was renamed the Committee of Foreign Affairs in 1777. In 1781, the Department of Foreign Affairs was established as a permanent body to replace the Committee of Foreign Affairs, and the office of secretary of foreign affairs was established to lead
3531-933: The Congress , White House , and executive branch agencies, including the Department of Defense , Department of Commerce , and Department of Homeland Security . The program is named in honor of Benjamin Franklin , and aims to attract mid-career professionals to enrich and expand the department's capabilities. Unlike the Jefferson Science Fellows Program, a Franklin Fellowship is a year-long volunteer position for which one may obtain sponsor support or participate out of personal resources. Participation areas assigned to Franklin Fellows are determined by several factors, including issues of priority to
3638-738: The Consular Bureau; the Home Bureau; and the Keeper of the Archives, Translator, and Disbursing Agent. The office of Commissioner of Patents was created in 1836. In 1842, the Department of State was required to report to Congress on foreign commercial systems, and a clerk within the department was assigned the responsibility of arranging this information. This position was established as the Superintendent of Statistics in 1854 and
3745-587: The DSC; Colombia , Peru , Guatemala , Costa Rica , Ecuador and Bolivia . Wild populations of cinchona were also to be exploited. At its peak, as many as 30 American botanists were involved with the program. The first party left for Colombia in October 1942. It consisted of two foresters, two botanists, a chemist, and a lawyer. This initial group included Steere, Francis Raymond Fosberg , and Leslie Holdridge . At first, two field parties were organized. Each team had
3852-405: The Department of State was the fourth most desired employer for undergraduates according to BusinessWeek . From 2009 to 2017, the State Department launched 21st Century Statecraft, with the official goal of "complementing traditional foreign policy tools with newly innovated and adapted instruments of statecraft that fully leverage the technologies of our interconnected world." The initiative
3959-473: The Department of State/USAID, to help with its daily operations. The program is applied for, follows a process starting in August, and takes about a year to learn a candidate's ranking results. Awards are not solely achievement based, but intelligence and writing skills should support one's suitability for the position as the committee determines. A candidate applies for the program online, which entails submitting
4066-752: The Diplomatic Bureau; the Consular Bureau; the Home Bureau; the Bureau of Archives, Laws, and Commissions; the Bureau of Pardons and Remissions, Copyrights, and the Care of the Library; the Disbursing and Superintending Bureau; and the Translating and Miscellaneous Bureau. His successor John Forsyth reduced this number to just four the following year, overseen by a chief clerk: the Diplomatic Bureau;
4173-524: The Ecuadorian missions included Wendell Holmes Camp , William Brooks Drew, Francis Marion Ownbey , Frederick Wilson Popenoe , Gerald Webber Prescott , Misael Acosta Solís , William Campbell Steere, Julian Alfred Steyermark , and Ira Loren Wiggins . The American pharmaceutical company Merck and Co. planned to develop the cinchona industry in the Western hemisphere as early as 1932. Their research
4280-509: The Executive Branch, the Department of State is the lead US foreign affairs agency, and its head, the secretary of state, is the president's principal foreign policy advisor. The department advances US objectives and interests in the world through its primary role in developing and implementing the president's foreign policy. It also provides an array of important services to US citizens and to foreigners seeking to visit or immigrate to
4387-550: The Fulbright Program from an annual appropriation from the U.S. Congress . Additional direct and in-kind support comes from partner governments, foundations, corporations, and host institutions both in and outside the US The Fulbright Program is administered by cooperating organizations like the Institute of International Education . It operates in over 160 countries around the world. In each of 49 countries,
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4494-566: The Fulbright Program, competitively selected US citizens may become eligible for scholarships to study, conduct research, or exercise their talents abroad; and citizens of other countries may qualify to do the same in the United States. The program was established to increase mutual understanding between the people of the United States and other countries through the exchange of persons, knowledge, and skills. The Fulbright Program provides 8,000 grants annually to undertake graduate study, advanced research, university lecturing, and classroom teaching. In
