Misplaced Pages

#779220

118-516: An ambassador is an official envoy, especially a high-ranking diplomat who represents a state and is usually accredited to another sovereign state or to an international organization as the resident representative of their own government or sovereign or appointed for a special and often temporary diplomatic assignment. The word is also used informally for people who are known, without national appointment, to represent certain professions, activities, and fields of endeavor, such as sales. An ambassador

236-559: A United Nations laissez-passer . The regular use of permanent diplomatic representation began in the states of 15th-century Italy. However the terms "diplomacy" and "diplomat" appeared during the French Revolution . "Diplomat" is derived from the Greek διπλωμάτης ( diplōmátēs ), the holder of a diploma , referring to diplomats' documents of accreditation from their sovereign. Diplomats themselves and historians often refer to

354-820: A French army commanded by Francis, Count of Enghien , defeated the Imperials at Ceresole , a victory of limited strategic value since they failed to make progress elsewhere in Lombardy. The Imperial position was further strengthened at Serravalle in June, when Alfonso d'Avalos defeated a mercenary force led by the Florentine exile Piero Strozzi on their way to meet Enghien. An English army captured Boulogne on 10 September, while Imperial forces advanced to within 100 kilometres (60 miles) of Paris. However, with his treasury exhausted and concerned by Ottoman naval strength in

472-520: A combined Franco-Florentine army appeared outside Pisa. Once again, the French artillery quickly opened a gap in the walls but several assaults were repulsed and the siege was abandoned on 11 July. With Milan firmly in his control, Louis returned to France and left the Florentines to blockade Pisa, which eventually surrendered in 1509. Anxious to begin the conquest of Naples, on 11 November he signed

590-462: A combined Franco-Ottoman fleet under Hayreddin Barbarossa captured Nice on 22 August and besieged the citadel, the onset of winter and presence of a Spanish fleet forced them to withdraw. A joint attack by Christian and Islamic troops on a Christian town was regarded as shocking, especially when Francis allowed Barbarossa to use the French port of Toulon as a winter base. On 14 April 1544,

708-511: A decisive advantage. On 1 January 1515, Louis XII died and was succeeded by his son-in-law, Francis I , who took up his predecessor's cause and routed the Swiss at Marignano on 13–14 September 1515. Combined with the unpopularity of Massiliano Sforza, victory allowed Francis to retake Milan and the Holy League collapsed as both Spain and Pope Leo X saw little benefit in fighting on. In

826-908: A disastrous attack on Ottoman port of Algiers , which severely weakened his military and led Suleiman to reactivate his French alliance. With Ottoman support, on 12 July 1542 Francis once again declared war on the Holy Roman Empire, initiating the Italian War of 1542–46 . In August, French armies attacked Perpignan on the Spanish border, as well as Artois, Flanders and Luxemburg , a Valois possession prior to 1477. Imperial resistance proved far more formidable than expected, with most of these attacks easily repulsed and in 1543 Henry VIII allied with Charles and agreed to support his offensive in Flanders. Neither side made much progress, and although

944-410: A foreign country or accredited to an international organization, both career diplomats and political appointees enjoy the same diplomatic immunities, as well as United Nations officials. Ceremonial heads of state commonly act as diplomats on behalf of their nation, usually following instructions from their head of Government. Sasson Sofer argues that, "The ideal diplomat, by the nature of his mission,

1062-436: A fruitless expedition that diverted resources from Italy, where the situation had become more serious. The 1536 Franco-Ottoman alliance , a comprehensive treaty covering a wide range of commercial and diplomatic issues, also agreed to a joint assault on Genoa, with French land forces supported by an Ottoman fleet. Finding the garrison of Genoa had recently been reinforced while a planned internal uprising failed to materialise,

1180-445: A never-ending global cocktail party". J. W. Burton has noted that "despite the absence of any specific professional training, diplomacy has a high professional status, due perhaps to a degree of secrecy and mystery that its practitioners self-consciously promote." The state supports the high status, privileges, and self-esteem of its diplomats in order to support its own international status and position. The high regard for diplomats

1298-639: A new alliance with Venice. As Leo X had backed his candidacy for Emperor, he also counted on Papal support but Leo sided with Charles in return for his help against Martin Luther and his proposed reforms to the Catholic church. In November 1521, an Imperial-Papal army under Prospero Colonna and the Marquis of Pescara captured Milan and restored Francesco Sforza as duke. After Leo died in December, Adrian VI

SECTION 10

#1732797829780

1416-1048: A policy of excluding France and the Holy Roman Empire from the Italian peninsula. Lorenzo's death in April 1492 severely weakened the League at a time when France was seeking to expand in Italy. This originated when Louis XI of France inherited the County of Provence from his cousin Charles IV of Anjou in 1481, along with the Angevin claim to the Kingdom of Naples . His son Charles VIII succeeded him in 1483 and formally incorporated Provence into France in 1486; its ports of Marseille and Toulon provided direct access to

1534-487: A pro-French government, Charles turned north and on 6 July was intercepted by the League outside Fornovo di Taro . In the resulting Battle of Fornovo , the French forced their opponents back across the Taro river and continued onto Asti , leaving most of their supplies behind. Both sides claimed victory but the general consensus favoured the French, since the League suffered heavier casualties and failed to halt their retreat,

1652-427: A request Louis was in no hurry to fulfil since they had refused to support his capture of Milan. He was also initially occupied in defeating efforts to regain his duchy by Ludovico, who was captured at Novaro in April 1500 and spent the rest of his life in a French prison. However, Louis needed to maintain good relations with Florence, whose territory he would have to cross in order to conquer Naples, and on 29 June 1500

