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92-478: The idea of a canal across the Florida peninsula was first proposed by Philip II of Spain in 1567 as a shorter and safer route for Spanish treasure ships. It was repeatedly considered over the years but found to be economically unviable. Secretary of War John C. Calhoun once again proposed a canal in 1818 as a remedy for commercial losses from shipwrecks and piracy. The Florida Railroad , finished in 1861, served

184-659: A polyglot . While Philip was also an archduke of Austria , he was seen as a foreigner in the Holy Roman Empire . The feeling was mutual. Philip felt himself to be culturally Spanish; he had been born in Castile and raised in the Castilian court, his native language was Spanish, and he preferred to live in the Spanish kingdoms. This ultimately impeded his succession to the imperial throne. In April 1528, when Philip

276-512: A bronze statue of himself trampling the rebellious Dutch under his horse's hooves, cast from the melted-down cannon looted by the Spanish troops after the Battle of Jemmingen in 1568; it was modelled on medieval images of the Spanish patron Saint James "the Moorslayer" riding down Muslims and caused such outrage that Philip had it removed and destroyed. In 1572, a prominent exiled member of

368-711: A combination of Catholic fervour and dynastic objectives. He considered himself the chief defender of Catholic Europe, both against the Ottoman Empire and against the forces of the Protestant Reformation . He never relented from his fight against heresy , defending the Catholic faith and limiting freedom of worship within his territories. These territories included his patrimony in the Netherlands, where Protestantism had taken deep root. Following

460-471: A consequence of executions, brawls, violent encounters with indigenous peoples and diseases which were rife. A contributing cause for failure of the settlement may have been poor morale, an issue that plagued the venture almost from the beginning. This can in part be explained by a series of difficulties the expedition had to go through between the departure from Spain and the arrival to the strait. Philip II's inaction despite repeated pleas by Sarmiento to aid

552-623: A decisive victory against the Turks at Lepanto in 1571, with the allied fleet of the Holy League , which he had put under the command of his illegitimate brother, John of Austria . He also successfully secured his succession to the throne of Portugal . The administration of overseas conquests was reformed. Extensive questionnaires were distributed to every major town and region in New Spain called relaciones geográficas . These surveys helped

644-537: A medieval king. He mainly directed state affairs, even when not at Court. Indeed, when his health began failing, he worked from his quarters at the Palace-Monastery-Pantheon of El Escorial that he had built in 1584, a palace built as a monument to Spain's role as a center of the Christian world. But Philip did not enjoy the supremacy that King Louis XIV of France would in the next century, nor

736-767: A permanent reversal in the balance of naval power in the Mediterranean and the end of the threat of Ottoman control. In 1585 a peace treaty was signed with the Ottomans. During Philip's reign Spain considered the Pacific Ocean a mare clausum —a sea closed to other naval powers— as the only known entrance from the Atlantic, the Strait of Magellan was at times patrolled by fleets sent to prevent entrance of non-Spanish ships. To end navigation by rival powers in

828-550: A proper ceremony. On 20 November 1592 a ghostly Parliament session was called, pushed by Philip II, who had arrived in Pamplona at the head of an unspecified military force, and with one only point on his agenda—attendance to the session was kept blank on the minutes: unlawful appointments of trusted Castilian officials and imposition of his son as the future king of Navarre at the Santa Maria Cathedral . A ceremony

920-584: A ship but was followed and eventually captured by Turgut Reis. In 1563, capitalizing on the political climate, the Regency of Algiers launched the sieges of Oran and Mers El Kébir in a large scale attempt to dislodge the major Spanish positions in Northern Africa, but the attempt met failure. Philip's navy then conquered Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera the following year. The Ottomans sent a large expedition to Malta , which laid siege to several forts on

1012-639: A similar purpose, connecting the Atlantic Ocean at Fernandina to the Gulf of Mexico at Cedar Key . In the 1930s, regional politicians lobbied the federal government to fund canal construction as an economic recovery program, including the creation of the Canal Authority of the State of Florida in 1933. President Franklin D. Roosevelt authorized $ 5 million in funding for the project in 1935, and

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1104-542: A smile that was cut by a sword". After living in the Netherlands in the early years of his reign, Philip II decided to return to Castile. Although sometimes described as an absolute monarch, Philip faced many constitutional constraints on his authority, influenced by the growing strength of the bureaucracy. The Spanish Empire was not a single monarchy with one legal system but a personal union of separate realms, each jealously guarding its own rights against those of

