The Ambiani ( Gaulish : Ambiāni , 'those around') were a Belgic coastal tribe dwelling in the modern Picardy region during the Iron Age and Roman periods.
107-639: They settled in the region between the 4th century and the second part of the 2nd century BC. In 113–101 BC, they took part in the fights against the Cimbri and Teutoni invaders during the Cimbrian War . In 57 and 52 BC, they participated in Gallic coalitions against Caesar , before their eventual subjugation by Rome in 51 BC. The Ambiani are known for their gold coinage, found in both northern France and Britain, which attest of extensive trading relations across
214-656: A Roman province until 27 BC. The Roman Senate granted Caesar a thanksgiving of 20 days for his victory in the Gallic War. In 58 BC, following his first consulship in 59 BC, Julius Caesar engineered his own appointment as proconsul (governor) of three Roman provinces by the First Triumvirate . These were Cisalpine Gaul (northern Italy), Illyricum (on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea ) and Gallia Narbonensis (in southeastern France and
321-889: A Cimbrian chieftain who is enslaved by the Romans after the Battle of Vercellae. Cimbri is referenced in Italo Calvino 's novel If on a Winter's Night a Traveller as a fictional country that warred with a similarly fictionalised version of Cimmeria , thus imposing its own written language onto the Cimmerians. Jeff Hein's historical fiction series The Cimbrian War tells the story of the Cimbri and their migration across Iron-Age Europe. Battle of Alesia 10–11 legions (30–50,000 legionaries) 10,000 auxiliaries The Battle of Alesia or siege of Alesia (September 52 BC)
428-625: A central town square in Aalborg , the capital of the region of North Jutland . A German ethnic minority speaking the Cimbrian language , having settled in the mountains between Vicenza, Verona, and Trento in Italy (also known as Seven Communities ), is also called the Cimbri . For hundreds of years this isolated population and its present 4,400 inhabitants have claimed to be the direct descendants of
535-461: A common ancestry, recalled from two hundred years previous, but that is not certain. Henri Hubert states "All these names are Celtic, and they cannot be anything else". Some authors take a different perspective. Countering the argument of a Celtic origin is the literary evidence that the Cimbri originally came from northern Jutland , an area with no Celtic placenames, instead only Germanic ones. This does not rule out Cimbric Gallicization during
642-400: A defensive fortification. The Gauls continuously harassed the Romans and their foraging parties while they built their camp, and attempted to burn it down. But not even the fierce winter weather could stop the Romans, and a very sturdy camp was built in just 25 days. Siege engines were built, and Caesar waited for an opportunity to attack the heavily fortified oppidum . He chose to attack during
749-428: A fabrication, for when the ocean is affected in this way it is subject to increases and diminutions, but these are regulated and periodical. On the map of Ptolemy , the "Kimbroi" are placed on the northernmost part of the peninsula of Jutland, i.e., in the modern landscape of Himmerland south of Limfjorden (since Vendsyssel-Thy north of the fjord was at that time a group of islands). Some time before 100 BC many of
856-456: A head in 52 BC and caused the widespread revolt the Romans had long feared. The campaigns of 53 BC had been particularly harsh, and the Gauls feared for their prosperity. Previously, they had not been united, which had made them easy to conquer. But this changed in 53 BC, when Caesar announced that Gaul was now being treated as a Roman province, subject to Roman laws and religion. This
963-476: A hill could not be included in the Roman works and they placed a camp with two legions on steep and disadvantageous ground (this is indicated by a circle in the figure). Thus, the Gauls selected 60,000 men and appointed Vercassivellaunus , a near relative of Vercingetorix, to lead the attack on that spot. They marched there before dawn and launched the attack at noon. Vercingetorix made a sally and attacked any part of
1070-406: A large Roman army was routed. Rome was in panic, and the terror cimbricus became proverbial. Everyone expected to soon see the new Gauls outside of the gates of Rome. Desperate measures were taken: contrary to the Roman constitution, Gaius Marius , who had defeated Jugurtha , was elected consul and supreme commander for five years in a row (104–100 BC). In 104–103 BC, the Cimbri had turned to
1177-634: A large Roman army was routed. They then raided large areas in Gaul and Hispania . In 101 BC, during an attempted invasion of the Italian peninsula , the Cimbri were decisively defeated at the Battle of Vercellae by Gaius Marius , and their king, Boiorix , was killed. Some of the surviving captives are reported to have been among the rebellious gladiators in the Third Servile War . The origin of
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#17327724425771284-606: A migration to the Atlantic coast through Gaul, Caesar went to Geneva and forbade the Helvetii to move into Gaul. While he went to Gallia Cisalpina to collect three other legions, the Helvetii attacked the territories of the Aedui , Ambarri , and Allobroges , three Gallic tribes, which called for Caesar's help. Caesar and his Gallic allies defeated the Helvetii. The Gallic tribes then asked for Caesar to intervene against an invasion by
1391-571: A northern homeland point to Greek and Roman sources that associate the Cimbri with the Jutland peninsula. According to the Res gestae (ch. 26) of Augustus , the Cimbri were still found in the area around the turn of the 1st century AD: My fleet sailed from the mouth of the Rhine eastward as far as the lands of the Cimbri, to which, up to that time, no Roman had ever penetrated either by land or by sea, and