1770-493: A significant number of contemporary accounts, including those of Francesco Guicciardini , Niccolò Machiavelli , and Blaise de Montluc . After 1503, most of the fighting was initiated by French invasions of Lombardy and Piedmont , but although able to hold territory for periods of time, they could not do so permanently. By 1557, the growth of Protestantism meant the major belligerents faced internal conflict over religion, forcing them to refocus on domestic affairs. This led to

1888-445: A ten-year halt in hostilities and left France in possession of most of Savoy , Piedmont and Artois. The 1538 truce failed to resolve underlying tensions between Francis, who still claimed Milan, and Charles, who insisted he comply with the treaties of Madrid and Cambrai. Their relationship collapsed in 1540 when Charles made his son Philip Duke of Milan, thus precluding any possibility it would revert to France. In 1541, Charles made

2006-463: Is a danger that diplomats may become disconnected from their own country and culture. Sir Harold Nicolson acknowledged that diplomats can become "denationalised, internationalised and therefore dehydrated, an elegant empty husk". Nicolson also claimed that personal motives often influenced the diplomatic pursuit of the national interest. For example, he wrote: "Nobody who has not actually watched statesmen dealing with each other can have any real idea of

2124-418: Is a much smaller place in relative terms. With this in mind, it is considered important that the nations of the world have at least a small staff living in foreign capitals in order to aid travelers and visitors from their home nation. As an officer of the foreign service, an ambassador is expected to protect the citizens of their home country in the host country. Another result of the increase in foreign travel

2242-406: Is also due to most countries' conspicuous selection of diplomats, with regard to their professionalism and ability to behave according to a certain etiquette , in order to effectively promote their interests. Also, international law grants diplomats extensive privileges and immunities , which further distinguishes the diplomat from the status of an ordinary citizen . While posted overseas, there

2360-513: Is also reflected in the formal titles of envoys to foreign and Commonwealth states: e.g., British High Commissioners are formally titled "The High Commissioner for His Majesty's Government in the United Kingdom ", whereas British Ambassadors to foreign countries are known as "His Britannic Majesty's Ambassador". An ambassador-at-large is a diplomat of the highest rank or a minister who is accredited to represent their country. But unlike

2478-507: Is destined to clash with the expedient needs of his country's politics." On the other hand, professional politicians often ridicule diplomats. President John F. Kennedy often denigrated career diplomats as "weak and effeminate" and moved foreign policy decisions out of their hands. Every diplomat, while posted abroad, will be classified in one of the ranks of diplomats (secretary, counselor, minister, ambassador , envoy , or chargé d'affaires ) as regulated by international law (namely, by

SECTION 20

#1732797829780

2596-535: Is generally the form that would be used to address a head of state: "(Your/His/Her) Excellency " followed by name or the country represented. In many countries, less formal variations are frequently used, such as "Ambassador" followed by name, or the name followed by "Ambassador of...". In the United States , "Mister/Madam Ambassador" may be used. In some countries, a former ambassador may continue to be styled and addressed as ambassador throughout their life (in

2714-520: Is not generally addressed as ambassador, although they may be referred to as "Canadian ambassador to ..."; that is, with reference to a specific job function; the person is addressed or styled as ambassador only while holding such office. In a less formal sense, the phrase is used for high-profile non-diplomatic representatives of various entities (rarely states), mainly cultural and charitable organizations, often as willing figureheads to attract media attention; for example, film and pop stars make appeals to

2832-435: Is still in force, modified the system. According to it, ambassadors are diplomats of the highest rank, formally representing their head of state, with plenipotentiary powers (i.e. full authority to represent the government). In modern usage, most ambassadors on foreign postings as head of mission carry the full title of Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary. The distinction between extraordinary and ordinary ambassadors

2950-423: Is the growth of trade between nations. For most countries, the national economy is now part of the global economy . This means increased opportunities to sell and trade with other nations. When two nations are conducting a trade, it is usually advantageous to both parties to have an ambassador and perhaps a small staff living in the other land, where they act as an intermediary between cooperative businesses. One of

3068-408: Is the ranking government representative stationed in a foreign capital or country. The host country typically allows the ambassador control of specific territory called an embassy (which may include an official residence and an office, chancery , located together or separately, generally in the host nation's capital), whose territory, staff, and vehicles are generally afforded diplomatic immunity in

3186-489: Is widespread. States and non-state actors use diplomatic representatives to deal with any problems that occur within the international system. Ambassadors now normally live overseas or within the country to which it is assigned for long periods of time so that they are acquainted with the culture and local people. This way they are more politically effective and trusted, enabling them to accomplish goals that their host country desires. The Congress of Vienna of 1815 formalized

3304-402: The Angevin claim to the throne of Naples as a pretext. This in turn was driven by the intense rivalry between Ludovico's wife, Beatrice d'Este , and that of his nephew Gian Galeazzo Sforza , husband of Isabella of Aragon . Despite being the hereditary Duke of Milan, Gian Galeazzo had been sidelined by his uncle in 1481 and exiled to Pavia . Both women wanted to ensure their children inherited

3422-620: The Castel Sant'Angelo , while Urbino and the League army sat outside and failed to intervene. Although the French marched south to relieve Rome, they were too late to prevent Clement making peace with Charles V in November. Meanwhile, Venice, the largest and most powerful of the Italian states and which also possessed the most effective army, now refused to contribute any more troops to the League. Weakened by its losses in 1509 to 1517 and with its maritime possessions increasingly threatened by