1196-525: A total of 30,000 soldiers under the command of Giovanni Andrea Doria , nephew of the famous Genoese admiral Andrea Doria . On 12 March 1560, the Holy League captured the island of Djerba , which had a strategic location and could control the sea routes between Algiers and Tripoli . As a response, Suleiman sent an Ottoman fleet of 120 ships under the command of Piyale Pasha, which arrived at Djerba on 9 May 1560. The battle lasted until 14 May 1560, and

1288-522: A woman artist. Charles V had left his son Philip with a debt of about 36 million ducats and an annual deficit of 1 million ducats. This debt caused Philip II to default on loans in 1557, 1560, 1575, and 1596 (including debt to Poland, known as Neapolitan sums ). Lenders had no power over the King and could not force him to repay his loans. These defaults were just the beginning of Spain's economic troubles as its kings would default six more times in

1380-747: The Balearic Islands , especially inflicting great damage on Menorca and enslaving many, while raiding the coasts of the Spanish mainland. Philip appealed to the Pope and other powers in Europe to bring an end to the rising Ottoman threat. Since his father's losses against the Ottomans and against Hayreddin Barbarossa in 1541, the major European sea powers in the Mediterranean, namely the Spanish Crown and Venice , became hesitant in confronting

1472-602: The Battle of Mookerheyde on 14 April 1574, killing both him and his brother Henry of Nassau-Dillenburg . Rampant inflation and the loss of treasure fleets from the New World prevented Philip from paying his soldiers consistently, leading to the so-called Spanish Fury at Antwerp in 1576, where soldiers ran amok through the streets, burning more than 1,000 homes and killing 6,000 citizens. Philip sent in Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma , as Governor-General of

1564-703: The Crown of Aragon . In the north, Milan was a duchy of the Holy Roman Empire held by Philip. Attached to the Kingdom of Naples, the State of Presidi in Tuscany gave Philip the possibility to monitor maritime traffic to southern Italy, whilst the grant of the Duchy of Siena to the new Grand Duchy of Tuscany , ensured it would remain a Spanish ally. The Council of Italy was set up by Philip in order to co-ordinate his rule over

1656-526: The Duchy of Savoy , and Corsica to the Republic of Genoa . Both Genoa and Savoy were allies of Spain and, although Savoy subsequently declared its neutrality between France and Spain, Genoa remained a crucial financial ally for Philip during his entire reign. The treaty also confirmed Philip's control over Milan , Naples, Sicily, and Sardinia . Therefore, all of southern Italy was under Spanish rule as part of

1748-794: The Gulf Coast . As well as forming part of the Withlacoochee River, it is also fed by the Rainbow River and Lake Panasoffkee to the east. It is approximately twelve miles long by one mile wide, covering an area of c. 3,700 acres (15 km ). To the west is part of the uncompleted Cross Florida Barge Canal leading to the Gulf. The lake forms the centerpiece for the Lake Rousseau State Recreation Area and Campground . This article about

1840-454: The Holy League under the command of Philip's half brother, Don John of Austria , and Don Álvaro de Bazán . A fleet sent by Philip, again commanded by Don John, reconquered Tunis from the Ottomans in 1573. The Turks soon rebuilt their fleet, and in 1574 Uluç Ali Reis managed to recapture Tunis with a force of 250 galleys and a siege that lasted 40 days. Thousands of Spanish and Italian soldiers became prisoners. Nevertheless, Lepanto marked

1932-558: The House of Habsburg . In practice, Philip often found his authority overruled by local assemblies and his word less effective than that of local lords. Philip carried several titles as heir to the Spanish kingdoms and empire , including Prince of Asturias . The newest constituent kingdom in the empire was Upper Navarre , a realm invaded by Ferdinand II of Aragon mainly with Castilian troops (1512), and annexed to Castile with an ambiguous status (1513). War across Navarre continued until

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2024-639: The Iconoclast Fury ; in response to growing Protestant influence, the army of the Duke of Alba went on the offensive. In 1568, Alba had Lamoral, Count of Egmont and Philip de Montmorency, Count of Horn executed in Brussels ' central square , further alienating the local aristocracy. There were massacres of civilians in Mechelen , Naarden , Zutphen and Haarlem . In 1571, Alba erected at Antwerp

2116-730: The Italian Wars . Philip was present at the Siege of Perpignan in 1542 but did not see action as the Spanish army under Alba decisively defeated the besieging French forces under the Dauphin of France . On his way back to Castile, Philip received the oath of allegiance of the Aragonese Cortes at Monzón . His political training had begun a year previously under his father, who had found his son studious, grave, and prudent beyond his years, and having decided to train and initiate him in

