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77-724: CDW, the greatest volume water mass in the Southern Ocean , includes the North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW), the Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW), Antarctic Intermediate Water (AAIW), as well as recirculated deep water from the Indian and Pacific Oceans. A distinguishing characteristic of the CDW is that the water is not formed at the surface, but rather by a blending of other water masses. CDW sits at

154-658: A captain in the Russian Imperial Navy ; Edward Bransfield , a captain in the Royal Navy ; and Nathaniel Palmer , an American sailor out of Stonington, Connecticut . It is certain that the expedition, led by von Bellingshausen and Lazarev on the ships Vostok and Mirny , reached a point within 32 km (20 mi) from Princess Martha Coast and recorded the sight of an ice shelf at 69°21′28″S 2°14′50″W  /  69.35778°S 2.24722°W  / -69.35778; -2.24722 that became known as

231-516: A depth of around 500 meters, approximately at the depth of the continental shelf . There are two types of CDW: Upper Circumpolar Deep Water (UCDW) and Lower Circumpolar Deep Water (LCDW). UCDW originates in the Indian and Pacific Oceans and has lower oxygen levels and higher nutrients than LCDW. LCDW comes from North Atlantic Deep Water and has a higher salinity. In the Indian Ocean, CDW has a temperature of 1.0–2.0 °C (33.8–35.6 °F). In

308-462: A land in 50° S which he called South France, and believed to be the central mass of the southern continent. He was sent out again to complete the exploration of the new land, and found it to be only an inhospitable island which he renamed the Isle of Desolation, but which was ultimately named after him . The obsession of the undiscovered continent culminated in the brain of Alexander Dalrymple ,

385-631: A permanent organization was formed and statutes for its operations were prepared. The IHB, now the IHO, began its activities in 1921 with 18 nations as members. The Principality of Monaco was selected as the seat of the Organization as a result of the offer of Albert I of Monaco to provide suitable accommodation for the Bureau in the Principality. The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO)

462-691: A size of 21,960,000 km (8,480,000 sq mi), it is the second-smallest of the five principal oceanic divisions, smaller than the Pacific , Atlantic and Indian oceans, and larger than the Arctic Ocean . The maximum depth of the Southern Ocean, using the definition that it lies south of 60th parallel, was surveyed by the Five Deeps Expedition in early February 2019. The expedition's multibeam sonar team identified

539-418: Is discussed in more detail below, prior to the 2002 edition the limits of oceans explicitly excluded the seas lying within each of them. The Great Australian Bight was unnamed in the 1928 edition, and delineated as shown in the figure above in the 1937 edition. It therefore encompassed former Southern Ocean waters—as designated in 1928—but was technically not inside any of the three adjacent oceans by 1937. In

616-484: Is important because it makes up the second half of the global thermohaline circulation , after the better known Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC). Much like AMOC, it has also been substantially affected by climate change , in ways that have increased ocean stratification , and which may also result in the circulation substantially slowing or even passing a tipping point and collapsing outright. The latter would have adverse impacts on global weather and

693-586: The Fimbul Ice Shelf . On 30 January 1820, Bransfield sighted Trinity Peninsula , the northernmost point of the Antarctic mainland, while Palmer sighted the mainland in the area south of Trinity Peninsula in November 1820. Von Bellingshausen's expedition also discovered Peter I Island and Alexander I Island , the first islands to be discovered south of the circle. In December 1839, as part of

770-734: The Hydrographic Dictionary and the Year Book are available to the general public free of charge from the IHO website. The IHO publishes the international standards related to charting and hydrography, including S-57, IHO Transfer Standard for Digital Hydrographic Data , the encoding standard that is used primarily for electronic navigational charts . In 2010, the IHO introduced a new, contemporary hydrographic geospatial standard for modelling marine data and information, known as S-100. S-100 and any dependent product specifications are underpinned by an on-line registry accessible via

847-627: The Strait of Magellan in 1520, assumed that the islands of Tierra del Fuego to the south were an extension of this unknown southern land. In 1564, Abraham Ortelius published his first map, Typus Orbis Terrarum , an eight-leaved wall map of the world, on which he identified the Regio Patalis with Locach as a northward extension of the Terra Australis , reaching as far as New Guinea . European geographers continued to connect

