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119-679: The first anthropological society in the US was the American Ethnological Society of New York, which was founded by Albert Gallatin and revived in 1899 by Franz Boas after a hiatus. 1879 saw the establishment of the Anthropological Society of Washington (which first published the journal American Anthropologist , before it became a national journal), and 1882 saw the American Association for

238-729: A $ 20 million federal infrastructure program. Among his proposals were canals through Cape Cod , the Delmarva Peninsula , and the Great Dismal Swamp , a road stretching from Maine to Georgia, a series of canals connecting the Hudson River with the Great Lakes , and various other canals to connect seaports like Charleston with interior regions. Resistance from many congressional Democratic-Republicans regarding cost, as well as hostilities with Britain, prevented

357-568: A $ 20 million federal loan program to support fledgling manufacturers. He was also unable to convince Congress to renew the charter of the First Bank of the United States (commonly known as the national bank ). Although the national bank had been established as part of Hamilton's economic program, and Jefferson believed that it was "one of the most deadly hostility existing against the principles and form of our Constitution," Gallatin saw

476-549: A 41-member Section Assembly representing each of the association's constituent sections, and a 15-member Executive Board. According to its articles of incorporation, the AAA was formed to: promote the science of anthropology, to stimulate and coordinate the efforts of American anthropologists, to foster local and other societies devoted to anthropology, to serve as a bond among American anthropologists and anthropologic[al] organizations present and prospective, and to publish and encourage

595-418: A draft statement of its long-range plan, instead pledging to advance "the public understanding of humankind." The change set off a wide-ranging controversy over the definition of the discipline, with many archaeologists and physical anthropologists describing themselves as marginalized within the AAA. The final version of the long-range plan begins, "The strength of Anthropology lies in its distinctive position at

714-431: A faculty, when discussion grows too warm, of turning off its edge by a joke, which I envy him more than all his other talents; and he has in his character one of the most extraordinary combinations of stubbornness and of flexibility that I ever met with in man. His greatest fault I think to be an ingenuity sometimes trenching upon ingenuousness. After the end of the war, Gallatin negotiated a commercial treaty providing for

833-601: A final time at the June 1815 Battle of Waterloo . Gallatin's patience and skill in dealing with not only the British but also his fellow members of the American commission, including Clay and Adams, made the treaty "the special and peculiar triumph of Mr. Gallatin." John Quincy Adams , head of the American negotiating team, described Gallatin: [H]e seldom yields to an ebullition of temper, and recovers from it immediately. He has

952-655: A large and increasing trade in illicit antiquities continues. Further complicating matters is the existence of archaeological forgeries , such as the Etruscan terracotta warriors , the Persian Princess , and the Getty kouros . There has been a growing effort to repatriate artifacts illicitly obtained and traded on the international market and return them to their countries of origin and preserve their cultural value. Such artifacts include those held by museums such as

1071-574: A letter to Madison, asking for permission to resign and criticizing the president for various actions, including his failure to take a strong stance on the national bank. Shortly afterwards, Madison replaced Secretary of State Smith with James Monroe, and Gallatin withdrew his resignation request. Following the repeal of the Embargo Act of 1807, Gallatin was charged with enforcing the Non-Intercourse Act of 1809 , which lifted parts of

1190-519: A middleman to often unsuspecting collectors, museums, antique dealers, and auction houses. The antiquities trade is much more careful in recent years about establishing the provenance of cultural artifacts. Some estimates of billions of dollars in annual sales are demonstrably false. The true extent of the trade is unknown as incidents of looting are underreported. It is not unheard of for stolen pieces to be found in auction houses before they have been noticed as missing from their original home. It

1309-469: A model for contemporary artists and formed the basis for art movements such as Classicism and Neoclassicism. Collectors, museums and public institutions acquired antiquities. In the 18th century, there was a flourishing trade in antiquities, particularly in Rome. Johann Joachim Winckelmann was appointed superintendent of all antiquities ( Commissario delle Antichità ) in and around Rome in 1763. One of his tasks

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1428-442: A national society should be formed. Boas advocated a restricted membership of 40 "professional anthropologists", but the AAA's first president, W. J. McGee , ensured that membership would be open to everyone with an interest in the discipline. At its incorporation, it assumed responsibility for the journal American Anthropologist , created in 1888 by the Anthropological Society of Washington (ASW). Business affairs are conducted by

1547-427: A number of national news articles on the project, anthropologists began to debate the project and related ethical issues. Proponents of the program argued that anthropologists were providing much-needed cultural knowledge about local populations and helping to decrease violence in their areas of operation. Critics, however, argued that HTS anthropologists could not receive informed consent from their research subjects in

1666-412: A period from the 2nd to 19th centuries. Around 50 of them have religious significance. To combat looting, aerial surveillance - the effectiveness of which depends on the capability to perform systematic prospections - is increasingly being used. It is sometimes impractical, due to military activity, political restrictions, the vastness of the area, difficult environments, etc. Space technology could offer

1785-404: A resumption of trade between the United States and Britain. Though the war with Britain had at best been a stalemate, Gallatin was pleased that it resulted in the consolidation of U.S. control over western territories, as the British withdrew their support from dissident Native Americans who had sought to create an independent state in the Great Lakes region . He also noted that "the war has laid