2208-611: The Low Countries (modern-day Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands). A member of the House of Habsburg , Philip was the son of Emperor Charles V , who was also king of Castile and Aragon , and Isabella of Portugal . He was born in the Castilian capital of Valladolid on 21 May 1527 at Palacio de Pimentel , which was owned by Don Bernardino Pimentel (the first Marqués de Távara). The culture and courtly life of Castile were an important influence in his early life. He

2300-628: The Netherlands . The son of Emperor Charles V and Isabella of Portugal , Philip inherited his father's Spanish Empire in 1556 and succeeded to the Portuguese throne in 1580 following a dynastic crisis. The Spanish conquests of the Inca Empire and of the Philippines , named in his honor by Ruy López de Villalobos , were completed during his reign. Under Philip II, Spain reached the height of its influence and power, sometimes called

2392-584: The Papal States and temporarily held territory there, perhaps in response to Pope Paul IV 's anti-Spanish outlook. According to Philip II, he was doing it for the benefit of the Church . In a letter to the Princess Dowager of Portugal, Regent of the Spanish kingdoms, dated 22 September 1556, Francisco de Vargas wrote: I have reported to your Highness what has been happening here, and how far

2484-507: The Papal States and the Pope declared a neutral position between France and the Spanish kingdoms. Philip led the Spanish kingdoms into the final phase of the Italian Wars . A Spanish advance into France from the Low Countries led to their important victory at the Battle of St. Quentin (1557) . The French were defeated again at the Battle of Gravelines (1558) . The resulting Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis in 1559 secured Piedmont to

2576-624: The Perez affair . Following a fire in Valladolid in 1561, he resisted calls to move his Court to Lisbon , an act that could have curbed centralisation and bureaucracy domestically as well as relaxed rule in the Empire as a whole. Instead, with the traditional Royal and Primacy seat of Toledo now essentially obsolete, he moved his Court to the Castilian stronghold of Madrid . Except for a brief period under Philip III of Spain , Madrid has remained

2668-752: The Revolt of the Netherlands in 1568, Philip waged a campaign against Dutch heresy and secession. It also dragged in the English and the French at times and expanded into the German Rhineland with the Cologne War . This series of conflicts lasted for the rest of his life. Philip's constant involvement and focus in European wars took a significant toll on the treasury and caused economic difficulties for

2760-545: The Spanish Golden Age , and ruled territories in every continent then known to Europeans. Philip led a highly debt-leveraged regime , seeing state defaults in 1557, 1560, 1569, 1575, and 1596. This policy was partly the cause of the declaration of independence that created the Dutch Republic in 1581. Philip finished building the royal palace El Escorial in 1584. Deeply devout, Philip saw himself as

2852-542: The Spanish Netherlands from 1578 to 1592. Farnese defeated the rebels at the Battle of Gembloux (1578) , and he captured many rebel towns in the south: Maastricht (1579), Tournai (1581), Oudenaarde (1582), Dunkirk (1583), Bruges (1584), Ghent (1584), and Antwerp (1585). Lake Rousseau Lake Rousseau is a reservoir on the Withlacoochee River in central Florida , on

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2944-628: The War of the Portuguese Succession , the pretender António fled to France following his defeats and, as Philip's armies had not yet occupied the Azores , he sailed there with a large Anglo-French fleet under Filippo Strozzi , a Florentine exile in the service of France. The naval Battle of Terceira took place on 26 July 1582, in the sea near the Azores, off São Miguel Island , as part of

3036-505: The 1528 ( Treaties of Madrid and Cambrai ). Charles V proposed to end hostilities with King Henry II of Navarre —the legitimate monarch of Navarre—by marrying his son Philip to the heiress of Navarre, Jeanne III of Navarre . The marriage would provide a dynastic solution to instability in Navarre, making him king of all Navarre (Upper and Lower ) and a prince of the independent Béarn , as well as lord of part of southwestern France. However,

3128-576: The Crown and even bankruptcies. In 1588, the English defeated Philip's Spanish Armada , thwarting his planned invasion of the country to reinstate Catholicism. But war with England continued for the next sixteen years, in a complex series of struggles that included France, Ireland and the main battle zone, the Low Countries . It would not end until all the leading protagonists, including himself, had died. Earlier, however, after several setbacks in his reign and especially that of his father, Philip did achieve