1498-449: A present to Augustus the most sacred kettle in their country, with a plea for his friendship and for an amnesty of their earlier offences, and when their petition was granted they set sail for home; and it is ridiculous to suppose that they departed from their homes because they were incensed on account of a phenomenon that is natural and eternal, occurring twice every day. And the assertion that an excessive flood-tide once occurred looks like
1605-417: A prophecy, while still others would split open the body and from an inspection of the entrails would utter a prophecy of victory for their own people; and during the battles they would beat on the hides that were stretched over the wicker-bodies of the wagons and in this way produce an unearthly noise. If the Cimbri did in fact come from Jutland, evidence that they practiced ritualistic sacrifice may be found in
1712-424: A rainstorm, where the sentries were distracted. Siege towers were used to assault the fort, and artillery battered the walls. Eventually, the artillery broke a hole in the wall, and the Gauls were unable to stop the Romans from taking the settlement. The Romans then looted and raped the settlement; Caesar took no prisoners and claimed the Romans slew 40,000. That the Gallic coalition did not fall apart after this defeat
1819-493: A retreat. But no such retreat occurred and the Romans directly assaulted the settlement. Gilliver finds it likely that Caesar did not actually sound a retreat and that it was his plan all along to directly assault the settlement. Caesar's dubious claim is likely to distance himself from the ensuing and overwhelming failure of the Romans. The Roman assault ended in clear defeat as the Romans were greatly outnumbered. Caesar (whose self-reported casualty numbers are likely much lower than
1926-510: A siege, and that the "rivers" were actually small streams. Berthier proposed that the location of the battle was at Chaux-des-Crotenay at the gate of the Jura mountains – a place that better suits the descriptions in Caesar's Gallic Wars . Roman fortifications have been found at this site. Danielle Porte, a Sorbonne professor, continues to challenge the identification of Alise-Sainte-Reine as
2033-479: A trench twenty pedes (6 metres, 19 modern feet) with perpendicular sides and built all the other works four hundred stades (probably 592 m, 1943 feet) away from that trench. The object of placing this trench so far away from the rest of the works was, as Caesar explained, that the manning of the entrenchment was not easy and, thus, this distance was a protection against surprise enemy advances at night or against javelins or other missiles being thrown at
2140-528: A visit and was greeted as their king. The population, which kept its independence during the time of the Venice Republic, was later severely devastated by World War I . As a result, many Cimbri have left this mountainous region of Italy, effectively forming a worldwide diaspora. The Cimbri are depicted as ferocious warriors who did not fear death. The host was followed by women and children on carts. Aged women, priestesses , dressed in white sacrificed
2247-482: Is a testament to the leadership of Vercingetorix. Despite this setback, the Aedui were willing to revolt and join the coalition. This was yet another setback to Caesar's supply lines, as he could no longer get supplies through the Aedui (though the taking of Avaricum had supplied the army for the moment). Vercingetorix now withdrew to Gergovia , the capital of his own tribe, which he was eager to defend. Caesar arrived as
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#17327724425772354-551: Is also known from Germanic, but with an a (* mari- ), whereas a cognate of marbh is unknown in all dialects of Germanic. Yet, given that Pliny had not heard the word directly from a Cimbric speaker, it cannot be ruled out that the word he heard had been translated into Gaulish. The known Cimbri chiefs have Celtic names, including Boiorix (which may mean "King of the Boii" or, more literally, "King of Strikers"), Gaesorix (which means "Spear King"), and Lugius (which may be named after
2461-601: Is considered one of Caesar's greatest military achievements and a classic example of siege warfare and investment ; the Roman army built dual lines of fortifications—an inner wall to keep the besieged Gauls in, and an outer wall to keep the Gallic relief force out. The Battle of Alesia marked the end of Gallic independence in the modern day territory of France and Belgium. The battle site was probably atop Mont Auxois, above modern Alise-Sainte-Reine in France , but this location, some have argued, does not fit Caesar's description of
2568-533: Is derived from Brittonic *Kombrogi (cf. Allobroges ), meaning "compatriots", and is linguistically unrelated to Cimbri. Scholars generally see the Cimbri as originating in Jutland , but archaeologists have found no clear indications of any mass migration from Jutland in the early Iron Age . The Gundestrup Cauldron , which was deposited in a bog in Himmerland in the 2nd or 1st century BC, shows that there
2675-573: The Notitia Dignitatum (5th c. AD). The Gaulish ethnonym Ambiāni literally means 'those around', which is generally interpreted as meaning 'the people dwelling around the two banks of the Somme river '; it is formed with the stem ambi- ('around, on both sides') attached to a suffix -ani . Linguist Pierre-Yves Lambert has also proposed to translate the name as 'the people of the surroundings' – perhaps hyperbolized as 'the people of
2782-537: The Battle of Noreia , where they defeated the Romans. Only a storm, which separated the combatants, saved the Roman forces from complete annihilation. Now the road to Italy was open, but they turned west towards Gaul . They came into frequent conflict with the Romans , who usually came out the losers. In 109 BC, they defeated a Roman army under the consul Marcus Junius Silanus , who was the commander of Gallia Narbonensis . In 107 BC they defeated another Roman army under