1904-726: A speech advocating against normalizing relations with self-liberated slaves in the French colony of Saint-Domingue , arguing that if "they were left to govern themselves, they might become more troublesome to us, in our commerce to the West Indies , than the Algerines ever were in the Mediterranean ; they might also become dangerous neighbors to the Southern States , and an asylum for renegades from those parts." In

2023-466: A strain of radical republican thought that originated in England a century earlier, convinced him that public debts were a nursery of multiple public evils—corruption, legislative impotence, executive tyranny, social inequality, financial speculation, and personal indolence. Not only was it necessary to extinguish the existing debt as rapidly as possible, he argued, but Congress would have to ensure against

2142-523: A suitable alternative, as in the case of Peru, where an Italian scientific mission directed by Nicola Masini has since 2008 been using very high resolution satellite data to observe and monitor the phenomenon of huaqueros (archaeological looting) in some archaeological areas in southern and northern Peru. The U.S. Government Accountability Office issued a report describing some of the United States’ cultural property protection efforts. In 2022

2261-665: A war zone and that information provided by anthropologists might put populations in danger. To address these issues, the Association's Executive Board released a statement on 31 October 2007. It cited "sufficiently troubling and urgent ethical issues" raised by the project, including the difficulties for HTS anthropologists to receive informed consent without coercion from their research subjects and to uphold their ethical mandate to "do no harm" to those they study. The AAA urged members to adhere to its code of ethics, which outlines principles and guidelines for ethical behavior. However,

2380-675: Is also portrayed in the center of the $ 500 denomination set of Greenbacks (series 1862–63) currency issue. Gallatin said "far too much credit has been given me for abilities at the expense of the purity of my motives." Antiquities trade The antiquities trade is the exchange of antiquities and archaeological artifacts from around the world. This trade may be illicit or completely legal. The legal antiquities trade abides by national regulations, allowing for extraction of artifacts for scientific study whilst maintaining archaeological and anthropological context. The illicit antiquities trade involves non-scientific extraction that ignores

2499-640: Is believed by many archaeologists and cultural heritage lawyers that the demand created by circulation, marketing, and collectorship of ancient artifacts causes the continuous looting and destruction of archaeological sites around the world. Archaeological artifacts are internationally protected by the Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict and international trade in cultural property of dubious provenance

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2618-562: Is published bimonthly. AAA publications are available online through AnthroSource . Since 2007, journals have been published in partnership with Wiley-Blackwell since 2007. Since 1962 the association has published the AAA AnthroGuide, giving staff and program information about anthropology departments. The AAA supported the passage of the Antiquities Act of 1906 , protested the discontinuance of anthropological research in

2737-739: Is restricted by the UNESCO Convention (1970) on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property . After years of resistance, the United States played a major role in drafting and promoting the 1970 Convention. Examples of looting of archaeological sites for the black market: The protection of antiquities necessitates the formulation and implementation of comprehensive public policies. These policies address issues such as provenance, looting prevention, and repatriation, ensuring

2856-583: The 1808 presidential election . After taking office, Madison sought to appoint Gallatin as Secretary of State, which was generally seen as the most prestigious cabinet position. Opposition from the Senate convinced Madison to retain Gallatin as Secretary of the Treasury, and Robert Smith instead received the appointment as Secretary of State. Gallatin was deeply displeased by the appointment of Smith, and he

2975-596: The Bureau of Indian Affairs . Gallatin developed a personal relationship with Cherokee tribal leader John Ridge , who provided him with information on the vocabulary and the structure of the Cherokee language . Gallatin's research resulted in two published works: A Table of Indian Languages of the United States (1826) and Synopsis of the Indian Tribes of North America (1836). His research led him to conclude that

3094-674: The Getty Museum (e.g. Victorious Youth ) and the Metropolitan Museum of Art (e.g. Euphronios Krater ). In July 2023, a repatriation ceremony was held at the Indian Consulate in New York City to celebrate the handing over of 105 trafficked antiquities to India. The countries had agreed to prevent illegal trafficking of cultural artefacts during Prime Minister Modi's state visit to US. The artifacts span

3213-816: The House of Representatives in 1795, where he helped establish the House Ways and Means Committee . He became the chief spokesman on financial matters for the Democratic-Republican Party and led opposition to the Federalist economic program. Gallatin helped Thomas Jefferson prevail in the contentious presidential election of 1800 , and his reputation as a prudent financial manager led to his appointment as Treasury Secretary . Under Jefferson, Gallatin reduced government spending, instituted checks and balances for government expenditures, and financed

3332-696: The International Consortium of Investigative Journalists (ICIJ) began publishing a series of articles about antiquities trafficking as part of the Hidden Treasures project. In a joint investigation with The Indian Express , the ICIJ published a list of more than 1000 cultural heritage objects linked to antiquities trafficker Subhash Kapoo r. The ICIJ also ran features on artworks in private collections that had been looted from Cambodia as well as looted artworks that had passed through

3451-667: The Louisiana Purchase . He retained his position through James Madison's administration until February 1814, maintaining much of Hamilton's financial system while presiding over a reduction in the national debt. Gallatin served on the American commission that agreed to the Treaty of Ghent , which ended the War of 1812 . In the aftermath of the war, he helped found the Second Bank of the United States . Declining another term at

3570-774: The Missouri River . The town of Three Forks is in Gallatin County, Montana , and Montana also hosts Gallatin National Forest and Gallatin Range . Gallatin, Tennessee , the seat of Sumner County and Gallatin County, Kentucky are also named for Gallatin. Gallatin's home of Friendship Hill is maintained by the National Park Service . A statue of Gallatin stands at the northern entrance of