3220-620: The Duke of Parma to end Henry IV's siege of Paris in 1590 and the siege of Rouen in 1592—contributed in saving the French Catholic Leagues's cause against a Protestant monarchy. In 1593, Henry agreed to convert to Catholicism; weary of war, most French Catholics switched to his side against the hardline core of the Catholic League, who were portrayed by Henry's propagandists as puppets of a foreign monarch, Philip. By

3312-528: The Dutch aristocracy, William the Silent , Prince of Orange , invaded the Netherlands with a Protestant army, but he only succeeded in holding two provinces, Holland and Zeeland . Because of the Spanish repulse in the Siege of Alkmaar (1573) led by his equally brutal son Fadrique , Alba resigned his command, replaced by Luis de Requesens y Zúñiga . Alba boasted that he had burned or executed 18,600 persons in

3404-619: The Environment and the Environmental Defense Fund. The lawsuit resulted in a temporary injunction against the project in January 1971, and days later was halted by President Richard Nixon 's signing of an executive order. Approximately $ 74 million had been spent on the project up until the 1971 cessation of activities. The project was officially deauthorized by Congress in 1990, and the lands were turned over to

3496-710: The Franco-Spanish Catholic forces. French victory at the Battle of Fontaine-Française in Burgundy, 5 June 1595, marked an end to the Catholic League in France. The French also made some progress during an invasion of the Spanish Netherlands . They captured Ham and massacred the small Spanish garrison, provoking anger among the Spanish ranks. The Spanish launched a concerted offensive that year, taking Doullens , Cambrai , and Le Catelet ; at Doullens, they massacred 4,000 of its citizens. On 24 April 1596,

3588-612: The French Catholic cause gain the conversion of Henry, ensuring that Catholicism would remain France's official and majority faith—matters of paramount importance for the devoutly Catholic Spanish king. In the early part of his reign Philip was concerned with the rising power of the Ottoman Empire under Suleiman the Magnificent . Fear of Islamic domination in the Mediterranean caused him to pursue an aggressive foreign policy. In 1558, Turkish admiral Piyale Pasha captured

3680-521: The French nobility under Francis I opposed the arrangement and successfully ended the prospects of marriage between the heirs of Habsburg and Albret in 1541. In his will, Charles stated his doubts over Navarre and recommended that his son give the kingdom back. Both King Charles and his son Philip II failed to abide by the elective (contractual) nature of the Crown of Navarre and took the kingdom for granted. This sparked mounting tension not only with King Henry II and Queen Jeanne III of Navarre but also with

3772-407: The French throne. Elisabeth of Valois , Philip's third wife and Isabella's mother, had already ceded any claim to the French Crown with her marriage to Philip and in France the Salic law remained in effect. However, the Parlement of Paris , in power of the Catholic party, gave verdict that Isabella Clara Eugenia was "the legitimate sovereign" of France. Philip's interventions in the fighting—sending

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3864-433: The Netherlands, in addition to the far greater number he massacred during the war, many of them women and children; 8,000 persons were burned or hanged in one year, and the total number of Alba's Flemish victims can not have fallen short of 50,000. Under Requesens, the Army of Flanders reached a peak strength of 86,000 in 1574 and retained its battlefield superiority, destroying Louis of Nassau 's German mercenary army at

3956-502: The Netherlands, when he left the low countries for the Spanish kingdoms in 1559, but forced her to adjust policy to the advice of Cardinal Granvelle , who was greatly disliked in the Netherlands, after he insisted on direct control over events in the Netherlands despite being over two weeks' ride away in Madrid. There was discontent in the Netherlands about Philip's taxation demands and the incessant persecution of Protestants. In 1566, Protestant preachers sparked anti-clerical riots known as

4048-432: The Ottomans. The myth of "Turkish invincibility" was becoming a popular story, causing fear and panic among the people. In 1560, Philip II organised a Holy League between the Spanish kingdoms and the Republic of Venice, the Republic of Genoa , the Papal States , the Duchy of Savoy and the Knights of Malta . The joint fleet was assembled at Messina and consisted of 200 ships (60 galleys and 140 other vessels) carrying

4140-432: The Parliament of the Spanish Navarre ( Cortes , The Three States ) and the Diputación for breach of the realm specific laws (fueros) —violation of the pactum subjection is as ratified by Ferdinand. Tensions in Navarre came to a head in 1592 after several years of disagreements over the agenda of the intended parliamentary session. In November 1592 , the Parliament ( Cortes ) of Aragón revolted against another breach of