4601-563: The Japanese conquered Java and the United States lost access to the cinchona plantations that supplied war-critical quinine medication. Botanical expeditions called Cinchona Missions were launched between 1942 and 1944 to explore promising areas of South America in an effort to locate cinchona species that contained quinine and could be harvested for quinine production. As well as being ultimately successful in their primary aim, these expeditions also identified new species of plants and created
4708-661: The Secretary through the Assistant Secretaries are nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate. Under the Obama administration, the website of the Department of State had indicated that the State Department's 75,547 employees included 13,855 foreign service officers; 49,734 locally employed staff, whose duties are primarily serving overseas; and 10,171 predominantly domestic civil service employees. Since
4815-767: The Soviet Union in the subsequent Cold War. Consequently, the number of domestic and overseas employees grew from roughly 2,000 in 1940 to over 13,000 in 1960. In accordance with the 1984 Act to Combat International Terrorism, the U.S. State Department established the Rewards for Justice program . The Rewards For Justice program offered money as an incentive for information leading to the arrest of leaders of terrorist groups, financiers of terrorism, including any individual that abide in plotting terror attacks by cooperating with extremist groups. The Rewards For Justice program offered money as an incentive for information leading to
4922-588: The State Department spending time in the United States and interacting with their American colleagues, leadership and counterparts. Notable alumni of Professional Fellows include Edmond Fernandes , Anoka Abeyratne . The Fulbright Program, including the Fulbright–Hays Program , is a program of competitive, merit-based grants for international educational exchange for students, scholars, teachers, professionals, scientists and artists, founded by United States Senator J. William Fulbright in 1946. Under
5029-401: The Statistical Office was created within the department. In 1853, the office of Assistant Secretary of State was created to oversee the heads of each bureau. A Commissioner of Immigration existed between 1864 and 1868. An Examiner of Claims was established in 1868 to address claims by American citizens against foreign nations, but it was abolished in 1868 and then reestablished in 1870 under
5136-434: The U.S. at the United Nations . The department is headquartered in the Harry S Truman Building , a few blocks from the White House , in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, D.C. ; "Foggy Bottom" is thus sometimes used as a metonym . Established in 1789 as the first administrative arm of the U.S. executive branch , the State Department is considered among the most powerful and prestigious executive agencies. It
5243-449: The United States. All foreign affairs activities—US representation abroad, foreign assistance programs, countering international crime, foreign military training programs, the services the department provides, and more—are paid for out of the foreign affairs budget, which represents little more than 1% of the total federal budget. The department's core activities and purpose include: The Department of State conducts these activities with
5350-411: The Viceroy of Nueva Granada, Pedro Messia de la Cerda, gathered information on cinchona in Colombia from 1760 and wrote a manuscript, El Arcano de la Quina (1793), with illustrations. He proposed a Spanish expedition to search for plants of commercial value, which was approved in 1783 and was continued after his death in 1808 by his nephew Sinforoso Mutis. As demand for the bark increased, the trees in
5457-456: The age range of 18 to 35 years old from the 10 member-states of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations and Timor Leste . YSEALI's programs include competitive exchange fellowship programs to the United States , virtual and on-ground workshops within Southeast Asia , and seed grant funding opportunities. The programs fall under the key core themes of civic engagement , sustainable development , economic development , governance , and
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#17328021916705564-430: The arrest of leaders of terrorist groups , financiers of terrorism, including any individual that abide in plotting terror attacks by cooperating with extremist groups . In 1997, Madeleine Albright became the first woman appointed Secretary of State and the first foreign-born woman to serve in the Cabinet. The 3rd millennium saw the department reinvent itself in response to the rapid digitization of society and