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924-726: The United Nations , where it is the recognized competent authority on hydrographic surveying and nautical charting . When referring to hydrography and nautical charting in conventions and similar instruments, it is the IHO standards and specifications that are normally used. During the 19th century, many maritime nations established hydrographic offices to provide means for improving the navigation of naval and merchant vessels by providing nautical publications, nautical charts, and other navigational services. There were substantial differences in hydrographic procedures charts, and publications. In 1889, an International Maritime Conference

1001-709: The United States Exploring Expedition of 1838–42 conducted by the United States Navy (sometimes called "the Wilkes Expedition"), an expedition sailed from Sydney, Australia, on the sloops-of-war USS  Vincennes and USS  Peacock , the brig USS  Porpoise , the full-rigged ship Relief , and two schooners Sea Gull and USS  Flying Fish . They sailed into the Antarctic Ocean, as it

1078-744: The parallel 60° south latitude was discovered by the Englishman William Smith , who sighted Livingston Island on 19 February 1819. A few months later Smith returned to explore the other islands of the South Shetlands archipelago, landed on King George Island , and claimed the new territories for Britain. In the meantime, the Spanish Navy ship San Telmo sank in September 1819 when trying to cross Cape Horn. Parts of her wreckage were found months later by sealers on

1155-399: The "South Land" – described by a half legendary " sieur de Gonneyville " – resulted in the discovery of Bouvet Island in 54°10′ S, and in the navigation of 48° of longitude of ice-cumbered sea nearly in 55° S in 1730. In 1771, Yves Joseph Kerguelen sailed from France with instructions to proceed south from Mauritius in search of "a very large continent". He lighted upon

1232-608: The 16th and the early part of the 17th centuries. The Spaniard Gabriel de Castilla , who claimed having sighted "snow-covered mountains" beyond the 64° S in 1603, is recognized as the first explorer that discovered the continent of Antarctica, although he was ignored in his time. In 1606, Pedro Fernández de Quirós took possession for the king of Spain all of the lands he had discovered in Australia del Espiritu Santo (the New Hebrides ) and those he would discover "even to

1309-430: The 1770s, James Cook proved that waters encompassed the southern latitudes of the globe. Yet, geographers have often disagreed on whether the Southern Ocean should be defined as a body of water bound by the seasonally fluctuating Antarctic Convergence - an oceanic zone where cold, northward flowing waters from the Antarctic mix with warmer Subantarctic waters, or not defined at all, with its waters instead treated as

1386-449: The 1953 third edition of Limits of Oceans and Seas , a note in the publication read: The Antarctic or Southern Ocean has been omitted from this publication as the majority of opinions received since the issue of the 2nd Edition in 1937 are to the effect that there exists no real justification for applying the term Ocean to this body of water, the northern limits of which are difficult to lay down owing to their seasonal change. The limits of

1463-490: The 2002 draft edition, the IHO have designated "seas" as subdivisions within "oceans", so the Bight would have still been within the Southern Ocean in 1937 if the 2002 convention were in place then. To perform direct comparisons of current and former limits of oceans it is necessary to consider, or at least be aware of, how the 2002 change in IHO terminology for "seas" can affect the comparison. The Southern Ocean did not appear in

1540-548: The Antarctic Circle, or knew it, if they did. In a voyage from 1822 to 1824, James Weddell commanded the 160-ton brig Jane , accompanied by his second ship Beaufoy captained by Matthew Brisbane. Together they sailed to the South Orkneys where sealing proved disappointing. They turned south in the hope of finding a better sealing ground. The season was unusually mild and tranquil, and on 20 February 1823

1617-592: The Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans have therefore been extended South to the Antarctic Continent. Hydrographic Offices who issue separate publications dealing with this area are therefore left to decide their own northern limits (Great Britain uses Latitude of 55 South.) Instead, in the IHO 1953 publication, the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans were extended southward, the Indian and Pacific Oceans (which had not previously touched pre 1953, as per