4232-399: The Pope is going in his fury and vain imaginings. His Majesty could not do otherwise than have a care for his reputation and dominions. I am sure your Highness will have had more recent news from the Duke of Alva, who has taken the field with an excellent army and has penetrated so far into the Pope's territory that his cavalry is raiding up to ten miles from Rome, where there is such panic that

4324-476: The Portuguese nobleman Rui Gomes da Silva and Luis de Requesens y Zúñiga , the son of his governor. These men would serve Philip throughout their lives, as would Antonio Pérez , his secretary from 1541. Philip's martial training was undertaken by his governor, Juan de Zúñiga y Requesens , a Castilian nobleman who served as the commendador mayor of Castile. The practical lessons in warfare were overseen by Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba during

4416-411: The Prudent ( Spanish : Felipe el Prudente ), was King of Spain from 1556, King of Portugal from 1580, and King of Naples and Sicily from 1554 until his death in 1598. He was also jure uxoris King of England and Ireland from his marriage to Queen Mary I in 1554 until her death in 1558. Further, he was Duke of Milan from 1540. From 1555, he was Lord of the Seventeen Provinces of

4508-401: The Spanish also conquered Calais . Following the Spanish capture of Amiens in March 1597, the French Crown laid siege to it until it managed to reconquer Amiens from the overstretched Spanish forces in September 1597. Henry then negotiated a peace with the Spanish Crown. The war was only drawn to an official close, however, with the Peace of Vervins in May 1598. The 1598 Treaty of Vervins

4600-440: The Spanish monarchy to govern Philip's overseas possessions more effectively. Charles V abdicated the throne of Naples to Philip on 25 July 1554, and the young king was invested with the kingdom (officially a Papal fief) on 2 October by Pope Julius III . The date of Charles' abdication of the throne of Sicily is uncertain, but Philip was invested with this kingdom on 18 November 1554 by Julius. In 1556, Philip decided to invade

4692-399: The St. Johns River north of the canal are high enough for ships or have movable sections . High bridges were built over the canal, as well as several over the Ocklawaha River where it was not widened to the canal. The following are the major roads, railroads, and locks and dams cross the path of the canal: Between Lake Rousseau and the Ocklawaha River, discontinuous unwatered excavations mark

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4784-460: The St. Johns River to the Ocklawaha River, part of the route along the Ocklawaha, and a small section 29°00′46″N 82°39′54″W  /  29.01278°N 82.66500°W  / 29.01278; -82.66500 at the Gulf of Mexico end up to the dammed Lake Rousseau . The canal was intended to connect the Atlantic Intracoastal Waterway with the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway at Withlacoochee Bay near Yankeetown . The military and economic impact

4876-408: The Strait of Magellan Spanish viceroy Francisco de Toledo ordered Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa to explore the strait and found settlements on its shores. In 1584, Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa founded two colonies in the strait: Nombre de Jesús , and Ciudad del Rey Don Felipe . The latter was established north of the strait with 300 settlers. The new colonies suffered from high death rates, likely as

4968-455: The Strait of Magellan caused Chiloé Archipelago to assume the role of protecting western Patagonia from foreign intrusions. Valdivia and Chiloé acted as sentries, being hubs where the Spanish collected intelligence from all over Patagonia. Philip's rule in the Seventeen Provinces known collectively as the Netherlands faced many difficulties, leading to open warfare in 1568. He appointed his half-sister Margaret of Parma as Governor of

5060-412: The War of the Portuguese Succession and the Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604) . The Spanish navy defeated the combined Anglo-French fleet that had sailed to preserve control of the Azores under António. The French naval contingent was the largest French force sent overseas before the age of Louis XIV . The Spanish victory at Terceira was followed by the Battle of the Azores between the Portuguese loyal to

5152-432: The ailing colony has been attributed to the strain on Spain's resources that resulted from wars with England and Dutch rebels. In 1587, English corsairs renamed Ciudad del Rey Don Felipe, Puerto del Hambre, or "Port Famine". Most of the settlers had died from cold or starvation. When Sir Thomas Cavendish landed at the site of Rey Don Felipe in 1587, he found only ruins of the settlement. The Spanish failure at colonizing

5244-406: The aristocratic houses of France, such as the House of Bourbon and House of Guise , and both sides received assistance from foreign sources. Philip claimed descent from Constantine I and Charlemagne , justifying his intervention in French Wars of Religion and his continuing efforts to depose Henry IV of France . Philip signed the Treaty of Vaucelles with Henry II of France in 1556. Based on

