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214-626: The crusading movement encompasses the framework of ideologies and institutions that described, regulated, and promoted the Crusades . The crusades were religious wars that the Christian Latin church initiated, supported, and sometimes directed during the Middle Ages . The members of the church defined this movement in legal and theological terms that were based on the concepts of holy war and pilgrimage . In theological terms,

428-440: A feudal mode of production , religious ideology is the most prominent aspect of the superstructure, while in capitalist formations, ideologies such as liberalism and social democracy dominate. Hence the great importance of ideology justifies a society and politically confuses the alienated groups of society via false consciousness . Some explanations have been presented. Antonio Gramsci uses cultural hegemony to explain why

642-732: A "Byzantine-like presidency over a family of nations, centred on pope and emperor in Rome". This has proved a lasting achievement. Otto's early death though made his reign "the tale of largely unrealized potential". Henry II died in 1024 and Conrad II , first of the Salian dynasty , was elected king only after some debate among dukes and nobles. This group eventually developed into the college of electors . The Holy Roman Empire eventually came to be composed of four kingdoms: Kings often employed bishops in administrative affairs and often determined who would be appointed to ecclesiastical offices. In

856-405: A certain ideology very closely, while others may take broad inspiration from a group of related ideologies without specifically embracing any one of them. Each political ideology contains certain ideas on what it considers the best form of government (e.g., democracy , demagogy , theocracy , caliphate etc.), scope of government (e.g. authoritarianism , libertarianism , federalism , etc.) and

1070-485: A compromise candidate. Henry VII was crowned king at Aachen on 6 January 1309, and emperor by Pope Clement V on 29 June 1312 in Rome, ending the interregnum. During the 13th century, a general structural change in how land was administered prepared the shift of political power toward the rising bourgeoisie at the expense of the aristocratic feudalism that would characterize the Late Middle Ages . The rise of

1284-539: A crusade in 1464. In this period the funding and military capability was inadequate, timed badly or just misdirected. One contributing factor was that warfare was now both increasingly professional and costly. There was more contractual recruitment. The requirement for intelligence and espionage had grown. Naval warfare was increasingly important. Alliances required grooming. Innovative tactics were developed with different variations deployed depending on circumstances. Expertise in siege warfare were expensive. The difficulties of

1498-564: A crusade to relieve Belgrade in 1456. Ideology The term was coined by Antoine Destutt de Tracy , a French Enlightenment aristocrat and philosopher , who conceived it in 1796 as the "science of ideas" to develop a rational system of ideas to oppose the irrational impulses of the mob. In political science , the term is used in a descriptive sense to refer to political belief systems . The term ideology originates from French idéologie , itself deriving from combining Greek : idéā ( ἰδέα , 'notion, pattern'; close to

1712-529: A crusade. Later pope's would develop the institution even further. Not only would crusaders avoid what were considered the God-imposed punishments for their sins but the guilt and the sin itself would be expunged. The method through which this was achieved was the granting by the church of what was called a plenary indulgence . Calixtus II made the same offer privileges and extended the protection of property to crusaders' relations. Innocent III reinforced

1926-596: A famous assessment of the name, the political philosopher Voltaire remarked sardonically: "This body which was called and which still calls itself the Holy Roman Empire was in no way holy, nor Roman, nor an empire." In the modern period, the Empire was often informally called the German Empire ( Deutsches Reich ) or Roman-German Empire ( Römisch-Deutsches Reich ). After its dissolution through

2140-552: A far-reaching constitutional act. Frederick's policies were primarily directed at Italy, where he clashed with the free-minded cities of the north, especially the Duchy of Milan . He also embroiled himself in another conflict with the Papacy by supporting a candidate elected by a minority against Pope Alexander III (1159–1181). Frederick supported a succession of antipopes before finally making peace with Alexander in 1177. In Germany,

2354-551: A frequent approach by the papacy that was used against those it considered dissenters , heretics, or schismatics . In 1212 there was an outbreak of popular crusading that is now known as the Children's crusade. This was the first of a number of similar events which lasted until 1514 the Hungarian Peasants' Crusade . What these all had in common was that they were independent of the church. The first seems to have been

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2568-597: A greater interest than before questioning why significant numbers of the lower classes travelled on the early crusades or took part in the unsanctioned popular outbreaks of the 13th and 14th centuries. The papacy wanted to recruit warriors who could fight, but in the early years of the movement it was impossible to exclude others, including women. Indeed, retinues included many to provide services who could also fight in emergencies. The church considered that engaging in crusade must be entirely voluntary. Recruitment propaganda used understandable mediums which could also be unclear. For

2782-415: A legal system of jurisdiction and public prosecution of criminal acts – a predecessor of the modern concept of rule of law . Another new concept of the time was the systematic founding of new cities by the emperor and by the local dukes. These were partly a result of the explosion in population; they also concentrated economic power at strategic locations. Before this, cities had only existed in

2996-582: A major part in the defence of the Kingdom of Jerusalem and the other crusader states. Papal acknowledgement encouraged significant donations of money, land and recruits from across western Europe. The orders built their own castles and developed international autonomy. When Acre fell, bringing to a close the holding of Christian territory in the Holy Land the Hospitallers relocated to Cyprus . Later

3210-593: A mere representation, The Society of the Spectacle . The American philosopher Eric Hoffer identified several elements that unify followers of a particular ideology: Ronald Inglehart of the University of Michigan is author of the World Values Survey , which, since 1980, has mapped social attitudes in 100 countries representing 90% of global population. Results indicate that where people live

3424-410: A political ideology is a certain ethical set of ideals , principles , doctrines , myths , or symbols of a social movement , institution , class , or large group that explains how society should work, offering some political and cultural blueprint for a certain social order . Political ideologies are concerned with many different aspects of a society, including but not limited to: the economy ,

3638-450: A positive resolution at a time when military failure pointed to defeat. There remain a number of Crusade songs from the many crusaders who also wrote poetry such as Theobald I of Navarre , Folquet de Marselha , and Conon de Béthune . In return for patronage from the leaders of the crusades, poets wrote praising the ideals of the nobility. These relationships were of a feudal nature and were presented in this context. To demonstrate this

3852-600: A public ban and the confiscation of all Henry's territories. In 1190, Frederick participated in the Third Crusade , dying in the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia . During the Hohenstaufen period, German princes facilitated a successful, peaceful eastward settlement of lands that were uninhabited or inhabited sparsely by West Slavs . German-speaking farmers, traders, and craftsmen from the western part of

4066-578: A remarkable change in terminology as well. the Statutum affirmed a division of labor between the emperor and the princes and laid much groundwork for the development of particularism in Germany. Even so, from 1232 the vassals of the emperor had a veto over imperial legislative decisions and any new law established by the emperor had to be approved by the princes. These provisions not withstanding, royal power in Germany remained strong under Frederick and by

4280-656: A response to the preaching of the Albigensian Crusade and also religious processions seeking God's support for the fighting in Iberia. The church considered such outbreaks by rather unconventional crusaders as unauthorised and therefore illegitimate. There is little remaining evidence for the identities, thoughts and feelings of those who took part. One unaccredited piece is the Austrian Rhymed Chronicle . This includes allegedly verbatim lyrics of

4494-426: A series of revolts from a younger brother and from several dukes. After that, the king managed to control the appointment of dukes and often also employed bishops in administrative affairs. He replaced leaders of most of the major East Frankish duchies with his own relatives. At the same time, he was careful to prevent members of his own family from making infringements on his royal prerogatives. In 951, Otto came to

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4708-484: A sole explanation of ideology is that it does not explain the differences between ideologies. Terror management theory posits that ideology is used as a defence mechanism against threats to their worldview which in turn protect and individuals sense of self-esteem and reduce their awareness of mortality. Evidence shows that priming individuals with an awareness of mortality does not cause individuals to respond in ways underpinned by any particular ideology, but rather

4922-468: A term of abuse, which he often hurled against his liberal foes in Tracy's Institut national . According to Karl Mannheim 's historical reconstruction of the shifts in the meaning of ideology , the modern meaning of the word was born when Napoleon used it to describe his opponents as "the ideologues". Tracy's major book, The Elements of Ideology , was soon translated into the major languages of Europe. In

5136-545: A term popularised by the French historian Augustin Fliche . He named the changes after one of the leading reforming popes Gregory VII . The use of the term oversimplifies what was in fact numerous discrete initiatives, not all of which were the result of papal action. A group of reformers took control of the governance of the church with ambitions to use this control to eradicate behaviour they viewed as corrupt. This takeover

5350-732: A truce with the raiding Magyars , and in 933 he won a first victory against them in the Battle of Riade . Henry died in 936, but his descendants, the Liudolfing (or Ottonian) dynasty , would continue to rule the Eastern kingdom or the Kingdom of Germany for roughly a century. Upon Henry the Fowler's death, Otto , his son and designated successor, was elected king in Aachen in 936. He overcame

5564-528: Is "the imagined existence (or idea) of things as it relates to the real conditions of existence" and makes use of a lacunar discourse. A number of propositions, which are never untrue, suggest a number of other propositions, which are. In this way, the essence of the lacunar discourse is what is not told but is suggested. For example, the statement "All are equal before the law ", which is a theoretical groundwork of current legal systems, suggests that all people may be of equal worth or have equal opportunities. This

5778-554: Is concerned with the causes, consequences and content of ideology, with humans being dubbed the "ideological animal" by Althusser. Many theories have tried to explain the existence of ideology in human societies. Jost, Ledgerwood, and Hardin (2008) propose that ideologies may function as prepackaged units of interpretation that spread because of basic human motives to understand the world, avoid existential threat , and maintain valued interpersonal relationships . The authors conclude that such motives may lead disproportionately to