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1694-482: The CDW flows upward onto the continental shelf and travels through the deep canyons, it reaches the underside of the ice shelves. The warmer water makes contact with the shelves, contributing to the ice shelf melting. Gradients around Antarctica formed between shelf water and CDW are called the Antarctic Slope Front. The CDW also plays an important role in supporting Antarctic ecosystems. Upwelling of

1771-485: The CDW onto the Antarctic continental shelves brings heat and nutrients that support ecosystems along the west Antarctic Peninsula . Southern Ocean Main five oceans division: Further subdivision: The Southern Ocean , also known as the Antarctic Ocean , comprises the southernmost waters of the world ocean , generally taken to be south of 60° S latitude and encircling Antarctica . With

1848-681: The CIA World Fact Book ) which already adopted the principle that seas are contained within oceans. This difference in practice is markedly seen for the Pacific Ocean in the adjacent figure. Thus, for example, previously the Tasman Sea between Australia and New Zealand was not regarded by the IHO as part of the Pacific, but as of the 2002 draft edition it is. The new delineation of seas as subdivisions of oceans has avoided

1925-527: The Convention on the IHO, the secretariat is headed by a Secretary-General, supported by two Directors. As before, all three senior members of the secretariat continue to be elected to their positions by the Member States at the regular Assembly of the IHO (formerly, IHO Conferences). The secretariat staff comprise a number of technical specialists, administrators, and support personnel. The bulk of

2002-412: The IHO comprised 100 member states. A principal aim of the IHO is to ensure that the world's seas, oceans and navigable waters are properly surveyed and charted. It does this through the setting of international standards for hydrographic surveys, the co-ordination of the endeavors of the world's national hydrographic offices, and through its capacity building program. The IHO enjoys observer status at

2079-477: The IHO website. S-100 is aligned with the ISO 19100 series of geographic standards, thereby making it fully compatible with contemporary geospatial data standards. Because S-100 is based on ISO 19100, it can be used by other data providers for their maritime-related (non-hydrographic) data and information. Various data and information providers from both the government and private sector are now using S-100 as part of

2156-478: The IHO's technical and specialist expertise comes from Member States' personnel, often assisted by invited industry experts, who all provide technical contributions through participation in various IHO committees and working groups. A Council, comprising a sub-set of all the IHO Member States, meets annually and oversees the work of the IHO. A full description, together with details of the workings of all

2233-475: The National Geographic web site have begun to reference the Southern Ocean. A radical shift from past IHO practices (1928–1953) was also seen in the 2002 draft edition when the IHO delineated "seas" as subdivisions within the boundaries of "oceans". While the IHO are often considered the authority for such conventions, the shift brought them into line with the practices of other publications (e.g.

2310-564: The Pacific Ocean, it is slightly colder with a temperature of 0.1–2.0 °C (32.2–35.6 °F). The salinity of CDW is 34.62 to 34.73 ‰ . Because CDW is a mix of other water masses, its temperature-salinity (TS) profile is the point where the TS lines of the other water masses converge. TS diagrams refer to temperature and salinity profiles, which are one of the major ways water masses are distinguished from each other. The convergence of

2387-591: The Pole". Francis Drake , like Spanish explorers before him, had speculated that there might be an open channel south of Tierra del Fuego. When Willem Schouten and Jacob Le Maire discovered the southern extremity of Tierra del Fuego and named it Cape Horn in 1615, they proved that the Tierra del Fuego archipelago was of small extent and not connected to the southern land, as previously thought. Subsequently, in 1642, Abel Tasman showed that even New Holland (Australia)

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2464-708: The South Atlantic to the Cape of Good Hope between 55° and 60° . He thereby laid open the way for future Antarctic exploration by exploding the myth of a habitable southern continent. Cook's most southerly discovery of land lay on the temperate side of the 60th parallel , and he convinced himself that if land lay farther south it was practically inaccessible and without economic value. Voyagers rounding Cape Horn frequently met with contrary winds and were driven southward into snowy skies and ice-encumbered seas; but so far as can be ascertained none of them before 1770 reached

2541-627: The Southern Ocean as extending as far north as South America, and confers great significance on the Antarctic Convergence , yet its description of the Indian Ocean contradicts this, describing the Indian Ocean as extending south to Antarctica. Other sources, such as the National Geographic Society , show the Atlantic , Pacific , and Indian oceans as extending to Antarctica on its maps, although articles on