5336-427: The boundary of Levy County to the north-west, Marion County to the north-east, and Citrus County to the south. It was created in the early 1900s when the river was dammed. Florida Power Corp operated a hydroelectric plant from 1909 to 1965 at the western end of the lake. Power output was approximately 10,000 HP, or 7.45 MW. The lake is about 35 miles (56 km) west of Ocala and 10 miles (16 km) east from

5428-491: The canal's planned path, along with different vegetation patterns on the land acquired for the project (as seen from the air). A lock and dam was also built south of the canal on the Ocklawaha River near CR 464C in Marion County . 29°32′15″N 81°44′48″W  /  29.5374695°N 81.7467501°W  / 29.5374695; -81.7467501 Philip II of Spain Philip II (21 May 1527 – 13 September 1598), sometimes known in Spain as Philip

5520-399: The capital of Spain. It was around this time that Philip II converted the Royal Alcázar of Madrid into a royal palace; the works, which lasted from 1561 until 1598, were done by tradesmen who came from the Netherlands, Italy, and France. King Philip II ruled at a critical turning point in European history toward modernity whereas his father Charles V had been forced to an itinerant rule as

5612-565: The claimant António, supported by French and English troops, and the Spanish-Portuguese forces loyal to Philip commanded by the admiral Don Álvaro de Bazán . Victory in Azores completed the incorporation of Portugal into the Spanish Empire . Philip financed the Catholic League during the French Wars of Religion. He directly intervened in the final phases of the wars (1589–1598), ordering Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma into France in an effort to unseat Henry IV , and perhaps dreaming of placing his favourite daughter, Isabella Clara Eugenia , on

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5704-420: The defender of Catholic Europe against the Ottoman Empire and the Protestant Reformation . In 1584, Philip signed the Treaty of Joinville funding the French Catholic League over the following decade in its civil war against the French Huguenots . In 1588, he sent an armada to invade Protestant England, with the strategic aim of overthrowing Elizabeth I and re-establishing Catholicism there, but his fleet

5796-473: The end of 1594 certain League members were still working against Henry across the country, but all relied on the support of the Spanish Crown. In January 1595, therefore, Henry officially declared war on the Spanish Crown, to show Catholics that Philip was using religion as a cover for an attack on the French state, and Protestants that he had not become a puppet of the Spanish Crown through his conversion, while hoping to reconquer large parts of northern France from

5888-486: The entire project was estimated at $ 143 million to complete. In 1936, Michigan Senator Arthur Vandenberg challenged the canal, stating that the project never received authorization from the United States Congress . At the time, thirteen million cubic yards (9,900,000 m) of material had already been excavated, 5,000 acres (2,000 ha) of land cleared, and four bridge piers constructed near Ocala . Funds for construction were also exhausted, so construction stopped. Work

5980-466: The expulsion of the Moriscos from Granada and their dispersal to other provinces. Despite its immense dominions, the Spanish kingdoms had a sparse population that yielded a limited income to the crown (in contrast to France , for example, which was much more heavily populated). Philip faced major difficulties in raising taxes, and the collection was largely farmed out to local lords. He was able to finance his military campaigns only by taxing and exploiting

6072-404: The forces of Piyale Pasha and Turgut Reis (who joined Piyale Pasha on the third day of the battle) won an overwhelming victory at the Battle of Djerba . The Holy League lost 60 ships (30 galleys) and 20,000 men, and Giovanni Andrea Doria was barely able to escape with a small vessel. The Ottomans retook the Fortress of Djerba, whose Spanish commander, D. Álvaro de Sande , attempted to escape with

6164-457: The government of the Spanish kingdoms. The king-emperor's interactions with his son during his stay in Castile convinced him of Philip's precocity in statesmanship, so he determined to leave in his hands the regency of the Spanish kingdoms in 1543. Philip, who had previously been made the Duke of Milan in 1540, began governing the most extensive empire in the world at the young age of sixteen. Charles left Philip with experienced advisors—notably

6256-426: The island and took some of them, but the Spanish sent a relief force under D. García de Toledo and a rescued Álvaro de Sande, which finally drove the Ottoman army out of the island. The grave threat posed by the increasing Ottoman domination of the Mediterranean was finally reversed in one of history's most decisive battles, with the destruction of nearly the entire Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571, by