5992-463: Is difficult to find evidence of popular sentiment, particularly=y as actual crusading had long become divorced from most commoners' lives. In one case from 1488 Wageningen parishioners were influenced by their priest's criticism of crusading to such an extent that they prevented collectors taking away donations. Contrasting accounts record successful preaching in Erfurt and an extraordinary response for

6206-535: Is difficult, however, due to cultural relativity in definitions. For example, "what Americans now call conservatism much of the world calls liberalism or neoliberalism "; a conservatism in Finland would be labeled socialism in the United States . Philosopher Michael Oakeshott defines single-issue ideologies as "the formalized abridgment of the supposed sub-stratum of the rational truth contained in

6420-430: Is ecology, which studies the relationships among living things on Earth. Perceptual psychologist James J. Gibson believed that human perception of ecological relationships was the basis of self-awareness and cognition itself. Linguist George Lakoff has proposed a cognitive science of mathematics wherein even the most fundamental ideas of arithmetic would be seen as consequences or products of human perception—which

6634-512: Is illustrated by the "scandalous advice" of Pascal toward unbelievers: "Kneel and pray, and then you will believe." What is ultimately ideological for Althusser are not the subjective beliefs held in the conscious "minds" of human individuals, but rather discourses that produce these beliefs, the material institutions and rituals that individuals take part in without submitting it to conscious examination and so much more critical thinking . The French Marxist theorist Guy Debord , founding member of

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6848-543: Is itself necessarily evolved within an ecology. Deep ecology and the modern ecology movement (and, to a lesser degree, Green parties ) appear to have adopted ecological sciences as a positive ideology. Some notable economically based ideologies include neoliberalism , monetarism , mercantilism , mixed economy , social Darwinism , communism , laissez-faire economics, and free trade . There are also current theories of safe trade and fair trade that can be seen as ideologies. A large amount of research in psychology

7062-505: Is likely to closely correlate with their ideological beliefs. In much of Africa, South Asia and the Middle East, people prefer traditional beliefs and are less tolerant of liberal values. Protestant Europe , at the other extreme, adheres more to secular beliefs and liberal values. Alone among high-income countries, the United States is exceptional in its adherence to traditional beliefs, in this case Christianity. In political science ,

7276-419: Is not true, according to Althusser, for the concept of private property and power over the means of production results in some people being able to own more than others. This power disparity contradicts the claim that all share both practical worth and future opportunity equally; for example, the rich can afford better legal representation, which practically privileges them before the law. Althusser proffered

7490-733: Is often associated with Francis Fukuyama 's writings on the end of history . Contrastly, Nienhueser (2011) sees research (in the field of human resource management ) as ongoingly "generating ideology". There are many proposed methods for the classification of political ideologies. Ideologies can identify themselves by their position on the political spectrum (e.g. left , center , or right ). They may also be distinguished by single issues around which they may be built (e.g. civil libertarianism , support or opposition to European integration , legalization of marijuana ). They may also be distinguished by political strategies (e.g. populism , personalism ). The classification of political ideology

7704-562: Is reiterated by J. William Fulbright , while a similar form occurs in Eric Hoffer 's The True Believer . The revolution thus becomes established as an ideocracy , though its rise is likely to be checked by a 'political midlife crisis.' Even when the challenging of existing beliefs is encouraged, as in scientific theories, the dominant paradigm or mindset can prevent certain challenges, theories, or experiments from being advanced. A special case of science that has inspired ideology

7918-606: Is the most generic term because the 'science of ideas' also contains the study of their expression and deduction. The coup d'état that overthrew Maximilien Robespierre allowed Tracy to pursue his work. Tracy reacted to the terroristic phase of the revolution (during the Napoleonic regime as part of the Napoleonic Wars ) by trying to work out a rational system of ideas to oppose the irrational mob impulses that had nearly destroyed him. A subsequent early source for

8132-465: Is the subject of debates: on one hand, it helped to restore peace in the lands of the Empire, that had been engulfed in civil conflicts after the end of the Hohenstaufen era; on the other hand, the "blow to central authority was unmistakable". Thomas Brady Jr. opines that Charles IV's intention was to end contested royal elections (from the Luxembourghs' perspective, they also had the advantage that

8346-553: Is too confined to verbal systems. ' Worldview ' is too metaphysical , ' propaganda ' too loaded. Despite or because of its contradictions, 'ideology' still plays a key role in semiotics oriented to social, political life. Authors such as Michael Freeden have also recently incorporated a semantic analysis to the study of ideologies. Sociologists define ideology as "cultural beliefs that justify particular social arrangements, including patterns of inequality". Dominant groups use these sets of cultural beliefs and practices to justify

8560-517: Is unlikely that a particularly "strong ruler" such as Frederick II would have even pragmatically agreed to legislation that was truly concessionary rather than cooperative, neither would the princes have insisted on such. The Mainz Landfriede or Constitutio Pacis , decreed at the Imperial Diet of 1235, became one of the basic laws of the empire and provided that the princes should share the burden of local government in Germany. The authority of

8774-473: The Chanson d'Aspremont they were presented as equals following the same codes of conduct. By the time of the Third Crusade the class differences were shown as within camps rather the between camps. The elite warrior class in both camps shared an identity that was not divided on religious or political groups. Epics began to include incidents of conversion to Christianity. This in part may have offered hope for

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8988-670: The Baltic Sea , the North Sea and along the connected navigable rivers. Each of the affiliated cities retained the legal system of its sovereign and, with the exception of the Free imperial cities , had only a limited degree of political autonomy. By the late 14th century, the powerful league enforced its interests with military means, if necessary. This culminated in a war with the sovereign Kingdom of Denmark from 1361 to 1370. The league declined after 1450. The difficulties in electing

9202-555: The Decembrists in Russia . Karl Marx adopted Napoleon's negative sense of the term, using it in his writings, in which he once described Tracy as a fischblütige Bourgeoisdoktrinär (a "fish-blooded bourgeois doctrinaire"). The term has since dropped some of its pejorative sting ( euphemism treadmill ), and has become a neutral term in the analysis of differing political opinions and views of social groups . While Marx situated

9416-664: The First Crusade Chroniclers adopted terminology inherited from the Greeks of antiquity . They use the ethnology-cultural term barbarae nationes or barbarians for the Muslims, and self-identified crusaders as Latins . As contact increased respect for the Turks developed. Gesta Francorum presents some negativity but also respect for them as opponents. It was considered values of chivalry were shared. In

9630-467: The Greco-Roman world . In the 11th   century canon lawyers extended his thinking to create the paradigm of bellum sacrum , or a form of Christian holy war. The theory was based on the idea that Christian warfare could be justified even though it was considered a sin. It was necessary to meet three criteria if a war was to be considered just. Firstly, it must be declared by an authority that

9844-617: The Holy Roman Emperor . It developed in the Early Middle Ages and lasted for almost a thousand years until its dissolution in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars . On 25 December 800, Pope Leo III crowned Frankish king Charlemagne as Roman emperor, reviving the title in Western Europe more than three centuries after the fall of the ancient Western Roman Empire in 476. The title lapsed in 924, but

10058-776: The Iberian Peninsula , northeastern Europe against the Wends , the Baltic region , campaigns were fought against those the church considered heretics in France, Germany, and Hungary, as well as in Italy where popes indulged in armed conflict with their opponents. By definition all the crusades were waged with papal approval and through this reinforced the Western European concept of a single, unified Christian church under

10272-610: The Levant . The outcome was a campaign by Alfonso the Battler against Granada in 1125. The crusaders established polities known as the Latin East, because it was impossible to defend Jerusalem in isolation. Despite this, regular campaigns were required in addition to the capability provided by the military orders. In Spain further expeditions were launched in 1114, 1118, and 1122. Eugenius III developed an equivalence between fighting

10486-524: The Lockean sense of idea ) and -logíā ( -λογῐ́ᾱ , 'the study of'). The term ideology and the system of ideas associated with it was coined in 1796 by Antoine Destutt de Tracy while in prison pending trial during the Reign of Terror , where he read the works of Locke and Étienne Bonnot de Condillac . Hoping to form a secure foundation for the moral and political sciences , Tracy devised

10700-519: The Papacy . The form "Holy Roman Empire" is attested from 1254 onward. The exact term "Holy Roman Empire" was not used until the 13th century, before which the empire was referred to variously as universum regnum ("the whole kingdom", as opposed to the regional kingdoms), imperium christianum ("Christian empire"), or Romanum imperium ("Roman empire"), but the Emperor's legitimacy always rested on

10914-581: The Pope . In the Holy Land (1095–1291) Later Crusades (1291–1717) Northern (1147–1410) Against Christians (1209–1588) Popular (1096–1320) Historians trace the beginnings of the crusading movement to the significant changes within the Latin church enacted during the mid and latter eleventh century. These are now known as the Gregorian Reform , from

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11128-793: The Prussians in 1226. The monastic state of the Teutonic Order ( Deutschordensstaat ) and its later German successor state of the Duchy of Prussia was never part of the Holy Roman Empire. Under the son and successor of Frederick Barbarossa, Henry VI , the Hohenstaufen dynasty reached its apex, with the addition of the Norman kingdom of Sicily through the marriage of Henry VI and Constance of Sicily . Bohemia and Poland were under feudal dependence, while Cyprus and Lesser Armenia also paid homage. The Iberian-Moroccan caliph accepted his claims over