3689-507: The Napoleonic Wars . During Jefferson's second term, both the British and French stepped up efforts to prevent American trade with their respective enemy. Particularly offensive to many Americans was the British practice of impressment , in which the British forced captured American sailors to crew British ships. Jefferson sent James Monroe to Britain to negotiate a renewal and revision of the 1795 Jay Treaty , but Jefferson rejected

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3808-660: The Pennsylvania General Assembly . Gallatin was elected to the United States Senate in 1793, emerging as a leading Anti-Federalist and opponent of Alexander Hamilton 's economic policies. However, he was soon removed from office on a party-line vote due to not meeting requisite citizenship requirements; returning to Pennsylvania, Gallatin helped calm many angry farmers during the Whiskey Rebellion . Gallatin won election to

3927-566: The Rush–Bagot Treaty and the Treaty of 1818 , two treaties with Britain that settled several issues left over from the War of 1812 and established joint Anglo-American control over Oregon Country . Upon returning to the United States, Gallatin agreed to serve as William H. Crawford 's running mate in the 1824 presidential election , but later withdrew from the race at Crawford's request. Crawford had originally hoped that Gallatin's presence on

4046-616: The Second Bank of the United States as a replacement for the defunct First Bank of the United States. Gallatin considered going into business with his longtime friend, John Jacob Astor, but ultimately he accepted appointment as ambassador to France . He served in that position from 1816 to 1823. Though he did not approve of the prevailing ideology of the Bourbon Restoration , Gallatin and his family enjoyed living in Paris . While serving as ambassador to France, he helped negotiate

4165-604: The Treasury Building ; a statue of Hamilton stands at the building's southern entrance. The Albert Gallatin Area School District , located in southwestern Fayette County, Pennsylvania, and having contained within Gallatin's home, Friendship Hill, is also named after Gallatin. Businessman Albert Gallatin Edwards (who founded his eponymous brokerage firm in 1887 which folded into Wachovia in 2007)

4284-785: The United States General Land Office as part of the Department of the Treasury, charging the new office with overseeing public lands. To help develop western lands, Gallatin advocated for internal improvements such as roads and canals, especially those that would connect to territories west of the Appalachian Mountains. In 1805, despite his earlier constitutional reservations, Jefferson announced his support for federally financed infrastructure projects. Three years later, Gallatin put forward his Report on Roads and Canals , in which he advocated for

4403-405: The archaeological and anthropological context from the artifacts. The legal trade in antiquities abide by the laws of the countries in which the artifacts originate. These laws establish how the antiquities may be extracted from the ground and the legal process in which artifacts may leave the country. In many countries excavations and exports were prohibited without official licenses already in

4522-631: The measles before she was eight months old, Sophia and Hannah also died as infants. Gallatin's marriage proved to be politically and economically advantageous, as the Nicholsons enjoyed connections in New York, Georgia, and Maryland. With most of his business ventures unsuccessful, Gallatin sold much of his land, excluding Friendship Hill, to Robert Morris ; he and his wife would instead live in Philadelphia and other coastal cities for most of

4641-504: The 19th and 20th centuries nation states introduced laws restricting excavation, the export, and ownership of Antiquities. The Antiquities trade was regulated through: Illicit or illegal antiquities are those found in illegal or unregulated excavations, and traded covertly. The black market trade of illicit antiquities is supplied by looting and art theft . Artifacts are often those that have been discovered and unearthed at archeological digs and then transported internationally through

4760-564: The 19th century, as for example in the Ottoman Empire . According to the laws of the countries of origin, there can't be a legal trade with archaeological artifact without official papers. However, most national laws still overturn these regulations. Antiquity (ca. 3000 BC – 500 AD): During antiquity, trade in antiquities and artefacts played an important role in the exchange between different civilizations and cultures. Greek and Roman artworks were traded throughout Europe, North Africa and

4879-472: The AAA Board and transferred to Wiley-Blackwell. Commencing 2008, AnthroSource was to be hosted and managed by Wiley-Blackwell as part of the five-year publishing contract awarded. In 2013, the Association announced that it would experiment with making Cultural Anthropology an open-access journal ; Brad Weiss, the society's president, said in a statement posted on the group's Web site, that "Starting with

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4998-656: The AAA Executive Board commissioned the American Anthropological Association Statement on Race , and said that race is a constructed social mechanism "... race as it is understood in the United States of America was a social mechanism invented..." The statement clarified: "With the vast expansion of scientific knowledge in this century, however, it has become clear that human populations are not unambiguous, clearly demarcated, biologically distinct groups." In 2006,

5117-427: The AAA Executive Board issued a resolution that declared Arizona's SB1070 , a law which empowers state law enforcement to assist with the enforcement of federal law, to be " unconstitutional ." The Board claimed it would boycott Arizona, but would not boycott " Indian Reservations " within the state , until the law "is either repealed or struck down as constitutionally invalid." The Board did not state what it will do if

5236-474: The AAA issued a statement on Human rights, noting that value judgments are culturally contextual and arguing that a declaration about universal human rights ought to take into consideration and encompass all the different human value systems. This stance has gradually been abandoned by most anthropologists, many of whom today see universal human rights as an important way through which discrimination, oppression of cultural minorities can be reduced. On May 22, 2010,