2618-538: The Southern Ocean was delineated by land-based limits: Antarctica to the south, and South America, Africa, Australia, and Broughton Island, New Zealand to the north. The detailed land-limits used were from Cape Horn in Chile eastward to Cape Agulhas in Africa, then further eastward to the southern coast of mainland Australia to Cape Leeuwin , Western Australia . From Cape Leeuwin, the limit then followed eastward along

2695-558: The Southern Ocean was inspired by a belief in the existence of a Terra Australis – a vast continent in the far south of the globe to "balance" the northern lands of Eurasia and North Africa – which had existed since the times of Ptolemy . The rounding of the Cape of Good Hope in 1487 by Bartolomeu Dias first brought explorers within touch of the Antarctic cold, and proved that there was an ocean separating Africa from any Antarctic land that might exist. Ferdinand Magellan , who passed through

2772-713: The Southern Ocean were moved southward in the IHO's 1937 second edition of the Limits of Oceans and Seas . From this edition, much of the ocean's northern limit ceased to abut land masses. In the second edition, the Southern Ocean then extended from Antarctica northward to latitude 40°S between Cape Agulhas in Africa (long. 20°E) and Cape Leeuwin in Western Australia (long. 115°E), and extended to latitude 55°S between Auckland Island of New Zealand (165 or 166°E east) and Cape Horn in South America (67°W). As

2849-401: The Southern Ocean, in an open boat called James Caird , and then trekked over South Georgia to raise the alarm at the whaling station Grytviken . International Hydrographic Organization The International Hydrographic Organization ( IHO ) (French: Organisation Hydrographique Internationale ) is an intergovernmental organization representing hydrography . As of May 2024 ,

2926-511: The Southern Ocean. In Australia, cartographical authorities define the Southern Ocean as including the entire body of water between Antarctica and the south coasts of Australia and New Zealand, and up to 60°S elsewhere. Coastal maps of Tasmania and South Australia label the sea areas as Southern Ocean and Cape Leeuwin in Western Australia is described as the point where the Indian and Southern Oceans meet. Exploration of

3003-745: The Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa , the first European to discover the Pacific, who approached it from the north in Panama . The "South Seas" is a less archaic synonym. A 1745 British Act of Parliament established a prize for discovering a Northwest Passage to "the Western and Southern Ocean of America ". Authors using "Southern Ocean" to name the waters encircling the unknown southern polar regions used varying limits. James Cook 's account of his second voyage implies New Caledonia borders it. Peacock's 1795 Geographical Dictionary said it lay "to

3080-492: The TS lines thus proves the mixing of the other water masses. CDW plays an important role in the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) because it contributes to the melting of the base of ice shelves. Glaciers ending in CDW have melted considerably while glaciers in the northwest, with no CDW, have not. The CDW is salty and slightly above freezing temperature, which is warm compared to ice shelves. When

3157-698: The brilliant and erratic hydrographer who was nominated by the Royal Society to command the Transit of Venus expedition to Tahiti in 1769. The command of the expedition was given by the admiralty to Captain James Cook . Sailing in 1772 with Resolution , a vessel of 462 tons under his own command and Adventure of 336 tons under Captain Tobias Furneaux , Cook first searched in vain for Bouvet Island , then sailed for 20 degrees of longitude to

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3234-497: The coast of Tierra del Fuego with the coast of New Guinea on their globes, and allowing their imaginations to run riot in the vast unknown spaces of the south Atlantic, south Indian and Pacific oceans they sketched the outlines of the Terra Australis Incognita ("Unknown Southern Land"), a vast continent stretching in parts into the tropics. The search for this great south land was a leading motive of explorers in

3311-516: The coast of mainland Australia to Cape Otway , Victoria , then southward across Bass Strait to Cape Wickham , King Island , along the west coast of King Island, then the remainder of the way south across Bass Strait to Cape Grim , Tasmania . The limit then followed the west coast of Tasmania southward to the South East Cape and then went eastward to Broughton Island, New Zealand, before returning to Cape Horn. The northern limits of