11342-518: The Situationist International , argued that when the commodity becomes the "essential category" of society, i.e. when the process of commodification has been consummated to its fullest extent, the image of society propagated by the commodity (as it describes all of life as constituted by notions and objects deriving their value only as commodities tradeable in terms of exchange value ), colonizes all of life and reduces society to

11556-576: The Sixth Crusade in 1228, which ended in negotiations and a temporary restoration of the Kingdom of Jerusalem . For his many-sided activities, prestige, and dynamic personality Frederick II has been called the greatest of all the medieval German emperors. In the Kingdom of Sicily and much of Italy, Frederick built upon the work of his Norman predecessors and forged an early absolutist state bound together by an efficient secular bureaucracy. Despite his imperial prestige and power, Frederick II's rule

11770-512: The Smyrniote crusades successfully captured Smyrni. The precedent was later followed successfully in the 1571 Battle of Lepanto and in the late 17th   century for the recovery of territory in the Balkans . In Italy there was political anarchy. As a result, the church granted crusade indulgences to anyone who could be recruited to fight against the threat presented by merceneries and for

11984-556: The Wends , fighting the Muslims in Spain and the Muslims in Syria . The later crusade failed, with the result that the movement suffered its largest crisis until the 1400s. Fighting continued in Spain where there was three campaigns and there was one in the East in 1177. But it was the news of the crusaders defeat by the Muslims at the Battle of Hattin that restored the energy and commitment of

12198-555: The Würzburg Annals and Humbert of Romans's work De praedicatione crucis which translates as concerning the preaching of the cross . Crusaders were thought to have fallen under satanic influence and doubts were raised about forcible conversion. The movement continued developing innovative organisational financial methods. However, in 1274 it faced a significant low. In response the Second Council of Lyons initiated

12412-475: The cities and the emergence of the new burgher class eroded the societal, legal and economic order of feudalism. Peasants were increasingly required to pay tribute to their landlords. The concept of property began to replace more ancient forms of jurisdiction, although they were still very much tied together. In the territories (not at the level of the Empire), power became increasingly bundled: whoever owned

12626-524: The government , the environment , education , health care , labor law , criminal law , the justice system , social security and welfare , public policy and administration , foreign policy , rights , freedoms and duties , citizenship , immigration , culture and national identity , military administration, and religion . Political ideologies have two dimensions: A political ideology largely concerns itself with how to allocate power and to what ends power should be used. Some parties follow

12840-573: The patriarch of Constantinople . Charlemagne's good service to the Church in his defense of Papal possessions against the Lombards made him the ideal candidate. On Christmas Day of 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne emperor, restoring the title in the West for the first time in over three centuries. This can be seen as symbolic of the papacy turning away from the declining Byzantine Empire toward

13054-430: The relations of production and modes of production , and superstructure denotes the dominant ideology (i.e. religious, legal, political systems). The economic base of production determines the political superstructure of a society. Ruling class-interests determine the superstructure and the nature of the justifying ideology—actions feasible because the ruling class control the means of production . For example, in

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13268-625: The siege of Barbastro . The Normans of Southern Italy were supported in their conquest of the Emirate of Sicily . Gregory VII even planned to lead a campaign himself in support of the Byzantine Empire in 1074. He was unable to gather the necessary support, possibly because his personal leadership was unacceptable. Despite this, his plans did leave a template for future crusades. As did the campaigns in Spain where leading thinkers and fighters developed practical and fundamental arguments for

13482-523: The subjective ongoing choices that people make. These ideas serve as the seed around which further thought grows. The belief in an ideology can range from passive acceptance up to fervent advocacy. Definitions, such as by Manfred Steger and Paul James , emphasize both the issue of patterning and contingent claims to truth. They wrote: "Ideologies are patterned clusters of normatively imbued ideas and concepts, including particular representations of power relations. These conceptual maps help people navigate

13696-499: The working-class have a false ideological conception of what their best interests are. Marx argued: "The class which has the means of material production at its disposal has control at the same time over the means of mental production." The Marxist formulation of "ideology as an instrument of social reproduction" is conceptually important to the sociology of knowledge , viz. Karl Mannheim , Daniel Bell , and Jürgen Habermas et al. Moreover, Mannheim has developed and progressed from

13910-506: The "total" but "special" Marxist conception of ideology to a "general" and "total" ideological conception acknowledging that all ideology (including Marxism ) resulted from social life, an idea developed by the sociologist Pierre Bourdieu . Slavoj Žižek and the earlier Frankfurt School added to the "general theory" of ideology a psychoanalytic insight that ideologies do not include only conscious but also unconscious ideas. French Marxist philosopher Louis Althusser proposed that ideology

14124-468: The 1240s the crown was still rich in fiscal resources, land holdings, retinues, and all other rights, revenues, and jurisdictions. Frederick II used the political loyalty and practical jurisdictions granted to the higher German aristocracy to impose peace, order, and justice upon Germany. The jurisdictional autarky of the German princes was favoured by the crown itself in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries in

14338-590: The 12th   century, Gratian and the Decretists elaborated on Augustinianism . Aquinas continued this in the 13th   century. This extended the reformers philosophy to end secular control of the Latin church and impose control over the Eastern Orthodox Church . It developed further the paradigm of working in the secular world for the imposition of what the church considered justice. After

14552-535: The 12th and 13th   centuries the concepts behind the crusading movement were rarely questioned, but there is evidence that practice was criticised. Events such as crusades against non-conforming Christians, the sack of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade, crusading against the German Hohenstaufen dynasty and the southern French Albigensian all drew condemnation. Questions were raised about

14766-427: The Bald ) and then the eastern ( Charles the Fat ), who briefly reunited the Empire, attaining the prize. In the 9th century, Charlemagne and his successors promoted the intellectual revival, known as the Carolingian Renaissance . Some, like Mortimer Chambers, opine that the Carolingian Renaissance made possible the subsequent renaissances (even though by the early 10th century, the revival already diminished). After

14980-436: The Burgundian territories lost to France . Although the Italian territories were formally part of the empire, the territories were ignored in the Imperial Reform and splintered into numerous de facto independent territorial entities. The status of Italy in particular varied throughout the 16th to 18th centuries. Some territories like Piedmont-Savoy became increasingly independent, while others became more dependent due to

15194-419: The Byzantine Empire. The discussions with John V Palaiologos resulted in agreement to unify the Latin, Greek Orthodox, Armenian , Nestorian , and Cypriot Maronite churches and commitments of military support for the Byzantines. Eugenius coordinated this support in defence of Constantinople from 1440 and 1444. Despite this the Turks were decisively victorious at the Battle of Varna in November 1444, captured

15408-599: The Carolingian king Louis the Child died without issue in 911, East Francia did not turn to the Carolingian ruler of West Francia to take over the realm but instead elected one of the dukes, Conrad of Franconia , as Rex Francorum Orientalium . On his deathbed, Conrad yielded the crown to his main rival, Henry the Fowler of Saxony ( r.  919–936 ), who was elected king at the Diet of Fritzlar in 919. Henry reached

15622-471: The Catholic states of Europe. In this way they became a chivalric cult. Following the tradition started by Innocent III, popes requested advice on strategies that could be implemented in the recovery of the Holy Land. Over twenty example papers remain from the period that is book-ended by the 1274 council of Lyon and the 1314 council of Vienna. The movement continued Institutionalisation with developments for

15836-544: The Empire were gradually reduced. Charles IV set Prague to be the seat of the Holy Roman emperor. After the death of Frederick II in 1250, Conrad IV , Frederick's son (died 1254), enjoyed a strong position having defeated his papal-backed rival anti-king , William of Holland (died 1256). However, Conrad's death was followed by the Interregnum , during which no king could achieve universal recognition, allowing

16050-491: The Empire, both Christians and Jews, moved into these areas. The gradual Germanization of these lands was a complex phenomenon that should not be interpreted in the biased terms of 19th-century nationalism . The eastward settlement expanded the influence of the empire to include Pomerania and Silesia , as did the intermarriage of the local, still mostly Slavic, rulers with German spouses. The Teutonic Knights were invited to Prussia by Duke Konrad of Masovia to Christianize

16264-594: The Franks and began an extensive expansion of the realm. He eventually incorporated the territories of present-day France, Germany, northern Italy, the Low Countries and beyond, linking the Frankish kingdom with Papal lands. Although antagonism about the expense of Byzantine domination had long persisted within Italy, a political rupture was set in motion in earnest in 726 by the iconoclasm of Emperor Leo III

16478-464: The German Nation" fell out of official use. Contradicting the traditional view concerning that designation, Hermann Weisert has argued in a study on imperial titulature that, despite the claims of many textbooks, the name "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation" never had an official status and points out that documents were thirty times as likely to omit the national suffix as include it. In

16692-561: The Holy Land. Collaboration was difficult because of open conflict between the Templars and Hospitallers and among Christians in the Baltic. The autonomy of the orders was viewed in the church as leading to a loss of effectiveness in the East and overly friendlt relations with Muslims. A minority within the church including Roger Bacon made the case that aggression in areas like the Baltic actually hindered conversion. Pope Gregory X developed

16906-566: The Holy Roman emperor seized the city. Otto died young in 1002, and was succeeded by his cousin Henry II , who focused on Germany. Otto III's (and his mentor Pope Sylvester's) diplomatic activities coincided with and facilitated the Christianization and the spread of Latin culture in different parts of Europe. They coopted a new group of nations (Slavic) into the framework of Europe, with their empire functioning, as some remark, as