5355-625: The Advancement of Science established an anthropological section. Boas and other anthropologist discussed the possibility of creating a single national society already in 1898, but fears that it might damage the AAAS caused a long discussion. In 1901 the AES and ASW sent members to attend the meeting of the AAAS anthropologists in Chicago in which discussions continued and there was general agreement that

5474-547: The American Ethnological Society; his studies of Indigenous languages of North America have earned him the moniker "father of American ethnology." Gallatin remained active in public life as an outspoken opponent of slavery and fiscal irresponsibility and an advocate for free trade and individual liberty. Gallatin was born on January 29, 1761, in Geneva , and was until 1785 a citizen of the Republic of Geneva . His parents were

5593-715: The Anglo-American control of Oregon Country, Gallatin returned to the United States in November 1827. Gallatin moved to New York City in 1828 and became president of the National Bank of New York the following year. He attempted to persuade President Jackson to recharter the Second Bank of the United States, but Jackson vetoed a recharter bill and the Second Bank lost its federal charter in 1836. In 1831, Gallatin helped found New York University , and in 1843 he

5712-466: The Association and its member sections. Members of the association receive access to AnthroSource as a benefit of membership, and institutions may receive access via paid subscription. Until August 2007, AnthroSource was a collaboration between the University of California Press and the Association. It, along with all their journals, has since been removed from the University of California Press by

5831-567: The Baroque period, with Roman sculptures and Greek vases being particularly sought after. Collectors such as kings, nobles and wealthy citizens expanded their art collections and promoted the trade in antiquities. The demand for antiquities led to the discovery and excavation of further ancient sites, particularly in Italy and Greece. The sons and daughters of the European aristocracy, and later also

5950-669: The Democratic-Republican leader in the House of Representatives. During the Quasi-War with France, Gallatin criticized military expenditures and opposed passage of the Alien and Sedition Acts . In the contingent election that decided the outcome of the 1800 presidential election , Gallatin helped Thomas Jefferson secure victory over his ostensible running mate, Aaron Burr . Gallatin's mastery of public finance made him

6069-417: The Jefferson cabinet and the last surviving senator from the 18th century. Gallatin is commemorated in the naming of a number of counties, roads, and streets, as well as through his association with New York University. The Gallatin River , named by the Lewis and Clark expedition, is one of three rivers (along with the Jefferson River and the Madison River ) that converge near Three Forks, Montana to form

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6188-543: The Middle East. This trade often took place in the context of diplomatic relations, military conquests and trade routes. Ancient port cities such as Alexandria , Rome and Athens served as important centers for the trade in art and other goods. Middle Ages (ca. 500 AD – 1500 AD): During the Middle Ages, the trade in antiquities became less important as European society was characterized by political instability, cultural change and economic difficulties. Many ancient works of art were destroyed, lost or reused, and trade in them

6307-415: The Philippines (1915), urged the teaching of anthropology in high schools (1927), spoke out for the preservation of archaeological materials when dams were built by the Tennessee Valley Authority (1935), passed a pre-WWII resolution against racism (1938), and expressed the need to "guard against the dangers, and utilize the promise, inherent in the use of atomic energy" (1945). In the 1960s and early 1970s,

6426-456: The Senate. Gallatin was one of two senators to vote against the Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution . Gallatin had strongly opposed the 1791 establishment of an excise tax on whiskey , as whiskey trade and production constituted an important part of the Western economy. In 1794, after Gallatin had been removed from the Senate and returned to Friendship Hill, the Whiskey Rebellion broke out among disgruntled farmers opposed to

6545-400: The Treasury, Gallatin served as Ambassador to France from 1816 to 1823, struggling with scant success to improve relations during the Bourbon Restoration . In the election of 1824 , Gallatin was nominated for Vice President by the Democratic-Republican Congressional caucus , but never wanted the position and ultimately withdrew due to a lack of popular support. In 1826 and 1827, he served as

6664-414: The Union." The rebellion collapsed as the army moved near. In the aftermath of the Whiskey Rebellion, Gallatin won election to the United States House of Representatives , taking his seat in March 1795. Upon his return to Congress, Gallatin became the leading financial expert of the Democratic-Republican Party . In 1796, Gallatin published A Sketch on the Finances of the United States , which discussed

6783-411: The United States , helping shape the new republic's financial system and foreign policy. Gallatin was a prominent member of the Democratic-Republican Party , represented Pennsylvania in both chambers of Congress , and held several influential roles across four presidencies, most notably as the longest serving U.S. Secretary of the Treasury . He is also known for his contributions to academia, namely as

6902-597: The United States, but the company proved unable to attract many settlers. In 1789, Gallatin married Sophie Allègre, the daughter of a Richmond boardinghouse owner, but Allègre died just five months into the marriage. He was in mourning for a number of years and seriously considered returning to Geneva. However, on November 1, 1793, he married Hannah Nicholson, daughter of the well-connected Commodore James Nicholson . They had two sons and four daughters: Catherine, Sophia Albertine, Hannah Maria, Frances, James , and Albert Rolaz Gallatin. Catherine died of whooping cough and

7021-526: The United States, convinced Harvard College to employ Gallatin as a French tutor. Gallatin disliked living in New England , instead preferring to become a farmer in the Trans-Appalachian West, which at that point was the frontier of American settlement. He became the interpreter and business partner of a French land speculator, Jean Savary, and traveled throughout various parts of the United States in order to purchase undeveloped Western lands. In 1785, he became an American citizen after he swore allegiance to