6348-457: The local resources of his empire. The flow of income from the New World proved vital to his militant foreign policy, but his exchequer several times faced bankruptcy. Spanish culture flourished during Philip's reign, beginning the " Spanish Golden Age ", creating a lasting legacy in literature, music, and the visual arts. One of the notable artists from Philip II's court was Sofonisba Anguissola , who gained fame for her talent and unusual role as

6440-464: The next 65 years. Aside from reducing state revenues for overseas expeditions, the domestic policies of Philip II further burdened the Spanish kingdoms and would, in the following century, contribute to its decline, as maintained by some historians. The Spanish kingdoms were subject to different assemblies: the Cortes in Castile , the assembly in Navarre , and one each for the four kingdoms of Aragon , which preserved traditional rights and laws from

6532-424: The past, and that the French will calm down. May God give us peace in the end, as their Majesties desire and deserve! In response to the invasion, Pope Paul IV called for a French military intervention. After minor fights in Lazio and near Rome, Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba , Viceroy of Naples met Cardinal Carlo Carafa and signed the Treaty of Cave as a compromise: French and Spanish forces left

6624-417: The peninsula. Mary Tudor's death in 1558 enabled Philip to seal the treaty by marrying Henry II's daughter, Elisabeth of Valois , later giving him a claim to the throne of France on behalf of his daughter by Elisabeth, Isabella Clara Eugenia . The French Wars of Religion (1562–1598) were primarily fought between French Catholics and Protestants (Huguenots). The conflict involved the factional disputes between

6716-468: The population would have run away had not the gates been closed. The Pope has fallen ill with rage, and was struggling with a fever on the 16th of this month. The two Carafa brothers, the Cardinal and Count Montorio, do not agree, and they and Piero Strozzi are not on as good terms as they were in the past. They would like to discuss peace. The best thing would be for the Pope to die, for he is the poison at

6808-537: The premier power of Europe, to the detriment of France. In France, Henry II was fatally wounded in a joust held during the celebrations of the peace. His death led to the accession of his 15-year-old son Francis II , who in turn soon died. The French monarchy was thrown into turmoil, which increased further with the outbreak of the French Wars of Religion that would last for several decades. The states of Italy were reduced to second-rate powers, with Spain dominating

6900-557: The prior year at age 82. The planned route of the canal followed the St. Johns River from the Atlantic coast to Palatka , the valley of the Ocklawaha River to the coastal divide, and the Withlacoochee River to the Gulf of Mexico. About 28% of the 107 miles (172 km) project was built—the cross-country section 29°32′15″N 81°44′48″W  /  29.53750°N 81.74667°W  / 29.53750; -81.74667 from

6992-533: The project. The next year, President Lyndon Johnson set off the explosives that started construction. It was intended that the canal, along with the St. Johns-Indian River Barge Canal , would provide a quicker and safer route across Florida by 1971. Opponents subsequently campaigned against the canal on environmental grounds, and a lawsuit was filed against the Army Corps by the Florida Defenders of

7084-576: The realm-specific laws, so the Attorney General ( Justicia ) of the kingdom, Juan de Lanuza, was executed on Philip II's orders, with his secretary Antonio Pérez taking exile in France. In Navarre, the major strongholds of the kingdom were garrisoned by troops alien to the kingdom (Castilians) in a conspicuous violation of the local laws, and the Parliament had long been refusing to pledge loyalty to Philip II's son and heir apparent without

7176-596: The root of all this trouble and more which may occur. His Majesty's intention is only to wrest the knife from this madman's hand and make him return to a sense of his dignity, acting like the protector of the Apostolic See , in whose name, and that of the College of Cardinals , his Majesty has publicly proclaimed that he has seized all he is occupying. The Pope is now sending again to the potentates of Italy for help. I hope he will gain as little thereby as he has done in

7268-426: The secretary Francisco de los Cobos and the general, the Duke of Alba. Philip was also left with extensive written instructions that emphasised "piety, patience, modesty, and distrust". These principles of Charles were gradually assimilated by his son, who would grow up to become grave, self-possessed and cautious. Personally, Philip spoke softly and had an icy self-mastery; in the words of one of his ministers, "he had

7360-600: The state of Florida for use as public conservation and recreation area, becoming the Cross Florida Greenway State Recreation and Conservation Area in 1991. In 1998, the land was renamed the Marjorie Harris Carr Cross Florida Greenway in honor of Marjorie Harris Carr , who had led the opposition to the canal with the organization she co-founded, Florida Defenders of the Environment. Carr had died