3540-558: The Colonna family , who competed with the rival Orsinis for control of the city, and Clement was forced to pay them to withdraw. Seeking to recapture Milan, Francis invaded Lombardy at the beginning of 1527, with an army financed by Henry VIII, who hoped thereby to win Papal support for divorcing his first wife, Katherine of Aragon . In May, Imperial troops, many of whom were followers of Martin Luther, sacked Rome and besieged Clement in

3658-518: The Council of Trent . The European balance of power changed significantly during the Italian Wars. The affirmation of French power in Italy around 1494 brought Austria and Spain to join an anti-French league that formed the "Habsburg ring" around France (Low Countries, Aragon, Castile, Empire) via dynastic marriages that eventually led to the large inheritance of Charles V. On the other hand,

Ambassador - Misplaced Pages Continue

3776-611: The Duchy of Milan , the long-running Wars in Lombardy had finally been ended by the 1454 Treaty of Lodi . Followed shortly thereafter by a non-aggression pact known as the Italic League , it led to a forty-year period of stability and economic expansion, marred only by the 1479 to 1481 Pazzi conspiracy and 1482 to 1484 War of Ferrara . The League's main supporter was the Florentine ruler Lorenzo de' Medici , who also pursued

3894-474: The Holy See are known as Apostolic Nuncios . The term is derived from Middle English ambassadour , Anglo-French ambassateur ; akin to Old High German ambaht , "service". The first known usage of the term was recorded around the 14th century. The foreign government to which an ambassador is assigned must first approve the person. In some cases, the foreign government might reverse its approval by declaring

4012-627: The Low Countries and the Holy Roman Empire under one ruler, and meant France was surrounded by the so-called "Habsburg ring". Francis I had also been a candidate for the Imperial throne, adding a personal dimension to his rivalry with Charles that became one of the fundamental conflicts of the sixteenth century. Planning an offensive against Habsburg possessions in Navarre and Flanders , Francis first secured his position in Italy by agreeing

4130-682: The Mediterranean and thus the ability to pursue his territorial ambitions. In the run-up to the First Italian War , Charles sought to secure the neutrality of other European rulers through a series of treaties. These included the November 1492 Peace of Étaples with Henry VII of England and the March 1493 Treaty of Barcelona with Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor . The war began when Ludovico Sforza , then Regent of Milan , encouraged Charles VIII of France to invade Italy, using

4248-548: The Mediterranean Sea , on 14 September Charles agreed the Treaty of Crépy with Francis, which essentially restored the position to that prevailing in 1542. The agreement excluded Henry VIII, whose war with France continued until the two countries made peace in 1546 and confirmed his possession of Boulogne. Francis died on 31 March 1547 and was succeeded by his son, Henry II of France . He continued attempts to restore

4366-711: The Savoyard state to Emmanuel Philibert , who settled in Piedmont, and Corsica to the Republic of Genoa . For this reason, the conclusion of the Italian Wars for France is considered to be a mixed result. At the end of the wars, about half of Italy was ruled by the Spanish Habsburgs, including all of the south (Naples, Sicily, Sardinia) and the Duchy of Milan; the other half of Italy remained independent (although

4484-665: The Swiss Cantons to supply him with 6,000 mercenaries. After a year of fighting in which Louis XII occupied large parts of the Papal States, in October 1511 Julius formed the anti-French Holy League, which included Henry VIII of England , Maximilian and Spain. A French army defeated the Spanish at Ravenna on 11 April 1512, but their leader Gaston de Foix was killed, while the Swiss recaptured Milan and restored Ludovico's son Massimiliano Sforza as duke. The members of

4602-518: The Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis , under which France was largely expelled from Italy, but in exchange gained Calais from England, and the Three Bishoprics from Lorraine . In turn, Spain acquired sovereignty over the Kingdom of Naples and Kingdom of Sicily in southern Italy, as well the Duchy of Milan in northern Italy. Largely driven by the rivalry between the Republic of Venice and

4720-774: The Treaty of Chambord with several Protestant princes within the Empire, which gave him control of the Three Bishoprics of Toul , Verdun , and Metz . Following the outbreak of the Second Schmalkaldic War in March 1552, French troops occupied the Three Bishoprics and invaded Lorraine . In 1553, a Franco-Ottoman force captured the Genoese island of Corsica , while supported by Henry's wife, Catherine de' Medici , French-backed Tuscan exiles seized control of Siena. This brought Henry into conflict with

4838-550: The Treaty of Granada with Ferdinand II of Aragon, an agreement to divide the kingdom between the two. Since Ferdinand had supported the expulsion of the French from Naples in 1495, Louis hoped these concessions would allow him to acquire the bulk of the kingdom without an expensive war. His action was criticised by contemporaries like Niccolò Machiavelli and modern historians, who argue the 1499 Treaty of Marcoussis already gave Louis everything he needed, while inviting Spain into Naples could only work to his detriment. In July 1501,

Ambassador - Misplaced Pages Continue

4956-683: The United Kingdom are accredited to or from the Royal Court of St James's . Ambassadors hold the highest diplomatic rank and have precedence over chargés d'affaires , who are accredited by the foreign minister . Ambassadors also outranked envoys until the 1960s, when the last legations were upgraded to embassies. Because members of the Commonwealth of Nations have or had a common head of state, they do not exchange ambassadors, but instead have High Commissioners , who represent

5074-490: The United Nations , the world's largest diplomatic forum) as well as multinational companies for their experience in management and negotiating skills. Diplomats are members of foreign services and diplomatic corps of various nations of the world. The sending state is required to get the consent of the receiving state for a person proposed to serve in key diplomatic positions such as an ambassador, also referred to as