2889-548: The Channel . They are mentioned as Ambianos and Ambianis by Caesar (mid-1st c. BC), Ambianos in the summary of Livy 's Ab Urbe Condita Libri (late 1st c. BC), Ambianoì (Ἀμβιανοὶ) and Ambianoĩs (Ἀμβιανοῖς) by Strabo (early 1st c. AD), Ambiani by Pliny (1st c. AD), Ambianoí (Ἀμβιανοί) by Ptolemy (2nd c. AD), Ambianis in the Itinerarium Antonini (early 3rd c. AD), and as Ambianenses in
2996-829: The Gallic Wars in 57 BC, Caesar learnt from his Belgic Remi informants that the Ambiani had promised to muster 10,000 armed men against the Roman armies, among the lowest. An equal number were promised by the Nervii, accounted the fiercest among the Belgae, and dwelling farthest away; fifteen thousand by the Atrebates, ten by the Ambiani... During the winter of 54–53 BC, returning from an expedition in Britain, Caesar wintered with three legions at Samarobriva. When Vercingetorix
3103-681: The Haraldskær Woman discovered in Jutland in the year 1835. Noosemarks and skin piercing were evident and she had been thrown into a bog rather than buried or cremated. Furthermore, the Gundestrup cauldron , found in Himmerland, may be a sacrificial vessel like the one described in Strabo's text. In style, the work looks like Thracian silver work, while many of the engravings are Celtic objects. A major problem in determining whether
3210-554: The Second Punic War and destroyed Rome , but Carthage proved unable to rule Italy – which fell into utter chaos. Thus, there was no one to stop the Cimbri two hundred years later. They filled the vacuum, conquered Italy, assimilated the local population to their own culture and by the equivalent of the 20th century had made of Italy a flourishing, technologically advanced kingdom speaking a Germanic language. He also wrote an unrelated historical novel "The Golden Slave", about
3317-668: The Suebi , a Germanic tribe. Caesar defeated the Suebi and, to demonstrate Roman power, crossed the Rhine in 56 BC. In 57 BC he intervened in intra-Gallic conflicts and marched on the Belgae of northern Gaul. From then on he conquered the Gallic peoples one by one. His successes in Gaul brought Caesar political prestige in Rome and great wealth through the spoils of wars and the sale of war captives as slaves. Gallic existential concerns came to
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3424-569: The 1st century AD, according to the sources quoted above. Some of the surviving captives are reported to have been among the rebelling gladiators in the Third Servile War . Justin 's epitome of Trogus has Mithridates the Great send emissaries to the Cimbri to request military aid during the Social War (91-88 BCE). Justin also states that the Cimbri were again in Italy at this time, i.e. over ten years later. According to Julius Caesar ,
3531-513: The Alps into northern Italy. The consul Quintus Lutatius Catulus had not dared to fortify the passes, but instead he had retreated behind the river Po , and so the land was open to the invaders. The Cimbri did not hurry, and the victors of Aquae Sextiae had the time to arrive with reinforcements. At the Battle of Vercellae , at the confluence of the river Sesia with the Po , in 101 BC, the long voyage of
3638-594: The Ambiani imitated coinages from Magna Graecia , in the southern part of the Italian Peninsula . Their first emissions of coins are thus copies of a stater minted by Taranto between 334 and 302 BC. Ambianic coinage has been found throughout the territories of other Belgic tribes, including in the British Island , from Cantium (Kent) to the West Country . An Ambianic "monetary hegemony" over
3745-561: The Belgian tribe of the Atuatuci "was descended from the Cimbri and Teutoni , who, upon their march into our province and Italy, set down such of their stock and stuff as they could not drive or carry with them on the near (i.e. west) side of the Rhine , and left six thousand men of their company there as guard and garrison" ( Gall. 2.29, trans. Edwards). They founded the city of Atuatuca in
3852-514: The Celtic god Lugus ). Other evidence to the language of the Cimbri is circumstantial: thus, we are told that the Romans enlisted Gaulish Celts to act as spies in the Cimbri camp before the final showdown with the Roman army in 101 BC. Jean Markale wrote that the Cimbri were associated with the Helvetii , and more especially with the indisputably Celtic Tigurini . These associations may link to
3959-429: The Cimbri also came to an end. It was a devastating defeat. Two chieftains, Lugius and Boiorix , died on the field, while the other chieftains Caesorix and Claodicus were captured. The women killed both themselves and their children in order to avoid slavery. The Cimbri were annihilated, although some may have survived to return to the homeland where a population with this name was residing in northern Jutland in
4066-515: The Cimbri and Charydes and Semnones and other peoples of the Germans of that same region through their envoys sought my friendship and that of the Roman people. The contemporary Greek geographer Strabo testified that the Cimbri still existed as a Germanic tribe, presumably in the "Cimbric peninsula" (since they are said to live by the North Sea and to have paid tribute to Augustus): As for
4173-789: The Cimbri and the Tigurines were to take the northern route across the Rhine and later across the Central Eastern Alps . At the estuary of the Isère , the Teutons and the Ambrones met Marius, whose well-defended camp they did not manage to overrun. Instead, they pursued their route, and Marius followed them. At Aquae Sextiae , the Romans won two battles and took the Teuton king Teutobod prisoner. The Cimbri had penetrated through