7140-408: The Ways and Means Committee earned him a strong reputation as an expert in finance and taxation. Gallatin won election to the United States Senate in early 1793, and he took his seat in December of that year. He quickly emerged as a prominent opponent of Alexander Hamilton 's economic program but was declared ineligible for a seat in the Senate in February 1794 because he had not been a citizen for

7259-406: The academic community, including students, should scrupulously avoid both involvement in clandestine intelligence activities and the use of the name of anthropology, or the title of anthropologist, as a cover for intelligence activities. Through 2007 and 2008, debates surrounding anthropologists and the military resurfaced in response to the Pentagon 's Human Terrain System (HTS) project. Following

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7378-472: The accumulation of future debts by more diligently supervising government expenditures. Shortly after taking office, Gallatin worked with House Ways and Means Committee Chairman John Randolph to reduce federal spending and reduce or abolish all internal taxes, including the tax on whiskey. He presided over dramatic reductions in military spending, particularly for the United States Navy . Despite his opposition to debt, Gallatin strongly supported and arranged

7497-474: The activities of unqualified individuals who have falsely claimed to be anthropologists, or who have pretended to be engaged in anthropological research while in fact pursuing other ends. There is also good reason to believe that some anthropologists have used their professional standing and the names of their academic institutions as cloaks for the collection of intelligence information and for intelligence operations. Academic institutions and individual members of

7616-411: The ambassador to Britain and negotiated several agreements, such as a ten-year extension of the joint occupation of Oregon Country . He thereafter retired from politics and dedicated the rest of his life to various civic, humanitarian, and academic causes. He became the first president of the New York branch of the National Bank from 1831 to 1839, and in 1842 joined John Russell Bartlett to establish

7735-458: The association developed and continues to manage a public education program titled "RACE: Are We So Different?" The program includes a traveling museum exhibit, an interactive website, and educational materials. Initially, AAA was highly skeptical of the concept of universal human rights , with some anthropologists arguing that because of cultural relativism there are no principles that can be universally valid for humans of all cultures. IN 1947

7854-502: The association does not adjudicate cases involving charges of unethical behavior or bar members from participating in the HTS program. In addition, the Association's Commission on the Engagement of Anthropology with US Security and Intelligence Communities (CEAUSSIC) issued a final report released during the AAA's 2007 annual meeting, based on over a year of work. It neither endorsed nor condemned anthropological work with military, intelligence and security organizations, but instead outlined

7973-454: The association examined the issues of government-sponsored classified research, use of anthropologists by the military in Vietnam, secret research in Thailand, and the general problem of a code of ethics for anthropological research, particularly for the protection of the rights of those studied. Other issues addressed from the 1970s through the 1980s included illegal antiquities trade , the insertion of religious beliefs into social science texts,

8092-416: The attacks on American shipping. In June 1812, Madison signed a declaration of war against Britain, beginning the War of 1812 . Madison ordered an invasion of Canada by relying on mostly state militias, but British forces defeated the invasion. The U.S. experienced some successes at sea, but was unable to break the British blockade. With the abolition of the national bank, the drop in import duties due to

8211-467: The book, and not protecting "scholars from baseless and sensationalistic charges". The AAA has issued a number of statements on the topic of race , and since the 1950s has argued publicly that race is best understood as a cultural or bio-cultural rather than mostly biological construction. In the 1990s, in response to what it felt was public confusion about the meaning of " race ," particularly perceived public misconceptions about race and intelligence ,

8330-420: The courts uphold SB1070 as constitutionally valid. The Board stated that "The AAA has a long and rich history of supporting policies that prohibit discrimination based on ... national origin   ..." On September 19, 2016, the U.S. District Court in Arizona entered a permanent injunction barring enforcement of the remaining provisions. With the law's repeal, AAA's ban on considering AAA conferences in Arizona

8449-402: The discipline of anthropology. Sections each have an elected president or chair; many publish journals and host meetings. The AAA publishes more than 20 section publications including American Anthropologist , American Ethnologist , Cultural Anthropology , Anthropology & Education Quarterly and Medical Anthropology Quarterly . The AAA's official magazine, Anthropology News ,

8568-551: The dispute between Derek Freeman and defenders of Margaret Mead , as well as the controversy over the book Darkness in El Dorado . In the latter case, Alice Dreger , an historian of medicine and science, and an outsider to the debate, concluded after a year of research that the American Anthropological Association was complicit and irresponsible in helping spread the falsehoods contained in

8687-495: The ethical circulation of historical artifacts. On 16 November 1972, UNESCO adopted the international Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. The export of antiquities is now heavily controlled by law in almost all countries and by the 1970 UNESCO Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property, but

8806-577: The federal collection of the whiskey tax. Gallatin did not join in the rebellion, but criticized the military response of the President George Washington 's administration as an overreaction. Gallatin helped persuade many of the angered farmers to end the rebellion, urging them to accept that "if any one part of the Union are suffered to oppose by force the determination of the whole, there is an end to government itself and of course to

8925-482: The financing for the Louisiana Purchase , in which the U.S. bought French Louisiana . Both Jefferson and Gallatin regarded control of the port of New Orleans , which was ceded in the purchase, as the key to the development of the Western United States. Jefferson had doubts about the constitutionality of the purchase, but Gallatin helped convince the president that a constitutional amendment authorizing