5192-585: The Valois kings of France , on one side, and their opponents in the Holy Roman Empire and Spain on the other. At different points, various Italian states participated in the war, some on both sides, with limited involvement from England , Switzerland, and the Ottoman Empire . The Italic League established in 1454 achieved a balance of power in Italy, but fell apart after the death of its chief architect, Lorenzo de' Medici , in 1492. Combined with

5310-500: The Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations of 1961). Diplomats can be contrasted with consuls who help businesspeople, and military attachés . They represent not the foreign ministry but other branches of their government, but lack the diplomat's role in dealing with foreign policy at the highest level. Diplomats in posts collect and report information that could affect national interests, often with advice about how

5428-537: The "Peace of the Ladies" because it was negotiated by Francis's mother, Louise of Savoy , and Charles's aunt Margaret , Francis recognised Charles as ruler of Milan, Naples, Flanders and Artois. Venice also made peace, leaving only Florence, which had expelled their Medici rulers in 1527. At Bologna in the summer of 1529, Charles V was named King of Italy ; he agreed to restore the Medici on behalf of Pope Clement, who

5546-562: The Duchy and when Isabella's father became Alfonso II of Naples in January 1494, she asked for his help in securing their rights. In September Charles invaded the peninsula, which he justified by claiming he wanted to use Naples as a base for a crusade against the Ottoman Turks . In October, Ludovico formally became Duke of Milan following the death of Gian Galeazzo, who was popularly supposed to have been poisoned by his uncle, and

5664-668: The Duchy of Milan were left in personal union to the king of Spain while continuing to be part of the Holy Roman Empire. The division of the Empire of Charles V, along with the capture of the Pale of Calais and the Three Bishoprics , was a positive result for France. However, the Habsburgs had gained a position of primacy in Italy at the expense of the French Valois. In return, France was forced to end opposition to Habsburg power and abandon its claims in Italy. Henry II also restored

5782-406: The French army reached Capua ; strongly defended by forces loyal to Frederick of Naples , it surrendered on 24 July after a short siege but was then sacked. In addition to the extensive material destruction, many women were subjected to mass rape and estimates of the dead ranged from 2,000 to 4,000, actions that caused consternation throughout Italy. Resistance crumbled as other towns tried to avoid

5900-573: The French at St. Quentin on 10 August. Despite this, in January 1558 the French took Calais ; held by the English since 1347, its loss severely diminished their future ability to intervene directly in mainland Europe. They also captured Thionville in June but peace negotiations had already begun, with Henry absorbed by the internal conflict that led to the French Wars of Religion in 1562. The Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis on 3 April 1559 brought

6018-569: The French instead occupied the towns of Pinerolo , Chieri and Carmagnola in Piedmont. Fighting continued in Flanders and northern Italy throughout 1537, while the Ottoman fleet raided the coastal areas around Naples, raising fears of invasion throughout Italy. Pope Paul III , who had replaced Clement in 1534, grew increasingly anxious to end the war and brought the two sides together at Nice in May 1538. The Truce of Nice, signed on 18 June, agreed to

SECTION 50

#1732797829780

6136-526: The French marched through Italy virtually unopposed, entering Pisa on 8 November, Florence on 17th, and Rome on 31 December. Charles was backed by Girolamo Savonarola , who used the opportunity to established a short-lived theocracy in Florence, while Pope Alexander VI allowed his army free passage through the Papal States . In February 1495, the French reached Monte San Giovanni Campano in

6254-625: The French position in Italy, encouraged by Italian exiles and his cousin Francis, Duke of Guise , who claimed the throne of Naples through his grandfather René II, Duke of Lorraine . Henry first strengthened his diplomatic position by reactivating the Franco-Ottoman alliance and supporting their capture of Tripoli in August 1551. Despite his devout personal Catholicism and persecution of Huguenot "heretics" at home, in January 1552 he signed

6372-504: The Head of State and have the same rank as ambassador. Ambassadors carry formal letters of credence from their head of state , addressed to the host country's head of state. Because many Commonwealth countries have the same head of state, the accreditation of a High Commissioner is in the form of a simple and often informal letter of introduction from one head of government (Prime Minister) to that of another. The difference in accreditation

6490-547: The Holy Roman Empire went to his brother Ferdinand I , while Spain, its overseas territories and the Spanish Netherlands were assigned to Philip. Over the next century, Naples and Lombardy became a major source of men and money for the Spanish Army of Flanders during the 1568 to 1648 Eighty Years' War . England entered the war in June 1557 and the focus shifted to Flanders, where a Spanish army defeated

6608-408: The Italian Wars. The Italian Wars represented a revolution in military technology and tactics, some historians suggesting they form the dividing point between modern and medieval battlefields. Contemporary historian Francesco Guicciardini wrote of the initial 1494 French invasion that "...sudden and violent wars broke out, ending with the conquest of a state in less time than it used to take to occupy

6726-426: The Italian wars to an end. Corsica was returned to Genoa, while Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy , re-established the Savoyard state in northern Italy as an independent entity. France retained Calais and the Three Bishoprics, while other provisions essentially returned the position to that prevailing in 1551. Finally, Henry II and Philip II agreed to ask Pope Pius IV to recognise Ferdinand as Emperor, and reconvene

6844-472: The Kingdom of Naples and despatched envoys to negotiate terms with its Neapolitan garrison, who murdered them and sent their mutilated bodies back to the French lines. On 9 February, the enraged besiegers breached the walls of the castle with artillery fire, then stormed it, killing everyone inside. Known as the "Sack of Naples", widespread outrage within Italy allied with concern over the power of France led to