5671-421: The bark of several species yields quinine and other alkaloids . These were the only effective treatments against malaria during the height of European colonialism , which made them of great economic and political importance. Trees in the genus are also known as fever trees because of their antimalarial properties. The artificial synthesis of quinine in 1944, an increase in resistant forms of malaria, and
5778-442: The bark was noted in the Schedula Romana . The Royal Society of London published in its first year (1666) "An account of Dr. Sydenham's book, entitled, Methodus curandi febres . . ." English King Charles II called upon Robert Talbor, who had become famous for his miraculous malaria cure. Because at that time the bark was in religious controversy, Talbor gave the king the bitter bark decoction in great secrecy. The treatment gave
5885-538: The bureau was replaced by an office to facilitate the transfer of information between consular offices and the new department. The Passport Bureau was restored the same year, and its name was changed to the Bureau of Citizenship in 1907. The department underwent a major reform in 1909 when Congress expanded its funding. Separate divisions were established within the Department for Latin American Affairs, Far Eastern Affairs, Near Eastern Affairs, Western European Affairs, and Information. An additional Division of Mexican Affairs
5992-489: The common name of the plant. Traditional medicine uses from South America known as Jesuit's bark and Jesuit's powder have been traced to Cinchona . Cinchona plants belong to the family Rubiaceae and are large shrubs or small trees with evergreen foliage, growing 5 to 15 m (16 to 49 ft) in height. The leaves are opposite, rounded to lanceolate, and 10–40 cm long. The flowers are white, pink, or red, and produced in terminal panicles . The fruit
6099-486: The countess suffering from fever, although the count himself had many malarial attacks. Because of these and numerous other discrepancies, Bado's story has been generally rejected as little more than a legend. Quina bark was mentioned by Fray Antonio de La Calancha in 1638 as coming from a tree in Loja (Loxa). He noted that bark powder weighing about two coins was cast into water and drunk to cure fevers and "tertians". Jesuit Father Bernabé Cobo (1582–1657) also wrote on
6206-506: The country as well as a candidate's degree of career seniority and personal interests. See also Young Southeast Asian Leaders Initiative The Young Southeast Asian Leaders Initiative (YSEALI) (pronounced / w aɪ s iː ˈ l iː / ) is a program of the DoS for emerging leaders from Southeast Asia . The program was launched by President Barack Obama in Manila in December 2013 as a way to strengthen leadership development, networking, and cultural exchange among emerging leaders within
6313-426: The decision. Reflecting the fledgling status of the US at the time, the Department of State under Secretary Jefferson comprised only six personnel, two diplomatic posts (in London and Paris), and 10 consular posts. When Jefferson took charge of the department, one clerk oversaw The Foreign Office and another oversaw the Home Office. Congress authorized the department hire a chief clerk for each office in June 1790, but
6420-412: The department the first federal agency to be created under the new Constitution. This legislation remains the basic law of the Department of State. In September 1789, additional legislation changed the name of the agency to the Department of State and assigned it a variety of domestic duties, including managing the United States Mint , keeping the Great Seal of the United States , and administering
6527-425: The department. The U.S. Constitution , drafted September 1787 and ratified the following year, gave the president responsibility for conducting the federal government's affairs with foreign states. To that end, on July 21, 1789, the First Congress approved legislation to reestablish the Department of Foreign Affairs under the new government, which President George Washington signed into law on July 27, making
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#17328021916706634-433: The departments of Defense, Treasury, and Commerce. The department also consults with Congress about foreign policy initiatives and policies. The most senior official in the Department is the Secretary of State. The Secretary is the chief executive officer of the Department of State and a member of the Cabinet who answers directly to, and advises, the president of the United States . The Secretary organizes and supervises
6741-417: The emergence of alternate therapies eventually ended large-scale economic interest in Cinchona cultivation. Cinchona alkaloids show promise in treating Plasmodium falciparum malaria, which has evolved resistance to synthetic drugs. Cinchona plants continue to be revered for their historical legacy; the national tree of Peru is in the genus Cinchona . Carl Linnaeus named the genus in 1742, based on