9044-426: The first issue of 2014, CA will provide worldwide, instant, free (to the user), and permanent access to all of our content (as well as 10 years of our back catalog)," and that "Cultural Anthropology will be the first major, established, high-impact journal in anthropology to offer open access to all of its research" AAA presidents have been drawn from all of the four subdisciplines of American anthropology: Until 2003

9163-506: The foundation of permanent taxes and military establishments...under our former system we were becoming too selfish, too much attached exclusively to the acquisition of wealth...[and] too much confined in our political feelings to local and State objects." When Gallatin returned from Europe in September 1815, he declined Madison's request to take up his old post as Secretary of the Treasury. He did, however, help convince Congress to charter

9282-577: The founder of New York University and cofounder of the American Ethnological Society . Gallatin was born in Geneva in present-day Switzerland and spoke French as a first language. Inspired by the ideals of the American Revolution , he immigrated to the United States in the 1780s, settling in western Pennsylvania . He served as a delegate to the 1789 Pennsylvania Constitutional Convention and won election to

9401-453: The hope of future negotiations, Gallatin was replaced as Secretary of the Treasury by George W. Campbell , with the expectation that Gallatin would take up his old post upon his return to the United States. Negotiations with the British finally commenced in Ghent in mid-1814. Negotiations at Ghent lasted for four months. The British could have chosen to shift resources to North America after

9520-646: The languages of the Native Americans, he has been called "the father of American ethnology." The health of both Gallatin and his wife declined in the late 1840s, and Hannah died in May 1849. On Sunday, August 12, Gallatin died in Astoria , now in the Borough of Queens, New York at age 88. He is interred at Trinity Churchyard in New York City. Prior to his death, Gallatin had been the last surviving member of

9639-448: The national bank as a key part of the country's financial system. In a letter to Jefferson, Gallatin argued that the bank was indispensable because it served as a place of deposit for government funds, a source of credit, and a regulator of currency. In January 1811, the national bank was effectively abolished after the House and the Senate both defeated bills to recharter the national bank in extremely narrow votes. In response, Gallatin sent

9758-456: The natives of North and South America were linguistically and culturally related and that their common ancestors had migrated from Asia in prehistoric times. Later research efforts included examination of the language of certain native societies in Mexico and Central America. In 1843, he co-founded the American Ethnological Society , serving as the society's first president. Due to his studies of

9877-474: The new administration sought to lower taxation (though not import duties), spending, and the national debt ; debt reduction in particular had long been a key goal of the party and Gallatin himself. When Gallatin took office in 1801, the national debt stood at $ 83 million. By 1812, the U.S. national debt had fallen to $ 45.2 million. One historian said of Gallatin: His own fears of personal dependency and his small-shopkeeper's sense of integrity, both reinforced by

9996-765: The next day, traveling the intervening thirty miles by horseback. Bored with monotonous Bostonian life, Gallatin and Serre set sail with a Swiss female companion to the settlement of Machias , located on the northeastern tip of the Maine frontier. At Machias, Gallatin operated a bartering venture, in which he dealt with a variety of goods and supplies. He enjoyed the simple life and the natural environment surrounding him. Gallatin and Serre returned to Boston in October 1781 after abandoning their bartering venture in Machias. Friends of Pictet, who had learned that Gallatin had traveled to

10115-539: The nexus of the sciences and humanities" and declares, "The purpose of the Association shall be to advance scholarly understanding of humankind in all its aspects ... drawing from and building upon knowledge from biological and physical sciences as well as the humanities and social sciences." The offices of the AAA are located in Arlington, Virginia. The AAA is composed of 40 sections, which are groups organized around identity affiliations or intellectual interests within

10234-477: The obvious choice as Jefferson 's Secretary of the Treasury ; as Jefferson put it, Gallatin was "the only man in the United States who understands, through all the labyrinths Hamilton involved it, the precise state of the Treasury." Gallatin received a recess appointment in May 1801 and was confirmed by the Senate in January 1802. Along with Secretary of State Madison and Jefferson himself, Gallatin became one of

10353-612: The operations of the Treasury Department and strongly attacked the Federalist Party 's financial program. Some historians and biographers believe that Gallatin founded the House Ways and Means Committee in order to check Hamilton's influence over financial issues, but historian Patrick Furlong argues that Hamilton's Federalist allies were actually responsible for founding the committee. After James Madison declined to seek re-election in 1796, Gallatin emerged as

10472-567: The opportunities and challenges of working in these sectors. Opposition to military cooperation was evident during that meeting. Some critics of the HTS program have suggested that scholars who perform classified work with the military be expelled from the organization. During an event organized by the Network of Concerned Anthropologists, a graduate student who had recently been expelled from the HTS program spoke out about her experiences. She argued that

10591-647: The passage of a major infrastructure bill, but Gallatin did win funding for the construction of the National Road . The National Road linked the town of Cumberland , on the Potomac River , with the town of Wheeling , which sat on the Ohio River . Many of Gallatin's other proposals were eventually carried out years later by state and local governments, as well as private citizens. Throughout much of Jefferson's presidency, France and Britain engaged in

10710-620: The physical and the moral world. The democratic spirit of the United States attracted him and he decided to emigrate. In April 1780, Gallatin secretly left Geneva with his classmate Henri Serre. Carrying letters of recommendation from eminent Americans (including Benjamin Franklin ) that the Gallatin family procured, the young men left France in May, sailing on an American ship, "the Kattie". They reached Cape Ann on July 14 and arrived in Boston