4280-489: The Cimbri retreating to this area after the Roman victory over their tribe. However, it is more likely that Bavarians settled here in the Middle Ages. Most linguists remain committed to the hypothesis of a medieval (11th to 12th century AD) immigration to explain the presence of small German-speaking communities in the north of Italy. Some genetic studies seem to prove a Celtic, not Germanic, descent for most inhabitants in
4387-424: The Cimbri succeeded in first defeating the legate Marcus Aurelius Scaurus and later inflicted a devastating defeat on Caepio and Maximus at the Battle of Arausio . The Romans lost as many as 80,000 men, according to Livy ; Mommsen (in his History of Rome ) thought that excluded auxiliary cavalry and non-combatants who brought the total loss closer to 112,000. Other estimates are much smaller, but by any account
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4494-516: The Cimbri were speaking a Celtic language or a Germanic language is that, at that time, the Greeks and Romans tended to refer to all groups to the north of their sphere of influence as Gauls, Celts, or Germani rather indiscriminately, and not based upon languages. Caesar seems to be one of the first authors to distinguish the Celtae and Germani , and he had a political motive for doing so, because it
4601-690: The Cimbri, as well as the Teutons and Ambrones , migrated south-east. After several unsuccessful battles with the Boii and other Celtic tribes , they appeared c. 113 BC in Noricum , where they invaded the lands of one of Rome's allies, the Taurisci . On the request of the Roman consul Gnaeus Papirius Carbo , sent to defend the Taurisci, they retreated, only to find themselves deceived and attacked at
4708-412: The Cimbri, some things that are told about them are incorrect and others are extremely improbable. For instance, one could not accept such a reason for their having become a wandering and piratical folk as this that while they were dwelling on a Peninsula they were driven out of their habitations by a great flood-tide; for in fact they still hold the country which they held in earlier times; and they sent as
4815-458: The Gallic council and proposed that he should be killed or surrendered alive to appease the Romans. Caesar ordered the Gauls to surrender their weapons and deliver their chieftains. The chieftains were brought before him and Vercingetorix was surrendered. Captives were given to the Roman soldiers as part of the spoils of war apart from the Aedui and Arverni, whom he hoped to win over. With the revolt crushed, Caesar set his legions to winter across
4922-534: The Iberian Peninsula where they pillaged far and wide, until they were confronted by a coalition of Celtiberians . Defeated, the Cimbri returned to Gaul, where they joined their allies, the Teutons . During this time, C. Marius had the time to prepare and, in 102 BC, he was ready to meet the Teutons and the Ambrones at the Rhône. These two tribes intended to pass into Italy through the western passes, while
5029-571: The Roman Senate in 44 BC. His ever-increasing personal power and honours undermined the tradition-bound republican foundations of Rome. More civil wars followed his assassination. The last one was a conflict between Octavian (later known as Augustus ) and Marc Antony over who would be the sole ruler of Rome, which Octavius won. This led to the de facto end of the Roman Republic and the beginning of rule by emperors. Vercingetorix
5136-405: The Roman cavalry was sent to pursue them. Many were killed and many fled to the lands they came from. After multiple attacks, the Gauls realized that they could not overcome the truly impressive Roman siege works. At this point, it became clear that the Romans would be able to outlast the defenders, and that the revolt was doomed. The relieving army melted away. The next day Vercingetorix convened
5243-567: The Roman troops who were building the works during the day. Between this advance trench and the entrenchment, he dug two more trenches 15 pedes (4.45 m, 14.6 ft) wide and deep. He filled the inner one, where the ground was level with the plain or sank below it, with water from the river. Behind the three trenches he built a rampart riveted with palisades 12 pedes high (3.57 m, 11.7 ft). On top of this he built battlements (parapets with squared openings for shooting through) and breastwork (wooden screens at breast height to protect
5350-459: The Roman works. The Gauls made sorties with large forces to attack the works. Therefore, Caesar added further structures to the works to make them defensible by the reduced number of troops. Cut tree trunks were sharpened to create stakes. They were fastened at the bottom and sunk into a five pedes deep trench (1.5 m, 4.9 ft) with the boughs protruding from the ground. They were tied in rows of five so that they could not be pulled up without
5457-476: The actual amount) claims that 700 men died including 46 centurions. Caesar withdrew from his siege and Vercingetorix's victory attracted many new tribes to his cause. So too, however, did the Romans who convinced numerous Germanic tribes to join them. Vercingetorix marched the army he had gathered thus far, mainly cavalry, to intercept Caesar. The two armies met in the Battle of the Vingeanne , where Caesar won
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#17327724425775564-400: The attackers being impaled by the sharp stakes. Pits three pedes (0.9 m, 2.9 ft) deep which sloped inwards slightly to the bottom were dug in front of the stakes. They were placed in five intersected rows in the shape of a quincunx (an arrangement of five objects with four at the corners and the fifth at the centre). Tapering stakes, the thickness of a man's thigh, were sharpened at
5671-536: The battle site, but the director of the Alesia museum, Laurent de Froberville, maintains that scientific evidence supports this identification. Classical historian and archaeologist Colin Wells took the view that the excavations at Alise-Sainte-Reine in the 1990s should have removed all possible doubt about the site and regarded some of the advocacy of alternative locations as "...passionate nonsense". Precise figures for