6962-486: The Kingdom of Naples. Aware of the hostility caused by French ambitions in Italy, in July 1498 he renewed the 1492 Peace of Étaples with England and signed a treaty confirming French borders with Burgundy . This was followed in August by the Treaty of Marcoussis with Ferdinand II of Aragon ; although it did not address outstanding territorial disputes between the two countries, it agreed "have all enemies in common except

7080-498: The League army, hoped to take advantage of this confusion. However, he delayed taking the offensive awaiting additional Swiss reinforcements. Although the League gained an easy victory on 24 June when the Venetians occupied Lodi , this delay allowed Charles to gather fresh troops and support a Milanese revolt in July against Francesco Sforza, who was once again forced into exile. In September, Charles financed an attack on Rome by

7198-528: The League of Venice, which he viewed as an essential barrier to French intervention, but Florence was convinced he favoured Pisa and refused to accept mediation. To enforce a settlement, in July 1496 Maximilian besieged the Florentine city of Livorno , but withdrew in September due to shortages of men and supplies. Following the death of Charles VIII in April 1498, Louis XII began planning another attempt on Milan, while also pursuing his predecessor's claim to

SECTION 60

#1732797829780

7316-518: The League then fell out over dividing the spoils and the death of Pope Julius on 20 February 1513 left it without effective leadership. In March, Venice and France formed an alliance, but from June to September 1513 the League won victories at Novara and La Motta in Lombardy, Guinegate in Flanders and Flodden in England. Despite this, fighting continued in Italy, with neither side able to gain

7434-465: The Magnificent , asking for Ottoman assistance. Although Suleiman avoided involvement on this occasion, it was the beginning of a long-standing, if often unacknowledged, Franco-Turkish relationship. Francis was eventually released in March 1526 after signing the Treaty of Madrid , in which he renounced French claims to Artois , Milan and Burgundy . Once Francis was free, his Council renounced

7552-561: The Ottomans, under Andrea Gritti the Republic tried to remain neutral and after 1529 avoided participation in the fighting. Supported by a Genoese fleet, in April 1528 a French expeditionary force besieged Naples before disease forced them to withdraw in August. Both sides were now anxious to end the war and after another French defeat at Landriano on 21 June 1529, Francis agreed the Treaty of Cambrai with Charles in August. Known as

7670-535: The Pope." On 9 February 1499, Louis signed the Treaty of Blois , a military alliance with Venice against Ludovico. With these agreements finalised, a French army of 27,000 under the Milanese exile Gian Giacomo Trivulzio invaded Lombardy , and in August besieged Rocca d'Arazzo, a fortified town in the western part of the Duchy of Milan. The French siege artillery breached the walls in less than five hours and after

7788-580: The State's national government to conduct said state's relations with other States or international organizations, a number of States maintain an institutionalized group of career diplomats—that is, public servants with a steady professional connection to the country's foreign ministry . The term career diplomat is used worldwide in opposition to political appointees (that is, people from any other professional backgrounds who may equally be designated by an official government to act as diplomats abroad). While officially posted to an embassy or delegation in

7906-424: The Treaty of Madrid, claiming conditions extorted under duress could not be considered binding. Concerned that Imperial power now posed a threat to Papal independence, on 22 May 1526 Clement VII formed the League of Cognac , whose members included France, the Papal States, Venice, Florence and Milan. Many of the Imperial troops were close to mutiny having not been paid for months and the Duke of Urbino , commander of

8024-419: The United States, "Mr. Ambassador" or "Madam Ambassador" may be heard). In other countries, ambassador is a title that accrues to its holder only with respect to a specific position, and may not be used after leaving or beyond the position. Some countries do not use the term while an ambassador is in the home country, as the officeholder is not an ambassador there; for example, a Canadian ambassador while in Canada

8142-586: The ambassador-in-residence, who is usually limited to a country or embassy , the ambassador-at-large can be appointed to operate in several usually neighbouring countries, a region or sometimes a seat of international organizations such as the United Nations or European Union. In some cases, an ambassador-at-large may even be specifically assigned a role to advise and assist the state or government in particular issues. Historically, presidents or prime ministers have commissioned special diplomatic envoys for specific assignments, primarily overseas but sometimes also within

8260-422: The ambition of Ludovico Sforza , its collapse allowed Charles VIII of France to invade Naples in 1494, which drew in Spain and the Holy Roman Empire. Although Charles was forced to withdraw in 1495, ongoing political divisions among the Italian states made them a battleground in the struggle for European domination between France and the Habsburgs. Fought with considerable brutality, the wars took place against

8378-421: The background of religious turmoil caused by the Reformation , particularly in France and the Holy Roman Empire. They are seen as a turning point in the evolution from medieval to modern warfare, with the use of the arquebus or handgun becoming common, along with significant technological improvements in siege artillery. Literate commanders and modern printing methods also make them one of the first conflicts with

8496-399: The beginning and the end of each loop in the continuous process through which foreign policy develops. In general, it has become harder for diplomats to act autonomously. Diplomats use secure communication systems, such as emails, and mobile telephones that allow reaching even the most reclusive head of mission. This technology also gives diplomats the capacity for more immediate input about

8614-424: The cartoon character Hello Kitty as their official goodwill and tourism ambassador to China and Hong Kong in 2008. According to Brain, the job of a brand ambassador was undertaken typically by a celebrity or someone of a well-known presence, who was often voluntary or paid considerably for their time and effort. In French-speaking regions such as metropolitan France , Guadeloupe , Réunion , Quebec , or Wallonia ,

8732-517: The case of France, the Habsburg result is also variously interpreted. Many historians in the 20th century, including Garrett Mattingly , Eric Cochrane and Manuel F. Alvarez, identified the Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis as the beginning of a Spanish hegemony in Italy. However, this view has been contested and abandoned in 21st-century historiography. Christine Shaw, Micheal J. Levin, and William Reger reject