10829-496: The preservation of endangered nonhuman primates, and the religious significance of peyote to Native Americans . In 2004, in response to President George W. Bush 's call for a constitutional amendment banning same-sex marriage , the Association issued a statement on marriage and the family. It states: The results of more than a century of anthropological research on households, kinship relationships, and families, across cultures and through time, provide no support whatsoever for

10948-492: The presidents counted 46 socio-cultural anthropologists, 19 archeologists, six physical anthropologists and six linguists. Albert Gallatin Abraham Alfonse Albert Gallatin (January 29, 1761 – August 12, 1849) was a Genevan – American politician, diplomat, ethnologist and linguist . Often described as "America's Swiss Founding Father ", he was a leading figure in the early years of

11067-408: The program was poorly run but was doing positive work in helping military officers with " nation-building " activities. AnthroSource is the online repository of the journals of the American Anthropological Association. Launched in 2004, it contains current issues for fifteen of the Association's peer-reviewed publications, as well as an archive of the journals, newsletters, and bulletins published by

11186-463: The publication of matter pertaining to anthropology. From an initial membership of 175, the AAA grew slowly during the first half of the 20th century. Annual meetings were held primarily in the Northeast and accommodated all attendees in a single room. The Association describes itself as "a democratic organization since its beginning." In 2010, AAA Executive Board stripped the word "science" from

11305-654: The purchase was impractical and unnecessary. Gallatin also championed and helped plan the Lewis and Clark Expedition to explore lands west of the Mississippi River . Before and after the Louisiana Purchase, Gallatin presided over a major expansion of public land sales. With the goal of selling land directly to settlers rather than to land speculators, Gallatin increased the number of federal land offices from four to eighteen. In 1812, Congress established

11424-523: The required nine years prior to election. The dispute itself had important ramifications. At the time, the Senate held closed sessions. However, with the American Revolution only a decade ended, the senators were leery of anything which might hint that they intended to establish an aristocracy, so they opened up their chamber for the first time for the debate over whether to unseat Gallatin. Soon after, open sessions became standard procedure for

11543-607: The rest of their lives. In 1788, Gallatin was elected as a delegate to a state convention to discuss possible revisions to the United States Constitution . In the next two years, he served as a delegate to a state constitutional convention and won election to the Pennsylvania House of Representatives . As a public official, he aligned with Anti-Federalists and spent much of his time in the state and national capital of Philadelphia. His service on

11662-410: The speech, Gallatin also expressed opposition to miscegenation . Hofstra University professor Alan Singer argued based on this speech that Gallatin "was certainly not an abolitionist " and that "his claims to oppose slavery can also be read as racist attacks on the humanity of Africans, which was not uncommon among Whites during the antebellum era . With Gallatin taking charge of fiscal policy,

11781-551: The state of Virginia , fulfilling the requirements of citizenship as established under Article IV of the Articles of Confederation . Gallatin inherited a significant sum of money the following year, and he used that money to purchase a 400-acre plot of land in Fayette County, Pennsylvania . He built a stone house named Friendship Hill on the new property. Gallatin co-founded a company designed to attract Swiss settlers to

11900-534: The temporary defeat of Napoleon in April 1814, but, as Gallatin learned from Alexander Baring , many in Britain were tired of fighting. In December 1814, the two sides agreed to sign the Treaty of Ghent , which essentially represented a return to the status quo ante bellum . The treaty did not address the issue of impressment, but that issue became a moot point after the British and their allies defeated Napoleon for

12019-578: The three key officials in the Jefferson administration. As Jefferson and Madison spent the majority of the summer months at their respective estates, Gallatin was frequently left to preside over the operations of the federal government. He also acted as a moderating force on Jefferson's speeches and policies, in one case convincing Jefferson to refrain from calling for the abolition of the General Welfare Clause . In 1799, Gallatin made

12138-410: The ticket would help him win the support of Pennsylvania voters, but the emergence of General Andrew Jackson as a presidential contender caused Crawford to refocus his campaign on other states. Though Gallatin had never wanted the role, he was humiliated when he was forced to withdraw from the race. He was alarmed at the possibility Jackson might win, as he saw Jackson as "an honest man and the idol of

12257-572: The trade embargo but still prevented American ships from engaging in trade with the British and French empires. In 1811, Congress replaced the Non-Intercourse Act of 1809 with a law known as Macon's Bill Number 2 , which authorized the president to restore trade with either France or Britain if either promised to respect American neutrality. As with previous embargo policies pursued by the federal government under Jefferson and Madison, Macon's Bill Number 2 proved to be ineffective at halting

12376-470: The treaty that Monroe reached with the British. After the 1807 Chesapeake – Leopard affair , Jefferson proposed, over Gallatin's strong objections, what would become the Embargo Act of 1807 . That act forbade all American ships from engaging in almost all foreign trade, and it remained in place until its repeal in the final days of Jefferson's presidency. Despite Gallatin's objection to the embargo, he

12495-508: The upper middle classes, visited ancient sites on the Grand Tour (Cavalier Tour or Cavaliers' Journey) and purchased the highest quality ancient works of art possible in the respective countries. Classicism and Neoclassicism (18th and 19th centuries): In the 18th and 19th centuries, the trade in antiquities reached a peak as Classicism and later Neoclassicism influenced art production and aesthetics. Ancient Greek and Roman art served as