3388-555: The content, such as the naming dispute over the Sea of Japan . The 2000 IHO definition was circulated as a draft edition in 2002, and is used by some within the IHO and other organizations, such as the CIA World Factbook and Merriam-Webster . The Australian Government regards the Southern Ocean as lying immediately south of Australia (see § Australian standpoint ). The National Geographic Society recognized

3465-406: The deepest point at 60° 28' 46"S, 025° 32' 32"W, with a depth of 7,434 metres (24,390 ft). The expedition leader and chief submersible pilot Victor Vescovo , has proposed naming this deepest point the "Factorian Deep", based on the name of the crewed submersible DSV Limiting Factor , in which he successfully visited the bottom for the first time on February 3, 2019. By way of his voyages in

3542-433: The discovery of which he had received news at Cape Town , but from the rough determination of his longitude by Kerguelen, Cook reached the assigned latitude 10° too far east and did not see it. He turned south again and was stopped by ice in 61° 52′ S by 95° E and continued eastward nearly on the parallel of 60° S to 147° E . On 16 March, the approaching winter drove him northward for rest to New Zealand and

3619-566: The expedition regained Tahiti for refreshment. In November 1774, Cook started from New Zealand and crossed the South Pacific without sighting land between 53° and 57° S to Tierra del Fuego; then, passing Cape Horn on 29 December, he rediscovered Roché Island renaming it Isle of Georgia , and discovered the South Sandwich Islands (named Sandwich Land by him), the only ice-clad land he had seen, before crossing

3696-485: The field of standardization since the IHO was founded. The IHO has encouraged the formation of Regional Hydrographic Commissions (RHCs). Each RHC coordinates the national surveying and charting activities of countries within each region and acts as a forum to address other matters of common hydrographic interest. The 15 RHCs plus the IHO Hydrographic Commission on Antarctica effectively cover

3773-535: The first and second editions) now abutted at the meridian of South East Cape , and the southern limits of the Great Australian Bight and the Tasman Sea were moved northward. The IHO readdressed the question of the Southern Ocean in a survey in 2000. Of its 68 member nations, 28 responded, and all responding members except Argentina agreed to redefine the ocean, reflecting the importance placed by oceanographers on ocean currents . The proposal for

3850-456: The first edition being 1928. Since the first edition, the limits of the Southern Ocean have moved progressively southward; since 1953, it has been omitted from the official publication and left to local hydrographic offices to determine their own limits. The IHO included the ocean and its definition as the waters south of the 60th parallel south in its 2000 revisions, but this has not been formally adopted, due to continuing impasses about some of

3927-573: The function of marine ecosystems here, unfolding over centuries. The ongoing warming is already changing marine ecosystems here. Borders and names for oceans and seas were internationally agreed when the International Hydrographic Bureau , the precursor to the IHO, convened the First International Conference on 24 July 1919. The IHO then published these in its Limits of Oceans and Seas ,

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4004-578: The implementation of the e-Navigation concept that has been endorsed by the UN International Maritime Organization (IMO). Another in the series of publications of interest is S-23, Limits of Oceans and Seas . The 3rd edition dates back to 1953 while the potential 4th edition, started in 1986, has remained a draft since 2002. It was distributed to IHO members, but its official publication has been suspended pending agreement between South Korea and Japan regarding

4081-573: The island in 1775. Edmond Halley 's voyage in HMS ; Paramour for magnetic investigations in the South Atlantic met the pack ice in 52° S in January 1700, but that latitude (he reached 140 mi [230 km] off the north coast of South Georgia ) was his farthest south. A determined effort on the part of the French naval officer Jean-Baptiste Charles Bouvet de Lozier to discover

4158-404: The most convenient form to enable them to be readily used; of instituting a prompt system of mutual exchange of hydrographic information between all countries; and of providing an opportunity to consultations and discussions to be carried out on hydrographic subjects generally by the hydrographic experts of the world." This is still the major purpose of the IHO. As a result of the 1919 Conference,