6848-456: The end of the nineteenth century, the department consisted of the Chief Clerk's Bureau, the Diplomatic Bureau, the Consular Bureau, the Bureau of Accounts, the Bureau of Foreign Commerce, the Bureau of Appointments, and the Bureau of Archives. Other offices, such as that of translator, also operated separately from the bureau system. In 1903, the Bureau of Foreign Commerce was transferred to the newly created Department of Commerce and Labor , and
6955-439: The entire department and its staff. Immediately subordinate to the Secretary are the Deputy Secretary and the Deputy Secretary for Management and Resources , the second- and third-highest ranking officials in the department. Ranking below the two Deputy Secretaries are six Under Secretaries , who each oversee several bureaus and offices tasked with specific areas of policy and administration. Each bureau or office, in turn,
7062-451: The entire episode secret. After Talbor's death, the French king published this formula: seven grams of rose leaves, two ounces of lemon juice and a strong decoction of the cinchona bark served with wine. Wine was used because some alkaloids of the cinchona bark are not soluble in water, but are soluble in the ethanol in wine. In 1681 Água de Inglaterra was introduced into Portugal from England by Dr. Fernando Mendes who, similarly, "received
7169-469: The existence of cinchona bark on his visit to Yuracares in 1796 It was estimated that the British Empire incurred direct losses of 52 to 62 million pounds a year due to malaria sickness each year. It was therefore of great importance to secure the supply of the cure. In 1860, a British expedition to South America led by Clements Markham smuggled back cinchona seeds and plants, which were introduced in several areas of British India and Sri Lanka. In India, it
7276-415: The field laboratories located in Bogotá , Colombia , Quito , Ecuador , Lima , Peru , or La Paz , Bolivia . Dry bark was often shipped directly to America. Over time, additional personnel were recruited to assist with the Colombian mission. This included Earl Lemley Core , William Brooks Drew , Joseph Andorfer Ewan , Norman Carter Fassett , and Harold St. John . In 1943, an expedition to Ecuador
7383-429: The final months of World War I, the Bureau of Citizenship was split into the Division of Passport Control and the Visa Office. Other changes made during World War I include the conversion of the Division of Information into the Division of Foreign Intelligence in 1917 and the establishment of the Correspondence Bureau in 1918. The Division of Russian Affairs was established in 1919, and the Division of Political Information
7490-420: The financial means to sustain their work abroad. Combined with the common practice of appointing individuals based on politics or patronage, rather than merit, this led the department to largely favor those with political networks and wealth, rather than skill and knowledge. In 1833, Secretary of State Louis McLane oversaw a major restructure of the Department of State into a formal collection of seven bureaus:
7597-407: The forests began to be destroyed. To maintain their monopoly on cinchona bark, Peru and surrounding countries began outlawing the export of cinchona seeds and saplings beginning in the early 19th century. The colonial European powers eventually considered growing the plant in other parts of the tropics. The French mission of 1743, of which de la Condamine was a member, lost their cinchona plants when
7704-455: The genus, but a revision of the genus in 1998 identified only 23 distinct species. The febrifugal properties of bark from trees now known to be in the genus Cinchona were used by many South American cultures prior to European contact. Jesuits played a key role in the transfer of remedies from the New World . The traditional story connecting Cinchona species with malaria treatment
7811-581: The global economy. In 2007, it launched an official blog, Dipnote , as well as a Twitter account of the same name, to engage with a global audience. Internally, it launched a wiki , Diplopedia ; a suggestion forum called the Sounding Board ; and a professional networking software, "Corridor". In May 2009, the Virtual Student Federal Service (VSFS) was created to provide remote internships to students. The same year,
7918-457: The king complete relief from the malaria fever. In return, Talbor was offered membership of the prestigious Royal College of Physicians . In 1679, Talbor was called by the King of France, Louis XIV , whose son was suffering from malarial fever. After a successful treatment, Talbor was rewarded by the king with 3,000 gold crowns and a lifetime pension for this prescription. Talbor was asked to keep
8025-468: The neighbourhood of the equator , was published by the French Academy of Sciences . In it he identified three separate species. The birth of homeopathy was based on cinchona bark testing. The founder of homeopathy, Samuel Hahnemann , when translating William Cullen 's Materia medica , noticed Cullen had written that Peruvian bark was known to cure intermittent fevers. Hahnemann took daily