12614-490: The use of anthropological knowledge as an element for physical or psychological torture, and against any covert or overt U.S. military action against Iran . Following a referendum in 2023, the Association endorsed a boycott of Israeli academic institutions, joining the BDS movement . A number of ideologically polarized debates within the discipline of anthropology have prompted the association to conduct investigations. These include

12733-405: The view that either civilization or viable social orders depend upon marriage as an exclusively heterosexual institution. Rather, anthropological research supports the conclusion that a vast array of family types, including families built upon same-sex partnerships, can contribute to stable and humane societies. The Association also has adopted resolutions against the 2003 invasion of Iraq , against

12852-403: The war, and the inability or unwillingness of state banks to furnish credit, Gallatin struggled to fund the war. Reluctantly, he drafted and won passage of several new tax laws, as well as an increase in tariff rates. He also sold U.S. securities to investors, and an infusion of cash from wealthy investors Stephen Girard , John Jacob Astor , and David Parish proved critical to the financing of

12971-598: The war. During the War of 1812, the national debt grew dramatically, going from $ 45 million in early 1812 to $ 127 million in January 1816. In 1813, President James Madison sent Gallatin to St. Petersburg , Russia to serve as a negotiator for a peace agreement to end the War of 1812. He was one of five American commissioners who would negotiate the treaty, serving alongside Henry Clay , James Bayard , Jonathan Russell , and John Quincy Adams . Efforts at starting negotiations in Russia quickly collapsed. While waiting abroad in

13090-512: The wealthy Jean Gallatin and his wife Sophie Albertine Rollaz. Gallatin's family had great influence in the Republic of Geneva, and many family members held distinguished positions in the magistracy and the army. Jean Gallatin, a prosperous merchant, died in 1765, followed by Sophie in April 1770. Now orphaned, Gallatin was taken into the care of Mademoiselle Pictet, a family friend and distant relative of Gallatin's father. In January 1773, Gallatin

13209-511: The worshippers of military glory, but from incapacity, military habits, and habitual disregard of laws and constitutional provisions, altogether unfit for the office." Ultimately, John Quincy Adams won the 1824 presidential election in a contingent election held in the House of Representatives. Gallatin and his wife returned to Friendship Hill after the presidential election, living there until 1826. That year, Gallatin accepted appointment as ambassador to Britain . After negotiating an extension of

13328-706: Was elected president of the New York Historical Society . In the mid-1840s, he opposed President James K. Polk 's expansionist policies and wrote a widely-read pamphlet, Peace with Mexico , that called for an end to the Mexican–American War . Gallatin was deeply interested in Native Americans, and he favored their assimilation into European-American culture as an alternative to forced relocation . He drew upon government contacts to research Native Americans, gathering information through Lewis Cass , explorer William Clark, and Thomas McKenney of

13447-455: Was frequently criticized by Smith's brother, Senator Samuel Smith , as well as journalist William Duane of the influential Philadelphia Aurora . He considered resigning from government service, but Madison convinced him to stay on as a key cabinet official and adviser. In 1810, Gallatin published Report on the Subject of Manufactures , in which he unsuccessfully urged Congress to create

13566-843: Was less pronounced than in antiquity. Nevertheless, some ancient works of art were treasured as valuable relics of the past and kept by aristocratic collectors and churches. Renaissance (14th to 17th century): The Renaissance was a time of cultural and intellectual awakening in Europe, during which there was a renewed interest in antiquity. Antiquities were valued and collected by scholars, artists and collectors. The trade in antiquities flourished again and some objects were recovered from ancient Roman villas and ruins and kept in private collections. Renaissance princes and nobles collected ancient sculptures, paintings and coins to demonstrate their status and sophistication. Baroque period (17th and 18th centuries): Antiquities were also collected and traded during

13685-648: Was lifted. In March 1967, during the Vietnam War , the Council of the AAA adopted a "Statement on Problems of Anthropological Research and Ethics" that stated: ... Except in the event of a declaration of war by Congress, academic institutions should not undertake activities or accept contracts in anthropology that are not related to their normal functions of teaching, research, and public service. They should not lend themselves to clandestine activities. ... The international reputation of anthropology has been damaged by

13804-574: Was named after Gallatin. Gallatin's name is associated with NYU's Gallatin School of Individualized Study . New York University 's internal course enrollment website for matriculating students is named "NYU Albert", after Gallatin. In 1791, Gallatin was elected to the American Philosophical Society . Gallatin is featured on three U.S. stamps, including one issued in 1967 with the unusual denomination of 1¼¢. Gallatin

13923-576: Was sent to study at the elite Academy of Geneva . While attending the academy, Gallatin read deeply the philosophy of Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Voltaire , along with the French Physiocrats ; he became dissatisfied with the traditionalism of Geneva. A student of the Enlightenment , he believed in the nobility of human nature and that when freed from social restrictions, it would display admirable qualities and greater results in both

14042-463: Was tasked with enforcing it against smugglers, who were able to evade the embargo in various ways. The embargo proved ineffective at accomplishing its intended purpose of punishing Britain and France, and it contributed to growing dissent in New England against the Jefferson administration. Overcoming Jefferson's declining popularity and the resentment at the embargo, Secretary of State Madison won

14161-434: Was to control the antiquities trade. Over the course of the 19th and 20th centuries, auction houses such as Christie's and Sotheby's established themselves as major players in the antique art trade, with numerous antique objects being offered at auction. Today, the antiquities trade remains an important part of the global art market, and collectors and institutions continue to collect and research antique objects. Through

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