5778-472: The battle. A number of alternatives have been proposed over time, among which only Chaux-des-Crotenay (in Jura in modern France) remains a challenger today. The event is described by Caesar himself in his Commentarii de Bello Gallico as well as several later ancient authors (namely Plutarch and Cassius Dio). After the Roman victory, Gaul (very roughly modern France) was subdued, although Gallic territories north of Gallia Narbonensis would not become
5885-403: The cavalry to follow him and part of it to leave the outer fortification and attack the Gallic relief force from the rear. Labienus was on the verge of collapse and informed Caesar of his decision of making a sally as he had been instructed. Caesar hastened. His arrival galvanised the Roman troops, who "lay aside their javelins [and] carr[ied] on the engagement with their swords." The Roman cavalry
5992-523: The coast". Finally, since Antiquity, the name has been related to that of the Cimmerians . The name of the Danish region Himmerland (Old Danish Himbersysel ) has been proposed to be a derivative of their name. According to such proposals, the word Cimbri with a c would be an older form before Grimm's law ( PIE k > Germanic h ). Alternatively, Latin c- represents an attempt to render
6099-407: The construction. Caesar placed the legions in front of the camp in case of a sortie by the enemy infantry and got his Germanic allies to pursue the Gallic cavalry. Before the encompassing fortifications were complete and under cover of night, Vercingetorix sent out all his cavalry to rally the tribes to war and come to aid him at Alesia. When Caesar heard of this from deserters and captives, he dug
6206-563: The consul Gaius Cassius Longinus , who was killed at the Battle of Burdigala (modern day Bordeaux ) against the Tigurini , who were allies of the Cimbri. It was not until 105 BC that they planned an attack on the Roman Republic itself. At the Rhône , the Cimbri clashed with the Roman armies. Discord between the Roman commanders, the proconsul Quintus Servilius Caepio and the consul Gnaeus Mallius Maximus , hindered Roman coordination and so
6313-406: The defenders) with large horizontal pointed stakes projecting from the joints of the screens to prevent the enemy from scaling it. All round the works he set turrets at intervals of 80 pedes (24 m, 78 ft). Some of the Roman soldiers had to go a considerable distance to get the timber for the construction of the works and grain to feed the troops. This reduced the number of troops at
6420-465: The fortifications to starve to death. Meanwhile, the Gallic relief force arrived and encamped on a hill one mile from the Roman fortification. The next day the Gauls encamped near the town. They then attacked the outer Roman fortification. The besieged Gauls simultaneously attacked the inner Roman fortification. However, this combined attack was unsuccessful. The next day the Gauls attacked at night. Marc Antony and Caius Trebonius brought in troops from
6527-444: The ground and scattered close to each other all over the field. To prepare for the arrival of the Gallic relief forces, Caesar constructed an outer fortification (a circumvallation ) with the same specifications but facing the opposite way as protection against the external attack by this relief force. It followed the most favourable ground and formed a circuit of 14 Roman miles (20.7 km, 12.86 modern miles). The food supply of
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#17327724425776634-471: The heirs of the ancient Cimbri. The adventures of the Cimbri are described by the Danish Nobel Prize–winning author Johannes V. Jensen , himself born in Himmerland, in the novel Cimbrernes Tog (1922), included in the epic cycle Den lange Rejse (English The Long Journey , 1923). The so-called Cimbrian bull (" Cimbrertyren "), a sculpture by Anders Bundgaard , was erected on 14 April 1937 in
6741-552: The honour of celebrating a triumphal parade , the peak of any general's career. Political tension increased, and two years later, in 49 BC, Caesar crossed the Rubicon , precipitating the Roman Civil War of 49–45 BC, which he won. After having been elected consul for each of the years of the civil war, and appointed to several temporary dictatorships , he was finally made dictator perpetuus (dictator for life), by
6848-446: The inner fortification which seemed weak. Caesar sent Labienus to support the defense of the weak area with six cohorts of cavalry. He sent Brutus with six cohorts of cavalry and then Caius Fabius with a further seven cohorts of cavalry to defend the inner fortification. Finally, leading fresh troops, he joined in. The attack was repelled. Caesar then marched to the assistance of Labienus, drafting four cohorts and ordering part of
6955-649: The land of the Belgic Eburones , whom they dominated. Thus Ambiorix king of the Eburones paid tribute and gave his son and nephew as hostages to the Atuatuci ( Gall. 6.27). In the first century AD, the Eburones were replaced or absorbed by the Germanic Tungri , and the city was known as Atuatuca Tungrorum, i.e. the modern city of Tongeren . The population of modern-day Himmerland claims to be
7062-405: The lands of the defeated tribes to prevent further rebellion. Troops were also sent to the Remi, who had been steadfast allies to the Romans throughout the campaign. But resistance was not entirely over: southwest Gaul had not yet been pacified. Alesia proved to be the end of generalized and organized resistance against Caesar's invasion of Gaul and effectively marked the end of the Gallic Wars. In
7169-527: The language of the Cimbri: referring to the Northern Ocean (the Baltic or the North Sea ), Pliny the Elder states: "Philemon says that it is called Morimarusa, i.e. the Dead Sea, by the Cimbri, until the promontory of Rubea, and after that Cronium." The contemporary Gaulish terms for "sea" and "dead" appear to have been mori and *maruo- ; compare their well-attested modern Insular Celtic cognates muir and marbh ( Irish ), môr and marw ( Welsh ), and mor and marv ( Breton ). The same word for "sea"