8850-755: The change of dynasties in Austria and Spain. Following the War of the Spanish Succession and other wars of succession, the Habsburg-Lorraine of Austria largely replaced Spain and gained direct or indirect control of the fiefs of Imperial Italy, whereas the south eventually passed to an independent branch of the Spanish Bourbons. France would return in Italy to confront Habsburg power, first under Louis XIV, and later under Napoleon, but only

8968-517: The concept of a Spanish hegemony on the ground that too many limits prevented Spain's dominance in the peninsula, and maintain that other powers also held major influence in Italy after 1559. Although Spain gained control of about half of the Italian states, the other half remained independent; among them, the Papacy in particular emerged strengthened by the conclusion of the Council of Trent according to

9086-573: The conflict originated in the long-standing rivalry between Florence and the Republic of Pisa , which had been annexed by Florence in 1406 but took advantage of the French invasion to regain its independence in 1494. Despite Charles' retreat in 1495, Pisa continued to receive support from Genoa , Venice and Milan, all of whom were suspicious of Florentine power. In order to strengthen his own position, Ludovico once again invited an external power to settle an internal Italian affair, in this case Emperor Maximilian I . In doing so, Maximilian hoped to bolster

9204-474: The cornerstones of foreign diplomatic missions is to work for peace. This task can grow into a fight against international terrorism, the drug trade, international bribery, and human trafficking. Ambassadors help stop these acts, helping people across the globe. These activities are important and sensitive and are usually carried out in coordination with the Defense Ministry of the state and the head of

9322-563: The country as ambassadors-at-large. While the title generally reflects the ambassador's second head position as head of a diplomatic mission, in some countries the term may also represent a rank held by career diplomats, as a matter of internal promotion, regardless of the posting, and in many national careers it is quite common for them to be appointed to other functions, especially within the ministry/ministries in charge of foreign affairs, in some countries in systematic alternation with actual postings. The formal form of address for an ambassador

9440-560: The day the United Nations was founded was proposed by Indian diplomat Abhay Kumar to mark the occasion as diplomacy becoming the principal means of resolving disputes. Italian Wars Timeline The Italian Wars were a series of conflicts fought between 1494 and 1559, mostly in the Italian Peninsula , but later expanding into Flanders , the Rhineland and Mediterranean Sea . The primary belligerents were

9558-483: The diplomat a persona non grata , i.e. an unacceptable person. This kind of declaration usually results in recalling the ambassador to their home nation. In accordance with the Congress of Vienna of 1815 and the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations , the ambassador and embassy staff are granted diplomatic immunity and personal safety while living abroad. Due to the advent of modern technologies, today's world

9676-411: The diplomats overseas to make. In this operation, the intelligence, integrity, cultural understanding, and energy of individual diplomats become critical. If competent, they will have developed relationships grounded in trust and mutual understanding with influential members of the country in which they are accredited. They will have worked hard to understand the motives, thought patterns and culture of

9794-519: The duchy on his death, which occurred on 1 November 1535. Francis refused to accept this, arguing Milan was rightfully his along with Genoa and Asti , and once again prepared for war. In April 1536, pro-Valois elements in Asti expelled the Imperial garrison and a French army under Philippe de Chabot occupied Turin , although they failed to take Milan. In response, a Spanish army invaded Provence and captured Aix on 13 August 1536, before withdrawing,

9912-759: The foreign ministry by its address: the Ballhausplatz (Vienna), the Quai d’Orsay (Paris), the Wilhelmstraße (Berlin); Itamaraty (from the former Itamaraty Palace in Rio de Janeiro, now transferred to Brasília since 1970) and Foggy Bottom (Washington). For imperial Russia to 1917 it was the Choristers' Bridge (St Petersburg). The Italian ministry was called "the Consulta". Though any person can be appointed by

10030-650: The formation of the League of Venice on 31 March 1495, an anti-French alliance composed of Republic of Venice , Milan, Spain , and the Holy Roman Empire . Later joined by Florence, following the overthrow of Savonarola, the Papal States and Mantua , this coalition cut off Charles and his army from their bases in France. Charles' cousin, Louis d'Orleans , now tried to take advantage of Ludovico's change of sides to conquer Milan, which he claimed through his grandmother, Valentina Visconti . On 11 June, he captured Novara when

10148-526: The functions given to modern Ambassadors and Consuls. The rise of the modern diplomatic system was a product of the Italian Renaissance (from around AD 1300). The use of ambassadors became a political strategy in Italy during the 15th century. The political changes in Italy altered the role of ambassadors in diplomatic affairs. Because many of the states in Italy were small, they were particularly vulnerable to larger states. The ambassador system

10266-444: The garrison defected, and reached Vigevano , forty kilometres from Milan. At this crucial point, Ludovico was incapacitated either by a stroke or nervous breakdown, while his unpaid soldiers were on the verge of mutiny. In his absence, his wife Beatrice d'Este took personal control of the Duchy and the siege of Novara, with Louis eventually forced to surrender in return for his freedom. Having replaced Ferdinand II of Naples with

10384-503: The government, rather than the head of state. The diplomat representing the Holy See is titled a nuncio . In diplomatic usage, both the high commissioner and nuncio are considered equivalent in rank and role to an ambassador; high commissioners, like ambassadors, carry the full title of "High Commissioner Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary", but nuncios do not. Resident Coordinators within the United Nations system are accredited to