8132-652: The newly established Law Bureau. In 1870, Secretary of State Hamilton Fish reorganized the department into twelve bureaus: the Chief Clerk's Bureau, two Diplomatic Bureaus, two Consular Bureaus, the Law Bureau, the Bureau of Accounts, the Statistical Bureau, the Bureau of Translations, the Bureau of Pardons and Commissions, the Bureau of Domestic Records, and the Passport Bureau. The bureaus of law, translations, and domestic records each consisted of
8239-483: The offices were consolidated under a single clerk the following month. In 1793, responsibility over patents was transferred from the cabinet to the Department of State. The office of superintendent of patents was created to carry out this responsibility, but the office was not recognized by Congress until 1830. In the 19th century, the U.S. State Department was responsible for administering the consular services and Diplomatic Security Service (DSS). The Department of State
8346-649: The oldest U.S. civilian intelligence agency, the Bureau of Intelligence and Research , and maintains a law enforcement arm , the Diplomatic Security Service (DSS). The Articles of Confederation did not designate a separate executive branch of the government. Foreign affairs were delegated to the Committee of Secret Correspondence by the Congress of the Confederation in 1775, based on
8453-456: The only economically practical source of quinine, a drug that is still recommended for the treatment of falciparum malaria . Italian botanist Pietro Castelli wrote a pamphlet noteworthy as being the first Italian publication to mention the Cinchona species. By the 1630s (or 1640s, depending on the reference), the bark was being exported to Europe. In the late 1640s, the method of use of
8560-603: The plants' tendency to hybridize . US Department of State The United States Department of State ( DOS ), or simply the State Department , is an executive department of the U.S. federal government responsible for the country's foreign policy and relations . Equivalent to the ministry of foreign affairs of other nations, its primary duties are advising the U.S. president on international relations, administering diplomatic missions , negotiating international treaties and agreements, and representing
8667-456: The recovery of Asian plantations and a healthy stockpile of antimalarial products in US control, led to the termination of the program. Overall, the US had imported approximately 40 million pounds of dry bark over the course of two years. The program ceased operations on November 30, 1945. Cinchona around 38 species; see § Species Cinchona (pronounced / s ɪ ŋ ˈ k oʊ n ə / or / s ɪ n ˈ tʃ oʊ n ə / )
8774-732: The renovation of the buildings on the 11.8 acres (4.8 ha) Navy Hill campus, which housed the World War II headquarters of the Office of Strategic Services and was the first headquarters of the Central Intelligence Agency . In June 2022 the State Department launched a new transnational association , the Minerals Security Partnership . The Executive Branch and the Congress have constitutional responsibilities for US foreign policy. Within
8881-473: The seeds of C. ledgeriana from the Dutch. Francesco Torti used the response of fevers to treatment with Cinchona as a system of classification of fevers or a means for diagnosis between malarial and non-malarial fevers. Its use in the effective treatment of malaria brought an end to treatment by bloodletting and long-held ideas of humorism from Galen . Clements Markham was knighted for his role in establishing Cinchona species in Indonesia. Hasskarl
8988-607: The sources as trees that do not bear fruit and have heart-shaped leaves; they were suggested to have been referring to Cinchona species. The name quina-quina or quinquina was suggested as an old name for Cinchona used in Europe and based on the native name used by the Quechua people which means 'bark of barks'. Italian sources spelt quina as " cina ", which was a source of confusion with Smilax from China. Haggis argued that qina and Jesuit's bark actually referred to Myroxylon peruiferum , or Peruvian balsam, and that this
9095-600: The world's largest cinchona nursery. Here, large scale research was conducted on propagation and harvesting techniques. Seedlings were distributed to other nearby countries, and further plantations were established in Mexico , Costa Rica, Ecuador, and Peru. Older plantations that existed before US involvement in Peru and Bolivia were also exploited. In 1944, quinine was successfully synthesized by American chemists Robert Burns Woodward and William von Eggers Doering . This, along with