7276-417: The local civilian population, this would not have taken long. To guarantee a perfect blockade, Caesar ordered the construction of an encircling set of fortifications, a contravallation , around Alesia. It was eleven Roman miles long (16 km or 10 modern miles, each Roman mile equal to 1,000 paces ), and had 23 redoubts (towers). While work was in progress, the Gauls carried out cavalry sallies to disrupt
7383-483: The local terrain, but it is apparent that they worked. Vercingetorix's relieving army arrived quickly, yet concerted coordinated attacks by both the defenders and relievers failed to oust the Romans. Alesia was an oppidum (fortified settlement) on a lofty hill, with two rivers on two different sides. Due to such strong defensive features, Caesar decided on a siege to force surrender by starvation. Considering that about 80,000 men were garrisoned in Alesia, together with
7490-417: The more modern names today. These indicate a different origin (e.g., Asiago is known also by its original Cimbro name of Sleghe ). The Cimbrian origin myth was popularized by humanists in the 14th century. Despite these connections to southern Germany, belief in a Himmerland origin persisted well into modern times. On one occasion in 1709, for instance, Frederick IV of Denmark paid the region's inhabitants
7597-447: The name Cimbri is unknown. One etymology is PIE *tḱim-ro- "inhabitant", from tḱoi-m- "home" (> English home ), itself a derivation from tḱei- "live" (> Greek κτίζω , Latin sinō ); then, the Germanic * himbra- finds an exact cognate in Slavic sębrъ "farmer" (> Croatian, Serbian sebar , Belorussian сябёр syabyor ). The name has also been related to the word kimme meaning "rim", i.e., "the people of
7704-477: The neighbouring Parisii and Bellovaci is attested at least until the end of the 2nd century BC. Cimbri The Cimbri ( Greek : Κίμβροι , Kímbroi ; Latin : Cimbri ) were an ancient tribe in Europe. Ancient authors described them variously as a Celtic , Gaulish , Germanic , or even Cimmerian people. Several ancient sources indicate that they lived in Jutland , which in some classical texts
7811-589: The next year (50 BC) there were mopping-up operations. During the Roman civil wars Gallia was essentially left on its own. Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa became its first governor in 39–38 BC. In 39 BC he settled the Ubians on the west bank of the River Rhine and in 38 BC he suppressed a rebellion in Aquitania. He built a radial network of roads centred on the Gallic capital, Lugdunum ( Lyon ). Gallia
7918-551: The period when they lived in Gaul. Boiorix, who may have had a Celtic if not a Celticized Germanic name, was king of the Cimbri after they moved away from their ancestral home of northern Jutland. Boiorix and his tribe lived around Celtic peoples during his era as J. B. Rives points out in his introduction to Tacitus' Germania ; furthermore, the name "Boiorix" can be seen as having either Proto-Germanic or Celtic roots. The science fiction story " Delenda Est " by Poul Anderson depicts an alternate history in which Hannibal won
8025-522: The population of Alesia and the 80,000 soldiers it hosted could not last long. Vercingetorix ordered all the grain to be brought to him and rationed it. The Gauls held a council, and it was decided that the old and the sick should leave the town. The inhabitants of the town also sent out their wives and children to save food for the fighters, hoping that Caesar would take them as captives and feed them. However, Caesar forbade their being admitted to his fortification, and Vercingetorix left his people out between
8132-501: The pre-Roman period, the area around Samarobriva ( Amiens ) was probably located at the extremity of the Ambianian territory, which extended mainly on the lower Somme valley. During the Roman era, the chief town of the Ambiani was known as Samarobriva (Gaulish: 'bridge on the river Somme'), corresponding to the modern-day city of Amiens . Despite the mention of a Samarobrivae by Caesar ca. 54 BC, archeological evidence indicate that
8239-511: The prisoners of war and sprinkled their blood, the nature of which allowed them to see what was to come. Strabo gives this vivid description of the Cimbric folklore: Their wives, who would accompany them on their expeditions, were attended by priestesses who were seers; these were grey-haired, clad in white, with flaxen cloaks fastened on with clasps, girt with girdles of bronze, and bare-footed; now sword in hand these priestesses would meet with
8346-399: The prisoners of war throughout the camp, and having first crowned them with wreaths would lead them to a brazen vessel of about twenty amphorae; and they had a raised platform which the priestess would mount, and then, bending over the kettle, would cut the throat of each prisoner after he had been lifted up; and from the blood that poured forth into the vessel some of the priestesses would draw
8453-494: The region that is reinforced by Gaulish toponyms such as those ending with the suffix -ago < Celtic -*ako(n) (e.g. Asiago is clearly the same place name as the numerous variants – Azay , Aisy , Azé , Ezy – in France, all of which derive from *Asiacum < Gaulish *Asiāko(n) ). On the other hand, the original place names in the region, from the specifically localized language known as 'Cimbro' are still in use alongside
8560-461: The reign of Augustus in 27 BC, and there may have been unrest in the region as late as AD 70. Paul K. Davis writes that "Caesar's victory over the combined Gallic forces established Roman dominance in Gaul for the next 500 years. Caesar's victory also created a rivalry with the Roman government, leading to his invasion of the Italian peninsula." For many years, the actual location of the battle
