Misplaced Pages

#542457

145-596: The term American Buddhism can be used to describe all Buddhist groups within the United States , including Asian-American Buddhists born into the faith, who comprise the largest percentage of Buddhists in the country. American Buddhists come from many national origins and ethnicities . In 2012, U-T San Diego estimated U.S. practitioners at 1.2 million people, of whom 40% are living in Southern California . In terms of percentage, Hawaii has

290-541: A Buddhist Catechism , stating his view of the basic tenets of the religion. Several publications increased knowledge of Buddhism in 19th-century America. In 1879, Edwin Arnold , an English aristocrat, published The Light of Asia , an epic poem he had written about the life and teachings of the Buddha , expounded with much wealth of local color and not a little felicity of versification. The book became immensely popular in

435-708: A Rinzai teacher – and from Yasutani Hakuun of the Sanbo Kyodan. Maezumi, in turn, had several American dharma heirs, such as Bernie Glassman , John Daido Loori , Charlotte Joko Beck , William Nyogen Yeo , and Dennis Genpo Merzel . His successors and their network of centers became the White Plum Sangha . In 2006 Merle Kodo Boyd , born in Texas, became the first African-American woman ever to receive Dharma transmission in Zen Buddhism. Sanbo Kyodan

580-530: A Santa Cruz, California -based magazine published and edited by Phillangi Dasa, born Herman Carl (or Carl Herman) Veetering (or Vettering), a recluse about whom little is known. The Ray ' s tone was "ironic, light, saucy, self-assured ... one-hundred-percent American Buddhist". It ceased publication in 1894. In 1893, the Parliament of the World's Religions hosted a number of Buddhist delegates, including

725-845: A protectorate of the Empire of Japan. After the Japanese annexation in 1910, the Korean Empire ceased to exist. Resistance against Korea having a tributary relationship with China increased in the 17th century. As the Ming dynasty was replaced by Qing dynasty , Western ideas entering Korea had caused anti-tributary sentiments to rise in Korea. Moreover, after the opening of Korea, members of Gaehwa Party often declared independence from China, but China increased its interference in Korean affairs after

870-599: A Buddhist population of 1%. The Buddhist population rapidly increased in the 1960's with the change in Asian immigration law to the United States. By the 1980's, many Buddhist communities began to sprout throughout the country. The following is the percentage of Buddhists in the U.S. territories as of 2010: Three broad types of American Buddhism are found in the United States: This typology has been

1015-571: A Chinese Chan (Zen) master to come to the United States. However, Goddard's efforts as an author and publisher bore considerable fruit. In 1930, he began publishing ZEN: A Buddhist Magazine . In 1932, he collaborated with D. T. Suzuki on a translation of the Lankavatara Sutra . That same year, he published the first edition of A Buddhist Bible , an anthology of Buddhist scriptures focusing on those used in Chinese and Japanese Zen. Zen

1160-706: A Christian house of worship. After internment ended, some members returned to the West Coast and revitalized churches there, while a number of others moved to the Midwest and built new churches. During the 1960s and 1970s, the BCA was in a growth phase and was very successful at fund-raising. It also published two periodicals, one in Japanese and one in English . However, since 1980, BCA membership declined. The 36 temples in

1305-657: A Zen meditation center called Ryomokyo-kai . One of his disciples, Shigetsu Sasaki , better known under his monastic name Sokei-an, came to New York to teach. In 1931, his small group incorporated as the Buddhist Society of America , later renamed the First Zen Institute of America . By the late 1930s, one of his most active supporters was Ruth Fuller Everett , an American socialite and the mother-in-law of Alan Watts . Shortly before Sokei-an's death in 1945, he and Everett would wed, at which point she took

1450-644: A body of teachings incorporating esoteric tantric techniques, may be viewed as a separate branch or tradition within Mahāyāna. The Theravāda branch has a widespread following in Sri Lanka as well as in Southeast Asia, namely Myanmar , Thailand , Laos , and Cambodia . The Mahāyāna branch—which includes the East Asian traditions of Tiantai , Chan , Pure Land , Zen , Nichiren , and Tendai  

1595-461: A crisis when Japanese products were imported into the country and the enterprises lacked capital intensity. Although limited banking infrastructure existed, it was not able to adequately support economic development. Large Korean (South Korean) companies existing to this day such as Doosan and Korea Electric Power Corporation originated during the Imperial period. Nonetheless, the Korean Empire

SECTION 10

#1732780161543

1740-538: A period when modern companies. At the dawn of the Korean Empire, officials from Gaehwa Party such as Ahn Gyeong-su , Yun Chi-ho , and Yi Chae-yeon led the establishments of companies. However, as the absolute government of Gojong was established, those who were close to the Emperor including Yi Yong-ik , Min Young-hwan , and Yi Yun-yong were highly interested in the establishments of companies. Tax revenue of

1885-482: A phenomenon known as Greco-Buddhism . An example of this is evidenced in Chinese and Pali Buddhist records, such as Milindapanha and the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhāra . The Milindapanha describes a conversation between a Buddhist monk and the 2nd-century BCE Greek king Menander , after which Menander abdicates and himself goes into monastic life in the pursuit of nirvana. Some scholars have questioned

2030-737: A range of followers. Sheng-yen first visited the United States in 1978 under the sponsorship of the Buddhist Association of the United States , an organization of Chinese American Buddhists. In 1980, he founded the Chán Meditation Society in Queens, New York . In 1985, he founded the Chung-hwa Institute of Buddhist Studies in Taiwan, which sponsors Chinese Zen activities in the United States. Seung Sahn

2175-555: A result, many Korean officials ended up losing their jobs. Under Terauchi Masatake , Japan prepared to annex Korea. After the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910 was signed on 22 August 1910, the Korean Empire was annexed. The annexation was announced on 29 August 1910. The Imperial Armed Forces ( 대한제국군 ) was the military of the Korean Empire. The Imperial Armed Forces were composed of the Imperial Korean Army and