17120-613: The Isaurian , in what Pope Gregory II saw as the latest in a series of imperial heresies. In 797, the Eastern Roman Emperor Constantine VI was removed from the throne by his mother, Empress Irene , who declared herself sole ruler. As the Latin Church only regarded a male Roman emperor as the head of Christendom , Pope Leo III sought a new candidate for the dignity, excluding consultation with

17334-665: The King of Bohemia had a permanent and preeminent status as one of the Electors himself). At the same time, he built up Bohemia as the Luxembourghs' core land of the Empire and their dynastic base. His reign in Bohemia is often considered the land's Golden Age. According to Brady Jr. though, under all the glitter, one problem arose: the government showed an inability to deal with the German immigrant waves into Bohemia, thus leading to religious tensions and persecutions. The imperial project of

17548-515: The Mongol victory at the Battle of Wadi al-Khaznadar . At the grassroots movements in France and Germany continued. The Teutonic Order recruited crusaders in Prussia and Livonia . This was without authorisation from the church, but the order utilised privileges granted half a century earlier by Innocent IV. The campaigns known as journeys or Reisen were popular and attracted knights from across

17762-463: The Muslim characters in monstrous terms and as idolators. Whatever the motivation Christian writers continued to use these representations. Muslim characters were described as evil and as less than human. Their physical appearance was described as devilish and they were represented as having dark skin. Islamic ritual was mocked and insults made to Mohammad . This caricature continued to be used long after

17976-604: The Ottonian kings actually built their empire on the back of military and bureaucratic apparatuses as well as the cultural legacy they inherited from the Carolingians, who ultimately inherited these from the Late Roman Empire. He argues that the Ottonian empire was hardly an archaic kingdom of primitive Germans, maintained by personal relationships only and driven by the desire of the magnates to plunder and divide

18190-573: The Reich", which tied the great imperial churches and their representatives to imperial service, thus providing "a stable and long-lasting framework for Germany". During the Ottonian era, imperial women played a prominent role in political and ecclesiastic affairs, often combining their functions as religious leader and advisor, regent or co-ruler, notably Matilda of Ringelheim , Eadgyth , Adelaide of Italy , Theophanu , and Matilda of Quedlinburg . In 963, Otto deposed John XII and chose Leo VIII as

18404-545: The Rhine , a confederation of German client states loyal not to the Holy Roman emperor but to France. Since Charlemagne , the realm was merely referred to as the Roman Empire . The term sacrum ("holy", in the sense of "consecrated") in connection with the medieval Roman Empire was used beginning in 1157 under Frederick I Barbarossa ("Holy Empire"): the term was added to reflect Frederick's ambition to dominate Italy and

18618-607: The Welfs from their possessions, but after his death in 1152, his nephew Frederick Barbarossa succeeded him and made peace with the Welfs, restoring his cousin Henry the Lion to his – albeit diminished – possessions. The Hohenstaufen rulers increasingly lent land to " ministeriales ", formerly non-free servicemen, who Frederick hoped would be more reliable than dukes. Initially used mainly for war services, this new class of people would form

18832-410: The actions of major families. Innocent III developed new practices and revised the ideology of crusading from 1198 when he became pope. This included a new executive office constituted for the organisation of the Fourth Crusade. Executives were appointed in each church province in addition to autonomous preaching by the like of Fulk of Neuilly . This led to papal sanctioned provincial administrations and

19046-467: The adoption of system-justifying worldviews . Psychologists generally agree that personality traits , individual difference variables, needs, and ideological beliefs seem to have something in common. Just-world theory posits that people want to believe in a fair world for a sense of control and security and generate ideologies in order to maintain this belief, for example by justifiying inequality or unfortunate events. A critique of just world theory as

19260-457: The aid of Queen Adelaide of Italy , defeating her enemies, marrying her, and taking control over Italy. In 955, Otto won a decisive victory over the Magyars in the Battle of Lechfeld . In 962, Otto was crowned emperor by Pope John XII , thus intertwining the affairs of the German kingdom with those of Italy and the Papacy. Otto's coronation as emperor marked the German kings as successors to

19474-447: The argument creating the institution of the crusading movement: Innovations in military technology and thinking made the first crusades feasible. Tactics developed to utilise heavily armoured cavalry. Italy's maritime republics built increasingly large navies. Society was controlled by castles and the men who garrisoned them. These new techniques in turn developed new social mores developed during extensive training. In turn this led to

19688-441: The armed aristocracy. This would in turn lead to creation of formal processes for the raising of armed forces through which the church could enforce its will. While these fundamentals applied the crusading movement flourished, when they ceased to be significant the movement declined. Before the crusading movement was established, the church had developed a system that enabled Christians to gain forgiveness and pardon for sins from

19902-560: The backing of the French Pope, Clement V (established at Avignon in 1309), and that his prospects of bringing the empire into the orbit of the French royal house were good. He lavishly spread French money in the hope of bribing the German electors. Although Charles of Valois had the backing of pro-French Henry, Archbishop of Cologne , many were not keen to see an expansion of French power, least of all Clement V. The principal rival to Charles appeared to be Count Palatine Rudolf II . But

20116-474: The basis for the later knights , another basis of imperial power. A further important constitutional move at Roncaglia was the establishment of a new peace mechanism for the entire empire, the Landfrieden , with the first imperial one being issued in 1103 under Henry IV at Mainz . This was an attempt to abolish private feuds, between the many dukes and other people, and to tie the emperor's subordinates to

20330-434: The best economic system (e.g. capitalism , socialism , etc.). Sometimes the same word is used to identify both an ideology and one of its main ideas. For instance, socialism may refer to an economic system, or it may refer to an ideology that supports that economic system. Post 1991, many commentators claim that we are living in a post-ideological age, in which redemptive, all-encompassing ideologies have failed. This view

20544-555: The century following Tracy, the term ideology moved back and forth between positive and negative connotations. During this next generation, when post-Napoleonic governments adopted a reactionary stance, influenced the Italian, Spanish and Russian thinkers who had begun to describe themselves as liberals and who attempted to reignite revolutionary activity in the early 1820s, including the Carbonari societies in France and Italy and

20758-404: The century was seen as astonishing. The explanation for this was given that it was only possible through the will of God. Paschal succeeded Urban as pope before news of the outcome reached Europe. He had experience of the fighting in Spain so readily applied similar remissions of sin to the combatants there, without the need for a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. He did not stop there with the application of

20972-400: The church considered legitimate. Secondly, the war must have defensive objectives or to be for the recovery of stolen property and rights. Lastly, the intentions of those taking part must be good. Using these theories the church supported various Christian groups in conflicts with their Muslim neighbours at the borders of Christendom. In what is now Northern Spain encouragement was given during

21186-461: The church on behalf of God. They did this by demonstrating genuine contrition through admissions of wrongdoing and acts of penance . Christianity's requirement to avoid violence was still a significant issue for the warrior class. Gregory VII offered them a potential solution In the latter part of the 11th   century. This was that they too could have their sins forgiven if they supported him in fighting for papal causes, but only if this service

21400-425: The church would protect all their property from harm. The enthusiasm of the crusading movement challenged what had been conventional theology. This can be seen in a letter from Sigebert of Gembloux to Robert II, Count of Flanders . Sigebert is critical of Pope Paschal II and in congratulating Robert on his safe return from Jerusalem he pointedly omits any reference at all of the fact that Robert had been fighting on

21614-468: The church. It is reinforced the status quo, the class identity of the nobility and its position in society. When the outcomes of events was less positive this was also a method of spreading criticisms of organisation and behaviour. In the latter part of the century Europeans developed language, fashion and cultural mores for crusading. Terms were adopted for those involved such as crucesignatus or crucesignata . These indicated that they were marked by

21828-500: The city in 1453 and expanded territorially over a 28-year period. The movement continued levying of church taxes and preaching of indulgences. As it did the commissioning of advisory tracts reconsidering the political, financial, and military issues with luminaries like as Cardinal Bessarion dedicating their lives to the cause. Frankish exiles from the East toured Christendom's courts seeking assistance. Pius II attempted to persuade Mehmed II to converts and failed in attempts to raise

22042-487: The closely connected concerns of epistemology and history, defining ideology in terms of a system of presentations that explicitly or implicitly lay claim to absolute truth. Marx's analysis sees ideology as a system of false consciousness that arises from the economic relationships, reflecting and perpetuating the interests of the dominant class. In the Marxist base and superstructure model of society, base denotes

22256-414: The codification of preaching. Local church authorities were required to report to these administrators on crusading policy. Propaganda was now more coherent despite an occasionally ad-hoc implementation. Funding was increased through the introduction of hypothecated tax and greater donations. He was also the first pope to deploy the apparatus of crusading against his fellow Christians. This innovation became

22470-518: The collective name of Chansons de geste in the French language which is borrowed from Latin for the term deeds done. Surviving songs about Crusading are rarer. But there are examples in the literary language of southern France, Occitan , French, German, Spanish, and Italian that touch on the topic in an allegorical that date from the later half of the century. Two notable Occitan troubadours were Marcabru and Cercamon . They composed songs in

22684-587: The commitment to an existing one. Zizek calls this "a post-modernist trap". Peter Sloterdijk advanced the same idea already in 1988. Studies have shown that political ideology is somewhat genetically heritable . When a political ideology becomes a dominantly pervasive component within a government, one can speak of an ideocracy . Different forms of government use ideology in various ways, not always restricted to politics and society. Certain ideas and schools of thought become favored, or rejected, over others, depending on their compatibility with or use for

22898-497: The complexity of their political universe and carry claims to social truth." Studies of the concept of ideology itself (rather than specific ideologies) have been carried out under the name of systematic ideology in the works of George Walford and Harold Walsby, who attempt to explore the relationships between ideology and social systems . David W. Minar describes six different ways the word ideology has been used: For Willard A. Mullins, an ideology should be contrasted with