8667-433: The remotest forts in support of their comrades. At the first light of day, the Gallic relief forces, fearing being surrounded by a Roman sally , withdrew. The advance of the besieged Gauls, led by Vercingetorix, was delayed by having to fill trenches dug by the Romans. On hearing of the retreat of their comrades the besieged Gauls returned to the town. The Gauls spotted a weakness in the Roman fortification. The north side of
8774-464: The rest of France's Mediterranean coast). Although the proconsular term of office was meant to be one year, Caesar's governorship was for an unprecedented five years. He also had the command of four legions. Caesar engaged in the Gallic Wars (58–50 BC), which led to his conquest of Gaul beyond Gallia Narbonensis. When the Helvetii , a federation of tribes from what is now Switzerland, planned
8881-403: The settlement was built around a Via Agrippa , probably ca. 19–16 BC. Suburbs began to emerge from the middle of the 1st century AD in the lower valley. The Ambiani settled in their attested homeland between the 4th century and the middle of the 2nd century BC. In 113–101 BC, they participated in the fights against the Cimbri and Teutoni invaders of Gauls during the Cimbrian War . During
8988-440: The size of the armies involved, and the number of casualties suffered, are difficult to know. Such figures have always been a powerful propaganda weapon, and are thus suspect. Caesar, in his De Bello Gallico , refers to a Gallic relief force of a quarter of a million, probably an exaggeration to enhance his victory. The only records of the events are Roman and, therefore, presumed to be biased. Modern historians usually believe that
9095-411: The span of a month, some 25 miles of fortifications were built. They included a trench for soldiers, an anti-cavalry moat, towers at regular intervals, and booby traps in front of the trenches. The fortifications were dug in two lines, one to protect from the defenders, and one to protect from the relievers. Archeological evidence suggests the lines were not continuous as Caesar claims, and made much use of
9202-459: The subsequent victory defeating Vercingetorix's cavalry. With his cavalry routed Vercingetorix withdrew towards the Mandubii oppidum of Alesia , in what would become the siege of Alesia. After the poor performance at Gergovia, a direct assault on the Gauls by Caesar was no longer a viable solution. Thus, Caesar opted simply to besiege the settlement and starve out the defenders. Vercingetorix
9309-481: The top, hardened with fire, and sunk in the pits. They protruded from the bottom of the pit to a height of four fingers. Earth was pressed hard to a height of one foot from the bottom of the pit to make the stakes firm. The rest of the pit was covered with twigs and broken-off tree branches to hide the trap. Eight rows of this kind were placed three pedes (0.9 m, 2.9 ft). In front of these, one pes (0.3 m, 0.97 ft) stakes with iron hooks were sunk into
9416-548: The unfamiliar Proto-Germanic h = [x] (Latin h was [h] but was becoming silent in common speech at the time), perhaps due to Celtic-speaking interpreters (a Celtic intermediary could also explain why one proposed etymology for the Teutons, Germanic *Þeuðanōz , became Latin Teutones ). Because of the similarity of the names, the Cimbri have been at times associated with Cymry , the Welsh name for themselves. However, Cymry
9523-411: The validity of Alise-Sainte-Reine's claim. For example, the site is said to be too small to accommodate even revised estimates of 80,000 men with the Gallic infantry, along with cavalry and additional personnel. It is also alleged that the topography of the area does not fit with Caesar's description. In the 1960s, a French archaeologist, André Berthier, argued that the hill top was too low to have required
9630-418: The weather warmed and fodder finally became available which somewhat eased supply issues. As usual, Caesar promptly set to building a fortification for the Romans. Caesar then set about capturing territory closer to the oppidum . What happened in the ensuing Battle of Gergovia remains somewhat unclear. Caesar claimed that he had just ordered his men to take a hill near to the oppidum , and that he then sounded
9737-455: The world' –, by deriving Ambiani from ambio - ('surroundings'), a thematized form of the same prefix ambi -. The city of Amiens , attested ca. 400 AD as civitas Ambianensium (' civitas of the Ambiani'; Ammiens in 1142), is named after the Belgic tribe. The Ambiani dwelled in the modern regions of Vimeux, Ponthieu and Santerre , in the present-day Somme department. Their territory
9844-483: The writing of Caesar's reports on the war. The campaigns may well have continued, if not for the impending Roman civil war. The legions in Gaul were eventually pulled out in 50 BC as the civil war drew near, for Caesar would need them to defeat his enemies in Rome. The Gauls had not been entirely subjugated, and were not yet a formal part of the empire. But that task was not Caesar's, and he left that to his successors. Gaul would not formally be made into Roman provinces until
9951-756: Was besieged in Alesia in 52 BC, the Ambiani sent 5,000 men. Between 386 and 450 AD, they are still documented by the Notitia Galliarum as living in the province of Belgica II , between the Bellovaci and the Morini. There is some evidence from coins that bear a stag on one side and a betorced head on the obverse that the Ambiani were followers of the god Cernunnos (horned God). The Ambiani were consummate minters, especially of gold coins. Whereas other Gallic tribes generally imitated Arverni coins, themselves inspired by Philip II of Macedon staters ,
10058-571: Was a subject of immense concern for the Gauls, who feared the Romans would destroy the Gallic holy land, which the Carnutes watched over. Each year the druids met there to mediate between the tribes on the lands considered the center of Gaul. A threat to their sacred lands was an issue that finally united the Gauls. Over the winter the charismatic king of the Arverni tribe, Vercingetorix , assembled an unprecedented grand coalition of Gauls. Caesar