7452-460: The states of Milan, Naples and Sicily. Ultimately, the treaty ended the 60-year Franco-Habsburg wars for supremacy in Italy. It marked also the beginning of a period of peace between the Pope and Philip, as their European interests converged, although political differences remained and diplomatic contrasts eventually re-emerged. By the end of the wars in 1559, Habsburg Spain had been established as

7544-524: The terms of the treaty, the territory of Franche-Comté in Burgundy was to be relinquished to Philip. However, the treaty was broken shortly afterwards. France and the Spanish kingdoms waged war in northern France and Italy over the following years. Spanish victories at St. Quentin and Gravelines led to the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis, in which France recognised Spanish sovereignty over Franche-Comté. During

7636-452: The time when they were separate kingdoms. This made the Spanish kingdoms and its possessions difficult to rule, unlike France, which while divided into regional states, had a single Estates General . The lack of a viable supreme assembly led to power defaulting into Philip II's hands, especially as manager and final arbiter of the constant conflict between different authorities. To deal with the difficulties arising from this situation, authority

7728-494: Was administered by local agents appointed by the crown and viceroys carrying out crown instructions. Philip II felt it necessary to be involved in the detail, and he presided over specialised councils for state affairs, finance, war, and the Inquisition . Philip II played groups against each other, leading to a system of checks and balances that managed affairs inefficiently, even to the extent of damaging state business, as in

7820-761: Was defeated in a skirmish at Gravelines (northern France) and then destroyed by storms as it circled the British Isles to return to Spain. The following year Philip's naval power was able to recover after the failed invasion of the English Armada into Spain. Two more Spanish armadas unsuccessfully tried to invade England in 1596 and 1597 . The Anglo-Spanish War carried on until 1604, six years after Philip's death. Under Philip, an average of about 9,000 soldiers were recruited from Spain each year, rising to as many as 20,000 in crisis years. Between 1567 and 1574, nearly 43,000 men left Spain to fight in Italy and

7912-480: Was eleven months old, he received the oath of allegiance as heir to the crown from the Cortes of Castile. From that time until the death of his mother Isabella in 1539, he was raised in the royal court of Castile under the care of his mother and one of her Portuguese ladies, Doña Leonor de Mascarenhas, to whom he was devotedly attached. Philip was also close to his two sisters, María and Juana , and to his two pages,

8004-419: Was entrusted to the royal governess Leonor de Mascareñas , and tutored by Juan Martínez Siliceo , the future archbishop of Toledo . Philip displayed reasonable aptitude in arts and letters alike. Later he would study with more illustrious tutors, including the humanist Juan Cristóbal Calvete de Estrella. Though Philip had good command over Latin , Spanish, and Portuguese, he never managed to equal his father as

8096-541: Was expected to be tremendous in that it "promote the national defense and to promptly facilitate and protect the transport of materials and supplies needful to the Military Establishment". The canal was intended to save travel time and distance for shipping companies by avoiding the longer route through the Florida Straits and link Florida's inland waterways to both coasts. All the bridges over

8188-593: Was held before the bishop of Pamplona (22 November), but its customary procedure and terms were altered. Protests erupted in Pamplona, but they were quelled. Philip II also grappled with the problem of the large Morisco population in the Spanish kingdoms, who had been forcibly converted to Christianity by his predecessors. In 1569, the Morisco Revolt broke out in the southern Kingdom of Granada in defiance of attempts to suppress Moorish customs. Philip ordered

8280-453: Was largely a restatement of the 1559 Peace of Câteau-Cambrésis and Spanish forces and subsidies were withdrawn; meanwhile, Henry issued the Edict of Nantes , which offered a high degree of religious toleration for French Protestants. The military interventions in France thus failed to oust Henry from the throne or suppress Protestantism in France, and yet they had played a decisive part in helping

8372-518: Was reauthorized by Congress in 1942 as a national defense project, and $ 93 million was authorized for construction. Dams and locks were used to protect the underground water supply. Support for the project from Washington was sporadic, and funds were never allocated to the Army Corps to actually start construction. Planning was once again given the go-ahead in 1963 with support from President John F. Kennedy , who allocated one million dollars to

8464-479: Was such a rule necessarily possible at his time. The inefficiencies of the Spanish state and the restrictively regulated industry under his rule were common to many contemporary countries. Further, the dispersal of the Moriscos from Granada—motivated by the fear they might support a Muslim invasion—had serious negative effects on the economy, particularly in that region. Philip's foreign policies were determined by

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