23112-491: The concept of translatio imperii , that he held supreme power inherited from the ancient emperors of Rome . In a decree following the Diet of Cologne in 1512, the name was changed to the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation ( German : Heiliges Römisches Reich Deutscher Nation , Latin : Sacrum Imperium Romanum Nationis Germanicae ), a form first used in a document in 1474. The adoption of this new name coincided with

23326-415: The concept of the ideological state apparatus to explain his theory of ideology. His first thesis was " ideology has no history ": while individual ideolog ies have histories, interleaved with the general class struggle of society, the general form of ideology is external to history. For Althusser, beliefs and ideas are the products of social practices, not the reverse. His thesis that " ideas are material "

23540-495: The cross. This was reinforced by cloth crosses that they attached to their clothes. All of this was taken from the Bible. Luke 9 :23, Mark 8 :34 and Matthew 16 :24 all implored believers to pick up their cross and follow Christ. It was a personal relationship with God that these crusaders were attempting to form. It demonstrated their belief. It enabled anyone to become involved, irrespective of gender, wealth, or social standing. This

23754-534: The crown was not in question, rather its practical allocation in such a wide region which lacked a general administrative apparatus. Far from a broad diminution of royal power, the Mainz Landfriede was a constitutional recalibration based on the culmination of multi-decade political realities and a testament to Frederick II's considerable political strength, his increased prestige during the early 1230s, and sheer overpowering might that he succeeded in securing

23968-484: The crusaders were God's vassals fighting the restore to him the (Holy) land. Muslims were presented as having stolen this land. Their mistreatment of its Christian inhabitants was considered an injustice for which revenge was required. In return, the perception of the Islamic polities resulted in an opposing position. This encouraged violent resistance to the idea of the imposition Christian governance on these terms. In

24182-408: The crusading movement. The thoughts and writing on these theories were eventually consolidated into Collectio Canonum or Collection of Canon Law by Anselm of Lucca . Thomas Aquinas and others extended these theories in the 13th   century. This created a concept of religious war . This enabled various popes to use canon law in the call for crusades against their enemies in Italy . Rome

24396-433: The crusading tools of indulgences, privileges, and taxes in 1241. The Christian right to land ownership was foundational to crusading ideology, although Innocent IV acknowledged Muslim rights he considered these only existed under the authority of Christ. Alexander IV continued the policies of both Gregory IX and Innocent IV from his ascension in 1254 which led to further crusading against the Hohenstaufen dynasty. During

24610-551: The death of Charles the Fat in 888, the Carolingian Empire broke apart, and was never restored. According to Regino of Prüm , the parts of the realm "spewed forth kinglets", and each part elected a kinglet "from its own bowels". The last such emperor was Berengar I of Italy , who died in 924. Around 900, East Francia's autonomous stem duchies ( Franconia , Bavaria , Swabia , Saxony , and Lotharingia ) reemerged. After

24824-753: The dissolution of the Empire. At the conclusion of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815, most of the Holy Roman Empire was included in the German Confederation , with the main exceptions being the Italian states. As Roman power in Gaul declined during the 5th century, local Germanic tribes assumed control. In the late 5th and early 6th centuries, the Merovingians , under Clovis I and his successors, consolidated Frankish tribes and extended hegemony over others to gain control of northern Gaul and

25038-503: The dual election of Frederick Barbarossa's youngest son Philip of Swabia and Henry the Lion's son Otto of Brunswick , who competed for the crown. After Philip was murdered in a private squabble in 1208, Otto prevailed for a while, until he began to also claim Sicily. Pope Innocent III , who feared the threat posed by a union of the empire and Sicily, was now supported by Frederick II, who marched to Germany and defeated Otto. After his victory, Frederick did not act upon his promise to keep

25252-612: The earlier Council of Piacenza . Alexios was fighting Turkish people who were migrating into Anatolia , threatened Constantinople and had formed the Seljuk Empire . Urban expressed two key objectives for the crusade. Firstly, the freeing of Christians from Muslim rule. Secondly, freeing the church known as the Holy Sepulchre from Muslim control. This was believed to mark the location of Chris's tomb in Jerusalem. In

25466-402: The electors, the great territorial magnates who had lived without a crowned emperor for decades, were unhappy with both Charles and Rudolf. Instead Count Henry of Luxembourg , with the aid of his brother, Archbishop Baldwin of Trier , was elected as Henry VII with six votes at Frankfurt on 27 November 1308. Though a vassal of King Philip, Henry was bound by few national ties, and thus suitable as

25680-420: The emperor had repeatedly protected Henry the Lion against complaints by rival princes or cities (especially in the cases of Munich and Lübeck ). Henry gave only lackluster support to Frederick's policies, and, in a critical situation during the Italian wars, Henry refused the emperor's plea for military support. After returning to Germany, an embittered Frederick opened proceedings against the duke, resulting in

25894-514: The emperors were considered the first among equals of all Europe's Catholic monarchs. A process of Imperial Reform in the late 15th and early 16th centuries transformed the empire, creating a set of institutions which endured until its final demise in the 19th century. According to historian Thomas Brady Jr., the empire after the Imperial Reform was a political body of remarkable longevity and stability, and "resembled in some respects

26108-586: The empire of Charlemagne, which through the concept of translatio imperii , also made them consider themselves as successors to Ancient Rome. The flowering of arts beginning with Otto the Great's reign is known as the Ottonian Renaissance , centered in Germany but also happening in Northern Italy and France. Otto created the imperial church system, often called "Ottonian church system of

26322-432: The end of the German Empire , it was often called "the old Empire" ( das alte Reich ). Beginning in 1923, early twentieth-century German nationalists and Nazi Party propaganda would identify the Holy Roman Empire as the "First" Reich ( Erstes Reich , Reich meaning empire), with the German Empire as the "Second" Reich and what would eventually become Nazi Germany as the "Third" Reich. David S. Bachrach opines that

26536-583: The enlistment of senior figures. Despite the undoubted courage and commitment of crusading knights and some notable commanders in military terms the campaigns in the Levant were not typically impressive. The creation of disciplined units was challenging. In feudal Europe strategy and institutions were too immature. Power structures were too fragmented. Literature presented the exemplar of an idealised, perfect knight in works such as romance Alexandre written around 1130. These works extolled adventure, courage, charity and manners. The church could not accept readily all

26750-434: The exact term for his realm as the "Holy Roman Empire" was not used until the 13th century, although the emperor's theoretical legitimacy from the beginning rested on the concept of translatio imperii , that he held supreme power inherited from the ancient emperors of Rome . Nevertheless, in the Holy Roman Empire, the imperial office was traditionally elective by the mostly German prince-electors . In theory and diplomacy,

26964-466: The expected invasion. Henry also had plans for turning the Empire into a hereditary monarchy, although this met with opposition from some of the princes and the pope. The emperor suddenly died in 1197, leading to the partial collapse of his empire. As his son, Frederick II , though already elected king, was still a small child and living in Sicily, German princes chose to elect an adult king, resulting in

27178-591: The extinction of their ruling noble houses causing these territories to often fall under the dominions of the Habsburgs and their cadet branches . Barring the loss of Franche-Comté in 1678 , the external borders of the Empire did not change noticeably from the Peace of Westphalia – which acknowledged the exclusion of Switzerland and the Northern Netherlands, and the French protectorate over Alsace – to

27392-571: The family, education, and religion. As societies changed throughout history, so did the ideologies that justified systems of inequality. Sociological examples of ideologies include racism , sexism , heterosexism , ableism , and ethnocentrism . Holy Roman Empire The Holy Roman Empire , also known as the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation after 1512, was a polity in Central and Western Europe , usually headed by

27606-575: The fields of Roncaglia in 1158 reclaimed imperial rights in reference to Justinian I 's Corpus Juris Civilis . Imperial rights had been referred to as regalia since the Investiture Controversy but were enumerated for the first time at Roncaglia. This comprehensive list included public roads, tariffs, coining , collecting punitive fees, and the seating and unseating of office-holders. These rights were now explicitly rooted in Roman law ,

27820-401: The fighting over territory subsided. At no time was the noun Muslim used, instead Muslims were called Saracens. Other derogatory adjectives were also used, such as infidel , gentile , enemy of God, and pagan . This was literature that supported the church's opinion that the crusades were a Manichean contest between good and evil. According to the historian Jean Flori the purpose behind this

28034-408: The form of old Roman foundations or older bishoprics . Cities that were founded in the 12th century include Freiburg , possibly the economic model for many later cities, and Munich . Frederick Barbarossa was crowned emperor in 1155. He emphasized the "Romanness" of the empire, partly in an attempt to justify the power of the emperor independent of the (now strengthened) pope. An imperial assembly at

28248-679: The ideas of this ideal. From the time of the Fourth Crusade , it became an adventure normalised in Europe, creating separation between the knights and other social classes. At this point the relationship between knightly adventure, religious, and secular motivation was altered. In the polities created by the crusading movement in the Eastern Mediterranean known as the Crusader states the creation of military religious orders

28462-643: The ideology that they are currently aware of. System justification theory posits that people tend to defend existing society, even at times against their interest, which in turn causes people to create ideological explanations to justify the status quo. Jost, Fitzimmons and Kay argue that the motivation to protect a preexisting system is due to a desire for cognitive consistency (being able to think in similar ways over time), reducing uncertainty and reducing effort, illusion of control and fear of equality. According to system justification theory, ideologies reflect ( unconscious ) motivational processes , as opposed to