4235-620: The name Southern Ocean won 18 votes, beating the alternative Antarctic Ocean . Half of the votes supported a definition of the ocean's northern limit at the 60th parallel south —with no land interruptions at this latitude—with the other 14 votes cast for other definitions, mostly the 50th parallel south , but a few for as far north as the 35th parallel south . Notably the Southern Ocean Observing System collates data from latitudes higher than 40 degrees south. A draft fourth edition of Limits of Oceans and Seas

4312-525: The need to interrupt the northern boundary of the Southern Ocean where intersected by Drake Passage which includes all of the waters from South America to the Antarctic coast, nor interrupt it for the Scotia Sea , which also extends below the 60th parallel south. The new delineation of seas has also meant that the long-time named seas around Antarctica, excluded from the 1953 edition (the 1953 map did not even extend that far south), are automatically part of

4389-469: The north coast of Livingston Island ( South Shetlands ). It is unknown if some survivor managed to be the first to set foot on these Antarctic islands. The first confirmed sighting of mainland Antarctica cannot be accurately attributed to one single person. It can be narrowed down to three individuals. According to various sources, three men all sighted the ice shelf or the continent within days or months of each other: Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen ,

4466-471: The ocean officially in June 2021. Prior to this, it depicted it in a typeface different from the other world oceans; instead, it shows the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans extending to Antarctica on both its print and online maps. Map publishers using the term Southern Ocean on their maps include Hema Maps and GeoNova. "Southern Ocean" is an obsolete name for the Pacific Ocean or South Pacific, coined by

4543-519: The organs of the IHO is available on the IHO website: www.iho.int The IHO develops hydrographic and nautical charting standards. These standards are subsequently adopted and used by its member countries and others in their surveys, nautical charts, and publications. The almost universal use of the IHO standards means that the products and services provided by the world's national hydrographic and oceanographic offices are consistent and recognizable by all seafarers and for other users. Much has been done in

4620-496: The other new sea names within the "Southern Ocean", such as the " Cosmonauts Sea ") and Merriam-Webster , scientists and nations – and even by some within the IHO. Some nations' hydrographic offices have defined their own boundaries; the United Kingdom used the 55th parallel south for example. Other organisations favour more northerly limits for the Southern Ocean. For example, Encyclopædia Britannica describes

4697-517: The secretariat was renamed the "IHO Secretariat," which consists of an elected Secretary-General, two supporting Directors, and a small permanent staff (18 in 2020) at the Organization’s headquarters in Monaco. Until 2016 the IHO was administered by a secretariat headed by a Directing Committee comprising a President and two Directors. Since 8 November 2016, upon the entry in to force of revisions to

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4774-543: The south of New Zealand. The United Kingdom's South Australia Act 1834 described the waters forming the southern limit of the new province of South Australia as "the Southern Ocean". The Colony of Victoria 's Legislative Council Act 1881 delimited part of the division of Bairnsdale as "along the New South Wales boundary to the Southern ocean". In the 1928 first edition of Limits of Oceans and Seas ,

4851-402: The southern limits of the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian oceans. The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) finally settled the debate after the full importance of Southern Ocean overturning circulation had been ascertained, and the term Southern Ocean now defines the body of water which lies south of the northern limit of that circulation. The Southern Ocean overturning circulation

4928-422: The southward of America and Africa"; John Payne in 1796 used 40 degrees as the northern limit; the 1827 Edinburgh Gazetteer used 50 degrees. The Family Magazine in 1835 divided the "Great Southern Ocean" into the "Southern Ocean" and the "Antarctick [ sic ] Ocean" along the Antarctic Circle, with the northern limit of the Southern Ocean being lines joining Cape Horn, the Cape of Good Hope, Van Diemen's Land and

5005-524: The tropical islands of the Pacific. In November 1773, Cook left New Zealand, having parted company with the Adventure , and reached 60° S by 177° W , whence he sailed eastward keeping as far south as the floating ice allowed. The Antarctic Circle was crossed on 20 December and Cook remained south of it for three days, compelled after reaching 67° 31′ S to stand north again in 135° W . A long detour to 47° 50′ S served to show that there