9202-506: The world. In the United States, about 5,000 professional, technical, and administrative employees work compiling and analyzing reports from overseas, providing logistical support to posts, communicating with the American public, formulating and overseeing the budget, issuing passports and travel warnings , and more. In carrying out these responsibilities, the Department of State works in close coordination with other federal agencies, including
9309-590: Was a major proponent of internationalism and diplomacy. As the DOS is located in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, it is sometimes metonymically referred to as "Foggy Bottom". The US Department of State has in the recent years rolled out Professional Exchange Fellows who have risen to professional ranks in their lives and are chosen by the US Embassies worldwide to be a professional fellows of
9416-469: Was a merchant in Peru. Clements Markham identified the countess as Ana de Osorio, but this was shown to be incorrect by Haggis. Ana de Osorio married the Count of Chinchón in August 1621 and died in 1625, several years before the count was appointed viceroy of Peru in 1628. His second wife, Francisca Henriques de Ribera, accompanied him to Peru. Haggis further examined the count's diaries and found no mention of
9523-527: Was an item of importance in Spanish trade in the 1500s. Over time, the bark of Myroxylon may have been adulterated with the similar-looking bark of what is now known as Cinchona . Gradually, the adulterant became the main product that was the key therapeutic ingredient used in malarial therapy. The bark was included as Cortex Peruanus in the London Pharmacopoeia in 1677. The "fever tree"
9630-739: Was appointed by President Joe Biden and confirmed by the U.S. Senate on January 26, 2021, by a vote of 78–22. As of 2024 , the State Department maintains 271 diplomatic posts worldwide, second only to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China . It also manages the U.S. Foreign Service , provides diplomatic training to U.S. officials and military personnel, exercises partial jurisdiction over immigration , and provides various services to Americans, such as issuing passports and visas , posting foreign travel advisories, and advancing commercial ties abroad. The department administers
9737-594: Was backed by the US Department of State , US Department of Agriculture , the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, and Food of Guatemala [ es ] , and the United Fruit Company . Small experimental plantations were established in Guatemala and Costa Rica during the 1930s. After the outbreak of the war, the US government seized a plantation at El Porvenir, Guatemala and turned it into
9844-417: Was composed of two primary administrative units: the diplomatic service, which staffed US legations and embassies, and the consular service, which was primarily responsible for promoting American commerce abroad and assisting distressed American sailors. Each service developed separately, but both lacked sufficient funding to provide for a career; consequently, appointments to either service fell on those with
9951-548: Was designed to utilize digital technology and the Internet to promote foreign policy goals; examples include promoting an SMS campaign to provide disaster relief to Pakistan, and sending DOS personnel to Libya to assist in developing Internet infrastructure and e-government. Colin Powell , who led the department from 2001 to 2005, became the first African-American to hold the post; his immediate successor, Condoleezza Rice ,
10058-631: Was established in 1915. The Bureau of Trade Relations was abolished in 1912 and replaced by an Office of Foreign Trade Advisers, and the Office of the Adviser on Commercial Treaties was split from this office in 1916. During World War I , the Bureau of Citizenship was tasked with vetting every person who entered or departed from the United States to ensure public safety. New branches of the Bureau of Citizenship were opened in New York and San Francisco. In
10165-551: Was established in 1920. The Department of State underwent its first major overhaul with the Rogers Act of 1924 , which merged the diplomatic and consular services into the Foreign Service , a professionalized personnel system under which the secretary of state is authorized to assign diplomats abroad. An extremely difficult Foreign Service examination was also implemented to ensure highly qualified recruits, along with
10272-450: Was established in 2003 by the DoS to establish a new model for engaging the American academic science, technology, engineering and medical communities in the formulation and implementation of US foreign policy. The Fellows (as they are called, if chosen for the program) are paid around $ 50,000 during the program and can earn special bonuses of up to $ 10,000. The program's intent is to equip Fellows with awareness of procedural intricacies of