28676-430: The imagined innocence of the pueri with the sexual license that was seen on the official crusades. It was the sin of the crusaders that was believed to bring God's displeasure and explain why the crusades were not successful. Literature such as the 11th   century chanson de geste Chanson de Roland did not explicitly mention the crusades. But is likely there were propaganda motivations behind presenting

28890-429: The importance of the oaths crusaders took. He also emphasised the view the forgiveness of sin was a gift from God . It was not considered a reward for the suffering endured by the crusader while on crusade. It was in the 1213 papal bull called Quia maior that he reached out beyond the noble warrior class. He offered all other Christians the opportunity to redeem their vows without even going on crusade. This led to

29104-478: The initial success of the early crusades the settlers who remained or later migrated were militarily vulnerable. During the 12th and 13th centuries, frequent supportive expeditions were required to maintain territory that had been gained. A cycle developed of military failure, pleas for support and declarations of crusades from the church. The success of the First Crusade that began the crusading movement and

29318-486: The institutions of crusading. He also did this against the Orthodox Christians of Byzantium in favour of Bohemond I of Antioch for political reasons in Italy. It was in certain social and feudal networks that early crusade recruitment concentrated. Not only did these groups provide manpower, but also funding. Although it may have been pragmatic acceptance of the pressure of the reform movement that prompted

29532-502: The intended funding of professional armies, including a six-year tithe on clerical incomes. However, the politics of the Capetian dynasty and House of Barcelona prevented progress. Egypt was not blockaded and no new foothold was established in the East. In 1132 a new approach and crusading institution was devised. This was a Holy League , the first of several temporary alliances between the church and other Christian polities. In 1344,

29746-457: The interests of order and local peace. The inevitable result was the territorial particularism of churchmen, lay princes, and interstitial cities. However, Frederick was a ruler of vast territories and "could not be everywhere at once". The transference of jurisdiction was a practical solution to secure the further support of the German princes and, moreover, was a process which had already been underway even under Henry VI and Frederick Barbarossa. It

29960-579: The king eventually led to the emergence of a fixed college of prince-electors ( Kurfürsten ), whose composition and procedures were set forth in the Golden Bull of 1356 , issued by Charles IV (reigned 1355–1378, King of the Romans since 1346), which remained valid until 1806. This development probably best symbolizes the emerging duality between emperor and realm ( Kaiser und Reich ), which were no longer considered identical. The Golden Bull also set forth

30174-414: The king of the sacral status he had previously enjoyed. The pope and the German princes had surfaced as major players in the political system of the Holy Roman Empire. As the result of Ostsiedlung, less populated regions of Central Europe (i.e. sparsely populated border areas in present-day Poland and Czechia) received a significant number of German speakers. Silesia became part of the Holy Roman Empire as

30388-399: The king, declared him deposed, and dissolved the oaths of loyalty made to Henry. The king found himself with almost no political support and was forced to make the famous Walk to Canossa in 1077, by which he achieved a lifting of the excommunication at the price of humiliation. Meanwhile, the German princes had elected another king, Rudolf of Swabia . Henry managed to defeat Rudolf, but

30602-411: The land had jurisdiction, from which other powers derived. Jurisdiction at the time did not include legislation, which was virtually nonexistent until well into the 15th century. Court practice heavily relied on traditional customs or rules described as customary. During this time, territories began to transform into the predecessors of modern states. The process varied greatly among the various lands and

30816-408: The late 11th and early 12th   century the papacy became an entity capable of organised violence in the same manner as secular kingdoms and principalities. This required command and control systems that were not always fully developed or efficient. The result was the papacy leading secular fighting forces for its own ends. This was begun by Pope Alexander II around 1059. He involved the papacy in

31030-704: The long running conflict with Muslims in the Mediterranean region. The church became involved in, and gave approval for, campaigns in Sicily , Spain and North Africa where the church worked with the republics of Pisa and Genoa . Urban II laid the foundations of the crusading movement at the Council of Clermont in 1095. He was responding to requests for military support from the Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos that he received during

31244-554: The loss of imperial territories in Italy and Burgundy to the south and west by the late 15th century, but also to emphasize the new importance of the German Imperial Estates in ruling the Empire due to the Imperial Reform . The Hungarian denomination "German Roman Empire" ( Hungarian : Német-római Birodalom ) is the shortening of this. By the end of the 18th century, the term "Holy Roman Empire of

31458-460: The marching song of children heading east and offers evidence of eschatological beliefs. The church was unable to comprehend the charisma of impoverished secular leaders like Nicholas of Cologne and how this could be used in recruiting such large followings. Modern academic opinion is split on the definition of a crusade. Riley-Smith disregards these popular uprisings as not meeting the criteria, while Gary Dickson has produced in depth research. In

31672-590: The middle Rhine river valley region. By the middle of the 8th century, the Merovingians were reduced to figureheads, and the Carolingians , led by Charles Martel , became the de facto rulers. In 751, Martel's son Pepin became King of the Franks, and later gained the sanction of the Pope. The Carolingians would maintain a close alliance with the Papacy. In 768, Pepin's son Charlemagne became King of

31886-583: The moderately powerful but already old duke of Saxony. When he died in 1137, the princes again aimed to check royal power; accordingly they did not elect Lothair's favoured heir, his son-in-law, Henry the Proud of the Welf family, but Conrad III of the Hohenstaufen family, the grandson of Emperor Henry IV and nephew of Emperor Henry V. This led to over a century of strife between the two houses. Conrad ousted

32100-472: The monarchical polities of Europe's western tier, and in others the loosely integrated, elective polities of East Central Europe." The new corporate German Nation, instead of simply obeying the emperor, negotiated with him. On 6 August 1806, Emperor Francis II abdicated and formally dissolved the empire following the creation – the month before, by French emperor Napoleon – of the Confederation of

32314-561: The movement caused disillusionment and doubts that the objectives of the movements were practical. The political authority of the papacy was eroded by the Western Schism to such an extent that congresses ignored. Increasingly independent secular rulers prioritised their own ambitions. There was no doubt that Europe needed a crusade to resist the Ottoman threat, but self interest became an unavoidable barrier to this. In this situation it

32528-472: The movement merged ideas of Old Testament wars, that were believed to have been instigated and assisted by God, with New Testament ideas of forming personal relationships with Christ . The institution of crusading began with the encouragement of the church reformers who had undertaken what is commonly known as the Gregorian Reform in the 11th   century. It declined after the 16th   century Protestant Reformation . The idea of crusading as holy war

32742-403: The movement was the preaching of the indulgence. While the success or failure of propaganda varied in extent, local attitude and capability, there is no evidence that it was popular apathy or hostility that caused of the mobilisation failure of large scale crusading against the Turks. Following Eugenius IV 's elevation to the papacy in 1431 the church engaged in ecumenical negotiation with

32956-553: The movement. The Renaissance of the 12th century coincided with the early years of crusading. Crusading themes were the subject of developing vernacular literature in the languages of Western Europe. Examples of Epic poetry include the Chanson d'Antioche describing the events in the 1268 siege of Antioch and Canso de la Crozada about the crusading against the Cathars in Southern France. These are given

33170-665: The near-original meaning of ideology is Hippolyte Taine 's work on the Ancien Régime , Origins of Contemporary France I. He describes ideology as rather like teaching philosophy via the Socratic method , though without extending the vocabulary beyond what the general reader already possessed, and without the examples from observation that practical science would require. Taine identifies it not just with Tracy but also with his milieu , and includes Condillac as one of its precursors. Napoleon Bonaparte came to view ideology as

33384-458: The new pope (although John XII and Leo VIII both claimed the papacy until 964, when John XII died). This also renewed the conflict with the Byzantine emperor, especially after Otto's son Otto II ( r.  967–983 ) adopted the designation imperator Romanorum . Still, Otto II formed marital ties with the east when he married the Byzantine princess Theophanu . Their son, Otto III , came to

33598-544: The new power of Carolingian Francia . Charlemagne adopted the formula Renovatio imperii Romanorum ("renewal of the Roman Empire"). In 802, Irene was overthrown and exiled by Nikephoros I and henceforth there were two Roman emperors. After Charlemagne died in 814, the imperial crown passed to his son, Louis the Pious . Upon Louis' death in 840, it passed to his son Lothair , who had been his co-ruler. By this point

33812-730: The objective of reunification with the Greek church as an essential prerequisite for further crusades. In planning the funding of this crusade he created a complex tax gathering regime by Latin Christendom into twenty-six collectorates, each directed by a general collector. In order to tackle fraud each collector would further delegate tax liability assessment. This system raised vast amounts which in turn prompted further clerical criticism of obligatory taxation. The 14th   century saw further outbreaks of popular and unsanctioned crusading enthusiasm. These were often prompted by major events such as

34026-445: The objectives of these and whether they were a distraction from the primary cause of fighting for the Holy Land. In particular, Occitan Troubadours expressed discontent with expeditions in their southern French homeland. Additionally, reports of sexual immorality, greed, and arrogance exhibited by crusaders was viewed as incompatible with the ideals of a holy war. This gave commentators excuses or reasons for failures and setbacks in what

34240-673: The order conquered and ruled Rhodes (1309–1522) and finally settled in Malta (1530–1798). The orders successor organisation, the Sovereign Military Order of Malta still exists today. King Philip IV of France extinguished the Templars around 1312. This was probably for financial and political reasons. He pressurised Pope Clement V to dissolve the order. The grounds of sodomy , magic, and heresy listed in various papal bulls such as Vox in excelso and Ad providam were probably false. Historians now take