10502-403: The head of the mission. The receiving state of the proposed diplomat may accept the diplomat or refuse to accept the diplomat without having to provide reasons for its refusal or acceptance of the person. While the head of the mission or any member of the diplomatic staff is already on duty in the receiving state, the receiving state may still decide at anytime that the person is no longer wanted in

10620-472: The home-country government should respond. Then, once any policy response has been decided in the home country's capital, posts bear major responsibility for implementing it. Diplomats have the job of conveying, in the most persuasive way possible, the views of the home government to the governments to which they are accredited and, in doing so, of trying to convince those governments to act in ways that suit home-country interests. In this way, diplomats are part of

10738-400: The host country. Under the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations , an ambassador has the highest diplomatic rank . Countries may choose to maintain diplomatic relations at a lower level by appointing a chargé d'affaires in place of an ambassador. The equivalent to an ambassador exchanged among members of the Commonwealth of Nations are known as High Commissioners . The ambassadors of

10856-615: The immense part played in human affairs by such unavowable and often unrecognisable causes as lassitude, affability, personal affection or dislike, misunderstanding, deafness or incomplete command of a foreign language, vanity, social engagements, interruptions and momentary health." To prevent disconnection and apathy from their own state, many foreign services mandate their employees to return to their home countries in between period serving abroad. Diplomats have started celebrating International Day of Diplomats on October 24 since 2017. The idea of celebrating International Day of Diplomats on

10974-560: The last Italian war ended with the division of the Habsburg empire between the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs following the abdication of Charles V. Philip II of Spain was heir of the kingdoms held by Charles V in Spain, southern Italy, and South America. Ferdinand I was the successor of Charles V in the Holy Roman Empire extending from Germany to northern Italy and became suo jure king of the Habsburg monarchy . The Habsburg Netherlands and

11092-430: The nation. Also before the rise of modern diplomatic relations, sovereign states - which traded with each other, went to war and made peace – had the need for diplomatic relations, which took various forms. For example, the city states of Classical Greece used the system of Proxeny , whereby a Proxenos – who was a citizen of the host city rather than of the city whose interests he promoted - fulfilled some of

11210-618: The north was largely formed by formal fiefs of the Austrian Habsburgs as part of the Holy Roman Empire). The most significant Italian power left was the papacy in central Italy , as it maintained major cultural and political influence during the Catholic Reformation . The Council of Trent, suspended during the war, was reconvened by the terms of the peace treaties and came to an end in 1563. As in

11328-460: The other side. Most career diplomats have university degrees in international relations , political science , history , economics , or law . " Emotional intelligence " has recently become a component of many foreign service training programs. Diplomats have generally been considered members of an exclusive and prestigious profession. The public image of diplomats has been described as "a caricature of pinstriped men gliding their way around

11446-539: The policy-making processes in the home capital. Secure email has transformed the contact between diplomats and the ministry. It is less likely to leak, and enables more personal contact than the formal cablegram , with its wide distribution and impersonal style. The home country will usually send instructions to a diplomatic post on what foreign policy goals to pursue, but decisions on tactics – who needs to be influenced, what will best persuade them, who are potential allies and adversaries, and how it can be done – are for

11564-501: The public at large for United Nations activities, sometimes during press-swarmed visits in the foreign country. Public figures are sometimes nominated or invited to endorse events designated as ambassadors, brand ambassadors, and goodwill ambassadors . Many times, international agencies like United Nations also appoint ambassadors to achieve the objectives of a particular mission, like the appointment of goodwill ambassador Bollywood film actress Priyanka Chopra for UNICEF . Japan adopted

11682-645: The rank for life (including retirement), are addressed with the title Ambassador and may use U.S. Diplomatic Passports for all travel. Prominent career ambassadors include Lawrence Eagleburger , William Joseph Burns and Ryan Crocker . Diplomat The main functions of diplomats are representation and protection of the interests and nationals of the sending state; initiation and facilitation of strategic agreements, treaties and conventions; and promotion of information, trade and commerce, technology, and friendly relations. Seasoned diplomats of international repute are used in international organizations (for example,

11800-456: The reason for fighting in the first place. In the south, despite some initial reverses , by September 1495 Ferdinand II had regained control of his kingdom. Although the French invasion achieved little, it showed the Italian states were rich and comparatively weak, making future intervention attractive to outside powers. Charles himself died on 7 April 1498, and was succeeded by the former Duke of Orleans, who became Louis XII. The next phase of

11918-440: The rights of the ambassadors in host countries as well as the proper diplomatic procedures. An ambassador was used as a representative of the state in which they are from to negotiate and disseminate information in order to keep peace and establish relationships with other states. This attempt was employed in the effort to maintain peaceful relations with nations and make alliances during difficult times. The use of ambassadors today

12036-590: The ruler of Florence, Cosimo de' Medici , who defeated a French army at Marciano on 2 August 1554; although Siena held out until April 1555, it was absorbed by Florence and in 1569 became part of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany . In July 1554, Philip II of Spain became king of England through his marriage to Mary I , and in November he also received the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily from his father, who reconfirmed him as Duke of Milan. In January 1556, Charles formally abdicated as Emperor and split his possessions;

12154-579: The same fate and on 12 October Louis appointed the Duke of Nemours his viceroy in Naples. However, the Treaty of Granada had left the ownership of key Neapolitan territories undecided and disputes over these quickly poisoned relationships between the two powers. This led to war in late 1502, which ended with the French being expelled from Naples once again after defeats at Cerignola on 28 April 1503, and Garigliano on 29 December. On 18 October 1503, Pius III