10165-480: Was an argument in favour of his push to set the Rhine as a new Roman border. Yet, one cannot always trust Caesar and Tacitus when they ascribe individuals and tribes to one or the other category, although Caesar made clear distinctions between the two cultures. Some ancient sources categorize the Cimbri as a Germanic tribe, but some ancient authors include the Cimbri among the Celts. There are few direct testimonies to
10272-795: Was bordered in the north by the Canche river, and in the north-east and south-east by the Samara (Somme) watershed. They were located near the Caletes in the west, the Bellovaci in the south, the Morini and Atrebates in the north, and the Viromandui in the east. The smaller Catuslougi , who lived between them and the Caletes, were probably a pagus of the Ambiani during the Roman period. During
10379-590: Was called the Cimbrian peninsula. There is no direct evidence for the language they spoke, though some scholars argue that it was a Germanic language, while others argue that it was Celtic . Together with the Teutones and the Ambrones , they fought the Roman Republic between 113 and 101 BC during the Cimbrian War . The Cimbri were initially successful, particularly at the Battle of Arausio , in which
10486-458: Was divided into three Roman provinces; Gallia Aquitania, Gallia Lugdununensis and Gallia Belgica. Only the Arverni kept their independence thanks to their victory against Caesar at the Battle of Gergovia . For Caesar, Alesia was an enormous personal success, both militarily and politically. The Senate declared 20 days of thanksgiving for this victory but, due to political reasons, refused Caesar
10593-404: Was fine with this, as he intended to use Alesia as a trap to conduct a pincer attack on the Romans, and sent a call for a relieving army at once. Vercingetorix likely did not expect the intensity of the Roman siege preparations. Although modern archeology suggests that Caesar's preparations were not as complete as he describes, it is apparent that Caesar laid some truly incredible siege works. Over
10700-554: Was forced by a lack of supplies, and he besieged the oppidum of Avaricum where Vercingetorix had pulled back to. Vercingetorix had originally been opposed to defending Avaricum, but the Bituriges Cubi had persuaded him otherwise. The Gallic army was camped outside the settlement. Even while defending, Vercingetorix wished to abandon the siege and outrun the Romans. But the warriors of Avaricum were unwilling to leave it. Upon Caesar's arrival, he promptly began construction of
10807-539: Was some sort of contact with southeastern Europe, but it is uncertain if this contact can be associated with the Cimbrian militia expeditions against Rome of the 1st Century BC. It is known that the peoples of Northern Europe and the British Isles participated in annual partial population seasonal Winter migrations southward to what is now central Iberia and southern France where goods and resources were traded and cross-culture marriages were arranged. Advocates for
10914-431: Was still in Rome when news of the revolt reached him. He rushed north in attempt to prevent the revolt from spreading, heading first to Provence to see to its defense, and then to Agedincum to counter the Gallic forces. Caesar took a winding route to the Gallic army to capture several oppidum for supplies. Vercingetorix was forced to withdraw from his siege of the Boii (allied to Rome) capital of Gorgobina . However, it
11021-464: Was still winter, and Vercingetorix realised the reason Caesar had detoured was that the Romans were low on supplies. Thus, Vercingetorix set out a strategy to starve the Romans. He avoided attacking the Romans outright, and instead raided foraging parties and supply trains. Vercingetorix abandoned a great many oppidum , seeking to only defend the strongest, and to ensure the others and their supplies could not fall into Roman hands. Once again, Caesar's hand
11128-428: Was suddenly seen at the rear of the Gauls, the Roman troops advanced rapidly and the Gauls fled. They were intercepted by the cavalry and slaughtered. The besieged Gauls were pulled back from the fortification. They fled their camps and Caesar commented that "had not the soldiers been wearied by sending frequent reinforcements, and the labour of the entire day, all the enemy's forces could have been destroyed". At midnight
11235-528: Was taken prisoner and held as a captive in Rome for the next five years awaiting Caesar's triumph (which was delayed by the Civil War). As was traditional for such captured enemy leaders, he was paraded in the triumph, then taken to the Tullianum and ritually garrotted in 46 BC. The Gallic Wars lack a clear end date. The legions continued to be active in Gaul through 50 BC, when Aulus Hirtius took over
11342-522: Was the climactic military engagement of the Gallic Wars , fought around the Gallic oppidum (fortified settlement) of Alesia in modern France , a major centre of the Mandubii tribe. It was fought by the Roman army of Julius Caesar against a confederation of Gallic tribes united under the leadership of Vercingetorix of the Arverni . It was the last major engagement between Gauls and Romans, and
11449-602: Was unknown. Competing theories focused first on two towns, Alaise in the Franche-Comté and Alise-Sainte-Reine in the Côte-d'Or . Emperor Napoleon III of France supported the latter candidate, and, during the 1860s, funded archaeological research that uncovered the evidence to support the existence of Roman camps in the area. He then dedicated a statue to Vercingetorix in the recently discovered ruins. Uncertainty has nevertheless persisted, with questions being raised about
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