34454-500: The papacy, the monastic orders, mendicant friars, and the developing universities. Ideas were transmitted through inclusion in literary works that included romances, travelogues like Mandeville's Travels , poems such as Piers Plowman and John Gower 's Confessio Amantis , and works by Geoffrey Chaucer . At this point in time the ideas of nationalism were largely absent. A more atomised society meant that literature tended to rather praise individual deeds of heroes like Charlemagne and

34668-418: The period. That said "Children's Crusade" is not a precise definition. At the time the Latin pueri was used for children; peregrinatio , iter , expeditio , or crucesignatio were used for crusade. The many surviving written sources are of questionable accuracy. Dates and details are not consistent and they are interwoven with typical myth-history stories and ideas. Clerical writing contrasted

34882-401: The poor the instituition of the crusade was offensive, while in church doctrines it was an act of self-defence. From the 12th   century onwards the crusading movement generated propaganda material to spread the word. A good example was the work of a Dominican friar called Humbert of Romans . In 1268 he gathered the best crusading arguments in one work. The poor had different viewpoints to

35096-629: The popes and the papacy that was now based in Avignon . In 1378 the papacy was divided in what is known as the Western Schism . The rival popes even called for crusades against each other. Eventually the movement and the papacy united in the face of the growing threat of the Ottoman Turks . By the end of the century, the Reisen was obsolete and the only contact that common people had with

35310-421: The population welcomed, accepted and believed in a wide range of prophecy. One significant example of this was the writing of Joachim of Fiore . He included the fighting of the infidel in opaque works that combined writings on the past, on the present, and on the future. These works foreshadowed the Children's Crusade. Joachim believed all history and the future could be divided into three ages. The third of these

35524-568: The practice of issuing crusade bulls for generations, but Alberico Gentili and Hugo Grotius created an international rule of law that was secular rather than religious. The wars against the Ottoman Empire and in defence of Europe were conflicts on which Lutherans , Calvinists , and Roman Catholics could agree in principle. So the importance to recruitment of the granting of indulgences became increasingly redundant and declined. The 4th-century theologian Augustine of Hippo Christianised theories of bellum justum or just war that dated from

35738-403: The princes to consolidate their holdings and become even more independent as rulers. After 1257, the crown was contested between Richard of Cornwall , who was supported by the Guelph party , and Alfonso X of Castile , who was recognized by the Hohenstaufen party but never set foot on German soil. After Richard's death in 1273, Rudolf I of Germany , a minor pro-Hohenstaufen count, was elected. He

35952-451: The princes' support and rebound them to Hohenstaufen power. The Kingdom of Bohemia was a significant regional power during the Middle Ages . In 1212, King Ottokar I (bearing the title "king" since 1198) extracted a Golden Bull of Sicily (a formal edict) from Emperor Frederick II, confirming the royal title for Ottokar and his descendants, and the Duchy of Bohemia was raised to a kingdom. Bohemia's political and financial obligations to

36166-568: The reigning social order. In The Anatomy of Revolution , Crane Brinton said that new ideology spreads when there is discontent with an old regime. The may be repeated during revolutions itself; extremists such as Vladimir Lenin and Robespierre may thus overcome more moderate revolutionaries. This stage is soon followed by Thermidor , a reining back of revolutionary enthusiasm under pragmatists like Napoleon and Joseph Stalin , who bring " normalcy and equilibrium". Brinton's sequence ("men of ideas> fanatics >practical men of action")

36380-412: The related (but different) issues of utopia and historical myth . An ideology is composed of four basic characteristics: Terry Eagleton outlines (more or less in no particular order) some definitions of ideology: German philosopher Christian Duncker called for a "critical reflection of the ideology concept". In his work, he strove to bring the concept of ideology into the foreground, as well as

36594-399: The result of the local Piast dukes' push for autonomy from the Polish Crown. From the late 12th century, the Duchy of Pomerania was under the suzerainty of the Holy Roman Empire and the conquests of the Teutonic Order made that region German-speaking. When the Salian dynasty ended with Henry V's death in 1125, the princes chose not to elect the next of kin, but rather Lothair III ,

36808-411: The rewards among themselves but instead, notable for their abilities to amass sophisticated economic, administrative, educational and cultural resources that they used to serve their enormous war machine. Until the end of the 15th century, the empire was in theory composed of three major blocs – Italy , Germany and Burgundy . Later territorially only the Kingdom of Germany and Bohemia remained, with

37022-465: The right to build fortification. The 1232 Statutum in favorem principum mostly extended these privileges to secular territories. Although many of these privileges had existed earlier, they were now granted globally, and once and for all, to allow the German princes to maintain order north of the Alps while Frederick concentrated on Italy. The 1232 document marked the first time that the German dukes were called domini terrae , owners of their lands,

37236-424: The rise of combat as sport. At this time although knights were praised in literature they remained distinct from the aristocracy. Crusading and chivalry developed together, and in time chivalry helped shap the ethos, ideals and principles of crusaders. Tournaments were held where knights could exhibit their martial prowess. This provided venues where the crusading movement could recruit, spread propaganda and announce

37450-485: The sacred sites of Palestine from non-Christians. The city was considered to be Christ's legacy and it was symbolic of divine restoration. The site of Christ's redemptive acts was pivotal for the inception of the First Crusade and the subsequent establishment of crusading as an institution. The campaigns to reclaim the Holy Land were the ones that attracted the greatest support, but the crusading movement's theatre of war extended wider than just Palestine. Crusades were waged in

37664-451: The sale of clerical positions and clerical marriage . The changes were not without opposition, causing splits within the church and between the church and the emperor. However, the reform faction successfully created the ideology for men they saw as God's agents. From the second half of the 11th   century, it enabled them in the refashioning of the church along the moral and spiritual lines they believed in. Historians consider that this

37878-441: The sales of churches and tithes . These families often had a history of pilgrimage, along with connections to Cluniac monasticism and the reformed papacy. They honoured the same saints. With inter-marriage this cultural mores were spread through society. Paschal's successor Pope Calixtus II shared his Spanish interests. In 1123, at the First Council of the Lateran it was decided that crusading would be deployed in both Iberia and

38092-467: The search for new ideas. The response to which showed a resilience that would enable the continuation of the movement. This was not without opposition. Matthew Paris in Chronica Majora and Richard of Mapham, the dean of Lincoln both raised noteworthy concerns and the Teutonic Order for one, amongst others of the military orders were criticised for arrogance, greed, using their great wealth to pay for luxurious lifestyles, and an inadequate response in

38306-402: The styles called sirventes and pastorela on the subject of lost love. Crusading wasn't a distinct genre, but the subject. The troubadours had northern French equivalents called Trouvère and German ones called Minnesänger . Collectively they left bodies of works themed on the crusades later in the century. This material transmitted information about crusading unmediated by

38520-419: The suzerainty over Tunis and Tripolitania and paid tribute. Fearing the power of Henry, the most powerful monarch in Europe since Charlemagne, the other European kings formed an alliance. But Henry broke this coalition by blackmailing English king Richard the Lionheart . The Byzantine emperor worried that Henry would turn his Crusade plan against his empire, and began to collect the alamanikon to prepare against

38734-403: The system for election of the Holy Roman Emperor. The emperor now was to be elected by a majority rather than by consent of all seven electors. For electors the title became hereditary, and they were given the right to mint coins and to exercise jurisdiction. Also it was recommended that their sons learn the imperial languages – German , Latin , Italian , and Czech . The decision by Charles IV

38948-401: The systems of inequality that maintain their group's social power over non-dominant groups. Ideologies use a society's symbol system to organize social relations in a hierarchy , with some social identities being superior to other social identities, which are considered inferior. The dominant ideology in a society is passed along through the society's major social institutions, such as the media,

39162-424: The term for a "science of ideas", basing such upon two things: (1) the sensations that people experience as they interact with the material world; and (2) the ideas that form in their minds due to those sensations. Tracy conceived ideology as a liberal philosophy that would defend individual liberty , property , free markets , and constitutional limits on state power. He argues that, among these aspects, ideology

39376-507: The term within class struggle and domination, others believed it was a necessary part of institutional functioning and social integration . There are many different kinds of ideologies, including political , social , epistemological , and ethical . Recent analysis tends to posit that ideology is a 'coherent system of ideas' that rely on a few basic assumptions about reality that may or may not have any factual basis. Through this system, ideas become coherent, repeated patterns through

39590-403: The territory of Charlemagne was divided into several territories ( cf . Treaty of Verdun , Treaty of Prüm , Treaty of Meerssen and Treaty of Ribemont ), and over the course of the later 9th century the title of emperor was disputed by the Carolingian rulers of the Western Frankish Kingdom or West Francia and the Eastern Frankish Kingdom or East Francia , with first the western king ( Charles

39804-550: The theologians. Often based on an end of the world eschatological belief. When Acre was lost to the Egyptians there were resulting popular but brief outbursts of crusade fervour. However, the most Christians did not typically crusade to Jerusalem. Instead, they would often build models of the Holy Sepulchre or dedicate places of worship. These were acts theat existed before the crusading movement, but they became increasingly popular in association. They may have formed part of other forms of regular religious devotion. In 1099 Jerusalem

40018-542: The throne only three years old, and was subjected to a power struggle and series of regencies until his age of majority in 994. Up to that time, he remained in Germany, while a deposed duke, Crescentius II , ruled over Rome and part of Italy, ostensibly in his stead. In 996 Otto III appointed his cousin Gregory V the first German pope. A foreign pope and foreign papal officers were seen with suspicion by Roman nobles, who were led by Crescentius II to revolt. Otto III's former mentor Antipope John XVI briefly held Rome, until