12272-474: The scholars Antelantonio Spagnoletti and Benedetto Croce. Furthermore, according to the historians Christine Shaw and Salvatore Puglisi, the Holy Roman Empire continued to play a role in Italian politics. Peter J. Wilson writes that three overlapping and competing feudal networks, Imperial, Spanish, and Papal, were affirmed in Italy as a result of the end of the wars. In the long-term, Habsburg primacy in Italy continued to exist, but it varied significantly due to

12390-536: The southern Adriatic coast. Along with the Duchy of Ferrara , Julius united these disparate interests into the anti-Venetian League of Cambrai , signed on 10 December 1508. Although the French largely destroyed a Venetian army at Agnadello on 14 May 1509, Maximilian failed to capture Padua and withdrew from Italy. Now seeing the power of Louis XII as the greater threat, in February 1510 Pope Julius made peace with Venice, followed in March by an agreement with

12508-402: The state and is considered persona non grata . When this happens, the sending state may discharge the person. Diplomats are the oldest form of any of the foreign policy institutions of a state, predating by centuries foreign ministers and ministerial offices. They usually have diplomatic immunity , and in their official travels they usually use a diplomatic passport or, for UN officials,

12626-476: The system of diplomatic rank under international law , distinguishing between three hierarchical descending categories of diplomatic representatives: full ambassadors (including legates or nuntii ), accredited to heads of state; envoys or ministers, who were also accredited to heads of state; and finally chargés d’affaires , who were accredited to minister of foreign affairs . The Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations of 1961, which took effect in 1964 and

12744-699: The title of ambassadeur personne is used. Further, in the United States of America, senior career officers of the U.S. Foreign Service may be appointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to the rank of Career Ambassador as professional achievement. Holders of this rank may not necessarily possess diplomatic authority or accreditation to any state, though nearly all have previously served as an Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary during their careers. By custom, they hold

12862-428: The town capitulated, Louis ordered the execution of its garrison and senior members of the civil administration. Other Milanese strongholds surrendered rather than face the same fate, while Ludovico, whose wife Beatrice had died in 1497, fled the duchy with his children and took refuge with Maximilian. On 6 October 1499, Louis made a triumphant entry into Milan. Florence now asked for French assistance in retaking Pisa,

12980-567: The treaty of Noyon , signed on 13 August 1516, Charles I of Spain acknowledged Francis as Duke of Milan, while Francis "passed" his claim to Naples onto Charles. Left isolated, in December Maximilian signed the Treaty of Brussels, which confirmed French possession of Milan. Following the death of Maximilian in January 1519, the German Princes elected Charles I of Spain as Emperor Charles V on 28 June. This brought Spain,

13098-416: The unification of Italy would permanently remove foreign powers from the peninsula. Charles Tilly has characterized the Italian Wars as a key part in his theory of state formation , as the wars demonstrated the value of large armies and superior military technology. In Coercion, Capital, and European States, AD 990–1992 , Tilly argues that a "comprehensive European state system" can be reasonably dated to

13216-465: Was an Italian power. Many assumed the primacy established at Bologna by Charles V in Italy would also soon pass but instead it was the start of a long period of Imperial dominance. One factor was Venice's withdrawal from Italian affairs after 1530 in favour of protecting its maritime empire from Ottoman expansion. Under the Treaty of Cambrai, Francesco Sforza was reinstated as Duke of Milan; since he had no children, it also stated Charles V would inherit

13334-408: Was common when not all ambassadors resided in the country to which they are assigned, often serving only for a specific purpose or mission. The ambassador extraordinary and plenipotentiary being historically regarded as the personal representative of the sovereign, the custom of dispatching ambassadors to the head of state rather than the government has persisted. For example, ambassadors to and from

13452-566: Was elected Pope on 9 January 1522, while a French attempt to retake Milan was ended by defeat at Bicocca on 27 April. In May 1522, England joined the Imperial alliance and declared war on France. Venice left the war in July 1523, while Adrian died in November and was succeeded by Clement VII , who tried to negotiate an end to the fighting without success. Although France had lost ground in Lombardy and been invaded by English, Imperial and Spanish armies, her opponents had differing objectives and failed to co-ordinate their attacks. Since Papal policy

13570-428: Was himself a Medici, and after a lengthy siege , Florence surrendered in August 1530. Prior to 1530, interference by foreign powers in Italy was viewed as a short-term problem, since they could not sustain it over time; for example, French conquests of Naples in 1494 and 1501 and Milan in 1499 and 1515 were quickly reversed. On the other hand, Venice was generally viewed by other states as the greatest threat because it

13688-556: Was replaced by Pope Julius II , who as ruler of the Papal States was concerned by Venetian power in northern Italy. This fear was shared by his home town of Genoa , which also resented its expulsion from the Po Valley , and Maximilian, whose acquisition of Gorizia in 1500 was threatened by Venetian possession of neighbouring Friuli . Milan, controlled by Louis XII, was a long-standing opponent of Venice, while Ferdinand II, now king of Naples, wished to regain control of Venetian ports on

13806-426: Was to prevent either France or the Empire from becoming too powerful, in late 1524 Clement secretly allied himself with Francis, enabling him to mount another offensive against Milan. On 24 February 1525, the French army suffered a devastating defeat at Pavia , in which Francis was captured and imprisoned in Spain. This led to frantic diplomatic manoeuvres to secure his release, including a French mission to Suleiman

13924-479: Was used to disperse information and to protect the more vulnerable states. This practice then spread to Europe during the Italian Wars . The use and creation of ambassadors during the 15th century in Italy has had long-term effects on Europe and, in turn, the world's diplomatic and political progression. Europe still uses the same terms of ambassador rights as they had established in the 16th century, concerning

#779220