10379-535: Was extended through the work of George King and others into the hilly terrain of Darjeeling District of Bengal . Cinchona factories were established at Naduvattam in the Nilgiris and at Mungpoo , Darjeeling, West Bengal. Quinologists were appointed to oversee the extraction of alkaloids with John Broughton in the Nilgiris and C.H. Wood at Darjeeling. Others in the position included David Hooper and John Eliot Howard. In 1865, "New Virginia" and "Carlota Colony" were established in Mexico by Matthew Fontaine Maury ,
10486-519: Was finally described carefully by astronomer Charles Marie de la Condamine , who visited Quito in 1735 on a quest to measure an arc of the meridian . The species he described, Cinchona officinalis , however, was found to be of little therapeutic value. The first living plants seen in Europe were C. calisaya plants grown at the Jardin des Plantes from seeds collected by Hugh Algernon Weddell from Bolivia in 1846. José Celestino Mutis , physician to
10593-490: Was first recorded by Italian physician Sebastiano Bado in 1663. It tells of the wife of Luis Jerónimo de Cabrera, 4th Count of Chinchón and Viceroy of Peru , who fell ill in Lima with a tertian fever. A Spanish governor advised a traditional remedy, which resulted in a miraculous and rapid cure. The countess then supposedly ordered a large quantity of the bark and took it back to Europe. Bado claimed to have received this information from an Italian named Antonius Bollus, who
10700-571: Was knighted with the Dutch order of the Lion. Cinchona species are used as food plants by the larvae of some lepidopteran species, including the engrailed , the commander , and members of the genus Endoclita , including E. damor , E. purpurescens , and E. sericeus . C.pubescens has grown uncontrolled on some islands, such as the Galapagos , where it has posed the risk of outcompeting native plant species. Whether cinchona bark
10807-531: Was often environmentally destructive, destroying huge expanses of trees for their bark, with difficult conditions for low wages that did not allow the indigenous bark gatherers to settle debts even upon death. Further exploration of the Amazon Basin and the economy of trade in various species of the bark in the 18th century is captured by Lardner Gibbon: ... this bark was first gathered in quantities in 1849, though known for many years. The best quality
10914-723: Was planted in Ootacamund by William Graham McIvor . In Sri Lanka, it was planted in the Hakgala Botanical Garden in January 1861. James Taylor , the pioneer of tea planting in Sri Lanka, was one of the pioneers of cinchona cultivation. By 1883, about 64,000 acres (260 km ) were in cultivation in Sri Lanka, with exports reaching a peak of 15 million pounds in 1886. The cultivation (initially of C. succirubra (now C. pubescens ) and later of C. calisaya )
11021-556: Was put together by the American Quinine Company, led by anthropologist Froelich Rainey . Surveying was difficult, however, since the cinchona forests of Ecuador were often remote and inaccessible. Surveying parties ranged between ten and fifteen men, many of whom served as porters and trail cutters. By mid-1943, Ecuador was the second largest producer of cinchona bark in Latin America. Personnel involved with
11128-657: Was the second female secretary of state and the second African-American. Hillary Clinton became the third female secretary of state when she was appointed in 2009. In 2014, the State Department began expanding into the Navy Hill Complex across 23rd Street NW from the Truman Building. A joint venture consisting of the architectural firms of Goody, Clancy and the Louis Berger Group won a $ 2.5 million contract in January 2014 to begin planning
11235-467: Was to find supplies of cinchona bark in the Andes for military use. It had three goals: to control all sites with commercial cinchona for long-term development; to develop plantations that could compete with established cinchona monopolies to ensure emergency provisions; and to train people in the producing countries to take over the industry at the end of US involvement. Six countries signed an agreement with
11342-468: Was used in any traditional medicines within Andean Indigenous groups when it first came to notice by Europeans is unclear. Since its first confirmed medicinal record in the early 17th century, it has been used as a treatment for malaria. This use was popularised in Europe by the Spanish colonisers of South America. The bark contains alkaloids , including quinine and quinidine . Cinchona is
11449-410: Was used. The alkaloid mixture or its sulphated form mixed in alcohol and sold as quinetum was however very bitter and caused nausea, among other side effects. Cinchona alkaloids include: They find use in organic chemistry as organocatalysts in asymmetric synthesis . Alongside the alkaloids, many cinchona barks contain cinchotannic acid , a particular tannin , which by oxidation rapidly yields
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