5082-571: The two ships reached latitude 74°15' S and longitude 34°16'45″ W the southernmost position any ship had ever reached up to that time. A few icebergs were sighted but there was still no sight of land, leading Weddell to theorize that the sea continued as far as the South Pole. Another two days' sailing would have brought him to Coat's Land (to the east of the Weddell Sea ) but Weddell decided to turn back. The first land south of

5159-449: The westward in latitude 58° S , and then 30° eastward for the most part south of 60° S , a lower southern latitude than had ever been voluntarily entered before by any vessel. On 17 January 1773 the Antarctic Circle was crossed for the first time in history and the two ships reached 67° 15' S by 39° 35' E , where their course was stopped by ice. Cook then turned northward to look for French Southern and Antarctic Lands , of

5236-405: The world. The IHO, in partnership with the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, directs the General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans program. Establishment of the Chart Specifications Committee and International Charts: Most IHO publications, including the standards, guidelines and associated documents such as the International Hydrographic Review , International Hydrographic Bulletin ,

5313-451: Was changed. A reservation had also been lodged by Australia regarding the Southern Ocean limits. Effectively, the third edition—which did not delineate the Southern Ocean leaving delineation to local hydrographic offices—has yet to be superseded. Despite this, the fourth edition definition has partial de facto usage by many nations, scientists, and organisations such as the U.S. (the CIA World Factbook uses "Southern Ocean", but none of

5390-413: Was circulated to IHO member states in August 2002 (sometimes referred to as the "2000 edition" as it summarized the progress to 2000). It has yet to be published due to 'areas of concern' by several countries relating to various naming issues around the world – primarily the Sea of Japan naming dispute – and there have been various changes, 60 seas were given new names, and even the name of the publication

5467-415: Was established in June 1921 as the International Hydrographic Bureau (IHB) . In 1970, the organization adopted its current name as part of a new International Convention on the IHO, which was agreed upon by its member nations. The term "International Hydrographic Bureau" continued to describe the IHO's secretariat until 8 November 2016, when a major revision to the Convention took effect. Following this change,

5544-643: Was held at Washington, D.C. , and it was proposed to establish a "permanent international commission." Similar proposals were made at the sessions of the International Congress of Navigation held at Saint Petersburg in 1908 and the International Maritime Conference held at Saint Petersburg in 1912. In 1919, the national Hydrographers of Great Britain and France cooperated in taking the necessary steps to convene an international conference of Hydrographers. London

5621-586: Was later named the Ross Ice Shelf . Mount Erebus and Mount Terror are named after two ships from his expedition: HMS  Erebus and HMS  Terror . The Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition of 1914, led by Ernest Shackleton , set out to cross the continent via the pole, but their ship, Endurance , was trapped and crushed by pack ice before they even landed. The expedition members survived after an epic journey on sledges over pack ice to Elephant Island . Then Shackleton and five others crossed

5698-418: Was no land connection between New Zealand and Tierra del Fuego . Turning south again, Cook crossed the Antarctic Circle for the third time at 109° 30′ W before his progress was once again blocked by ice four days later at 71° 10′ S by 106° 54′ W . This point, reached on 30 January 1774, was the farthest south attained in the 18th century. With a great detour to the east, almost to the coast of South America,

5775-468: Was selected as the most suitable place for this conference, and on 24 July 1919, the First International Conference opened, attended by the Hydrographers of 24 nations. The object of the conference was "To consider the advisability of all maritime nations adopting similar methods in preparation, construction, and production of their charts and all hydrographic publications; of rendering the results in

5852-489: Was separated by sea from any continuous southern continent. The visit to South Georgia by Anthony de la Roché in 1675 was the first-ever discovery of land south of the Antarctic Convergence , i.e. in the Southern Ocean/Antarctic. Soon after the voyage cartographers started to depict " Roché Island ", honouring the discoverer. James Cook was aware of la Roché's discovery when surveying and mapping

5929-523: Was then known, and reported the discovery "of an Antarctic continent west of the Balleny Islands " on 25 January 1840. That part of Antarctica was later named " Wilkes Land ", a name it maintains to this day. Explorer James Clark Ross passed through what is now known as the Ross Sea and discovered Ross Island (both of which were named for him) in 1841. He sailed along a huge wall of ice that

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