40232-499: The tradition". Moreover, Charles Blattberg offers an account that distinguishes political ideologies from political philosophies . Slavoj Žižek argues how the very notion of post-ideology can enable the deepest, blindest form of ideology. A sort of false consciousness or false cynicism, engaged in for the purpose of lending one's point of view the respect of being objective, pretending neutral cynicism, without truly being so. Rather than help avoiding ideology, this lapse only deepens

40446-437: The two realms separate. Though he had made his son Henry king of Sicily before marching on Germany, he still reserved real political power for himself. This continued after Frederick was crowned emperor in 1220. Fearing Frederick's concentration of power, the pope finally excommunicated him. Another point of contention was the Crusade, which Frederick had promised but repeatedly postponed. Now, although excommunicated, Frederick led

40660-501: The unforeseen consequence of creating a market for religious rewards. This would later scandalise some devout Christians and through this become a contributing factor for the Protestant Reformation from the 16th   century. As late as the 16th   century, some writers continued to seek atonement for their sins through the practice of crusading. At the same time John Foxe the English martyrologist and others saw this as "the impure idolatry , and profanation " Popes continued in

40874-433: The values presented. Its spiritual views contrasted with ideas of excellence, achieved glory through military deeds and romantic love. Even though the church feared the warrior class it needed to co-opt its power and did this symbolically through developed liturgical blessings to sanctify new knights. In time kings represented themselves as members of the knighthood for propaganda purposes. Crusading became seen as integral to

41088-488: The view that political convictions always reflect independent and unbiased thinking. According to semiotician Bob Hodge : [Ideology] identifies a unitary object that incorporates complex sets of meanings with the social agents and processes that produced them. No other term captures this object as well as 'ideology'. Foucault 's ' episteme ' is too narrow and abstract, not social enough. His 'discourse', popular because it covers some of ideology's terrain with less baggage,

41302-530: The wake of the Cluniac Reforms , this involvement was increasingly seen as inappropriate by the Papacy. The reform-minded Pope Gregory VII was determined to oppose such practices, which led to the Investiture Controversy with King Henry IV ( r.  1056–1106 , crowned emperor in 1084). Henry IV repudiated the pope's interference and persuaded his bishops to excommunicate the pope, whom he famously addressed by his birth name "Hildebrand" rather than his papal name "Gregory". The pope, in turn, excommunicated

41516-450: The years between 1217 and 1221 Cardinal Hugo Ugolino of Segni led preaching campaigns and helped relax controls on funding and recruitment. He used the five percent income tax on the church known as the "clerical twentieth" to pay mercenaries in the Fifth Crusade and other crucesignati . In 1227, Hugo became pope and adopted the name Gregory IX. He clashed with Frederick II over territory in Italy, excommunicating him in 1239 and deploying

41730-403: Was imitatio Christi , an " imitation of Christ ", a sacrifice motivated by charity for fellow Christians. It began to be considered that all those who died campaigning were martyrs. Towards the end of the 12th   century the crusading movement existed in a culture where it was believed that everything that happened was predestined , either by God or fate. This Providentialism meant that

41944-441: Was a major turning point toward the partitioning of central rule in the Empire. Since his political focus was south of the Alps, he was mostly absent from Germany and issued far-reaching privileges to Germany's secular and ecclesiastical princes to ensure their cooperation. In the 1220 Confoederatio cum principibus ecclesiasticis , Frederick gave up a number of regalia in favour of the bishops, among them tariffs, coining , and

42158-408: Was a pivotal moment, because the church was now under the control of men who supported a concept of holy war and would plan to make it happen. The reformers now viewed the church as an independent force with God given authority to act in the secular world for religious regeneration. The creation of the institutions of crusading were a means by which the church could act militarily with the support of

42372-577: Was based on the Greco-Roman Just war theory . A "just war" was one where a legitimate authority is the instigator, there is a valid cause, and it is waged with good intentions. The Crusades were seen by their adherents as a special Christian pilgrimage  – a physical and spiritual journey authorised and protected by the church. The actions were both pilgrimage and penitental , Participants were considered part of Christ's army and demonstrated this by attaching crosses of cloth to their outfits. This marked them as followers and devotees of Christ and

42586-411: Was believed these were instigated and assisted by God. Secondly, the Christocentric concept of forming an individual relationship with Christ that came from the New Testament . In this way the church was able to combine the ideas of holy war and Christian pilgrimage to create the legal and theocratic justifications for the crusading movement. The historian Carl Erdmann mapped out the three stages for

42800-429: Was disturbed during the Salian period. The empire reached the apex of territorial expansion and power under the House of Hohenstaufen in the mid-13th century, but overextension of its power led to a partial collapse. Scholars generally describe an evolution of the institutions and principles constituting the empire, and a gradual development of the imperial role. While the office of emperor had been reestablished,

43014-411: Was for the church to be able to destroy its ideologically is competitors for the purpose of justifying Christianity entry into aggressive violent conflict. This prejudice was not derived from ethnic identity or race. The church considered that all of humanity were descended from Adam and Eve . Typical of medieval opinion this was a social construct in which the differentiators were cultural. For example,

43228-420: Was given altruistically. Later popes expanded on this offer to those willing to fight for their causes. Urban II launched the First Crusade at Clermont in November 1095. He made two offers to those who would travel to Jerusalem and fight for control of the sites Christians considered sacred. They were that those who fought would receive exemption from penance for the sins they committed and while they fought

43442-402: Was in response to biblical passages exhorting Christian "to carry one's cross and follow Christ". Everyone could be involved, with the church considering anyone who died campaigning a Christian martyr . This movement was an important part of late-medieval western culture, that impacted politics, the economy and wider society. The original focus and objective was the liberation of Jerusalem and

43656-458: Was initially supported by the Holy Roman Empire and by Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor in particular, but went on to lead to conflict with his son, Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor . The reformers believed in papal primacy . That is the Pope was the head of all of Christendom as heir of St Peter . Secular rulers, even including the emperor, were subject to this and could be removed. The reformist groups opposed previously widespread behaviour such as

43870-451: Was known as the remotest place but these practices made tangible crusading. Unsanctioned popular crusading exploded in 1096, 1212, 1251, 1309, and 1320. These all exhibited violent antisemitism with the exception of the Children's Crusade of 1212. Despite hostility from the literate these crusades became so mytho-historicised in the written histories that they are some of the most highly remembered events transmitted by word of mouth from

44084-439: Was melded to descriptions of the Children's Crusade. Innocent III built on this in 1213 announcing the end of Islam in the calls for the Fifth Crusade by announcing that the days of were over. The crusading movement found that creating a single accepted ideology and an understanding of that ideology was a practical challenge. This was because the church did not have the necessary bureaucratic systems to consolidate thinking across

44298-448: Was most advanced in those territories that were almost identical to the lands of the old Germanic tribes, e.g. , Bavaria. It was slower in those scattered territories that were founded through imperial privileges. In the 12th century the Hanseatic League established itself as a commercial and defensive alliance of the merchant guilds of towns and cities in the empire and all over northern and central Europe. It dominated marine trade in

44512-421: Was one of the few innovations from outside Europe. In 1119 a small band of knights formed to protect pilgrims journeying to Jerusalem. These became the Knights Templar . Many other orders followed this template. The Knights Hospitaller were providing medical services and added a military wing to become a much larger organisation. These orders became Latin Christendom's first professional fighting forces and played

44726-501: Was otherwise considered God's work. In this was defeats experienced such as during the First Crusade, by Saladin at Hattin and the defeat of Louis IX of France at the Battle of Mansurah (1250) could be explained. Some, such as Gerhoh of Reichersberg, linked this to the expected coming of the Antichrist and increased puritanism. This puritanism was the church's response to criticism, and included processions and reforms such as gambling bans and restrictions on women. Primary sources include

44940-444: Was revived in 962 when Otto I was crowned emperor by Pope John XII , fashioning himself as Charlemagne's and the Carolingian Empire 's successor, and beginning a continuous existence of the empire for over eight centuries. From 962 until the 12th century, the empire was one of the most powerful monarchies in Europe. The functioning of government depended on the harmonious cooperation between emperor and vassals; this harmony

45154-406: Was subsequently confronted with more uprisings, renewed excommunication, and even the rebellion of his sons. After his death, his second son, Henry V , reached an agreement with the Pope and the bishops in the 1122 Concordat of Worms . The political power of the Empire was maintained, but the conflict had demonstrated the limits of the ruler's power, especially in regard to the Church, and it robbed

45368-400: Was the age of the Holy Spirit. The representatives of this age were children, or pueri . Others aligned themselves to this idea. Salimbene and other Franciscans self described themselves as ordo parvulorum . This translates as order of little ones . Another example of this Apocalypticism can be seen in elements of the Austrian Rhymed Chronicle . In this apocalyptic mytho-history

45582-461: Was the estate of St Peter, so the popes' campaigns were defensive and only fought for the preservation of Christian territory. The church combined two themes in the creation of crusading, one from the Old Testament and one from the New . The first was the wars of the Jews. These were believed to have come from the instigation and will of God. The second was the Christocentric ideas related to Christians forming individual relationships with Christ. It

45796-420: Was the first of the Habsburgs to hold a royal title, but he was never crowned emperor. After Rudolf's death in 1291, Adolf and Albert were two further weak kings who were never crowned emperor. Albert was assassinated in 1308. Almost immediately, King Philip IV of France began aggressively seeking support for his brother, Charles of Valois , to be elected the next king of the Romans. Philip thought he had

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