2320-685: A similar focus, both based in La Salle, Illinois . In 1894, Carus published The Gospel of Buddha , compiled from a variety of Asian texts which, true to its name, presented the Buddha's story in a form resembling the Christian Gospels . Carus was acclaimed among Asian clerics for his understanding of Buddhism. In a letter to S. Sonoda in San Francisco, Carus wrote "breathe the true spirit of Buddhism and yet be adapted to Western ways of thought". In 1887, The Buddhist Ray appeared,

2465-707: A statement from Taft on the Korean question, in his capacity as a representative of the Roosevelt Administration. Taft expressed in the memorandum that a suzerain relationship with Japan guiding Korea would "contribute to permanent peace in the Far East." In September 1905, Russia and Japan signed the Treaty of Portsmouth , ending the Russo-Japanese War and firmly establishing Japan's influence in Korea. Secret diplomatic contacts were sent by

2610-491: A temple at Long Beach in 1971 after leaving the Zen Buddhist Temple of Chicago to his dharma heir Kongo Richard Langlois, Roshi. He returned to Chicago in 1995, where he died in 1998. Sōtō Zen priest Shunryu Suzuki (no relation to D.T. Suzuki ), who was the son of a Sōtō priest, was sent to San Francisco in the late 1950s on a three-year temporary assignment to care for an established Japanese congregation at

2755-752: A training center in New York state. Omori Roshi founded Daihonzan Chozen-ji, the first Rinzai headquarters temple established outside Japan, in Honolulu; under his students Tenshin Tanouye Roshi and Dogen Hosokawa Roshi and their dharma heirs, several other training centers were established including Daiyuzenji in Chicago and Korinji in Wisconsin . In 1998 Sherry Chayat , born in Brooklyn, became

2900-410: A visiting professor at UCLA and taught traditional Thiền meditation. Buddhism Buddhism ( / ˈ b ʊ d ɪ z əm / BUUD -ih-zəm , US also / ˈ b uː d -/ BOOD - ), also known as Buddha Dharma , is an Indian religion and philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha , a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or 5th century BCE . It

3045-602: A young priest to serve at Zenshuji, the North American Sōtō sect headquarters in Los Angeles, in 1956. Maezumi received dharma transmission ( shiho ) from Baian Hakujun Kuroda, his father and high-ranked Sōtō priest, in 1955. By the mid-1960s he had formed a regular zazen group. In 1967, he and his supporters founded the Zen Center of Los Angeles . Further, he received teaching permission ( inka ) from Koryu Osaka –

SECTION 20

#1732780161543

3190-899: Is Hsi Lai Temple in Hacienda Heights, California . Hsi Lai is the American headquarters of Fo Guang Shan , a modern Buddhist group in Taiwan . Hsi Lai was built in 1988 at a cost of $ 10 million and is often described as the largest Buddhist temple in the Western hemisphere. Although it caters primarily to Chinese Americans, it also has regular services and outreach programs in English. While Asian immigrants were arriving, some American intellectuals examined Buddhism, based primarily on information from British colonies in India and East Asia. In

3335-532: Is a contemporary Japanese Zen lineage which had an impact in the West disproportionate to its size in Japan. It is rooted in the reformist teachings of Harada Daiun Sogaku (1871–1961) and his disciple Yasutani Hakuun (1885–1971), who argued that the existing Zen institutions of Japan ( Sōtō and Rinzai sects) had become complacent and were generally unable to convey real Dharma . Sanbo Kyodan's first American member

3480-553: Is growing more chic by the minute." Contemporary Rinzai Zen teachers in United States have included Kyozan Joshu Sasaki Roshi, Eido Tai Shimano Roshi, and Omori Sogen Roshi (d. 1994). Sasaki founded the Mount Baldy Zen Center and its branches after coming to Los Angeles from Japan in 1962. One of his students is the Canadian poet and musician Leonard Cohen . Eido Roshi founded Dai Bosatsu Zendo Kongo-ji ,

3625-705: Is one of three sects of Nichiren Buddhism . It is considered a new religious movement from Japan that expanded after World War II. Soka Gakkai came to the United States with Daisaku Ikeda in the mid-20th century. Because of a rift with Nichiren Shōshū in 1991, the SGI has no priests of its own. Its main religious practice is chanting the mantra Nam Myōhō Renge Kyō and sections of the Lotus Sutra . Unlike schools such as Zen , Vipassanā , and Tibetan Buddhism , Soka Gakkai Buddhists do not practice meditative techniques other than chanting. Another US Buddhist institution

3770-633: Is predominantly practised in Nepal , Bhutan , China , Malaysia , Vietnam , Taiwan , Korea , and Japan . Tibetan Buddhism , a form of Vajrayāna , is practised in the Himalayan states as well as in Mongolia and Russian Kalmykia . Japanese Shingon also preserves the Vajrayana tradition as transmitted to China . Historically, until the early 2nd millennium , Buddhism was widely practiced in

3915-400: Is scholarly disagreement on whether insight was seen as liberating in early Buddhism or whether it was a later addition to the practice of the four jhānas . Scholars such as Bronkhorst also think that the four noble truths may not have been formulated in earliest Buddhism, and did not serve in earliest Buddhism as a description of "liberating insight". According to Vetter, the description of

4060-640: Is shown by a large increase in epigraphic and manuscript evidence in this period. However, it still remained a minority in comparison to other Buddhist schools. Mahāyāna Buddhist institutions continued to grow in influence during the following centuries, with large monastic university complexes such as Nalanda (established by the 5th-century CE Gupta emperor, Kumaragupta I ) and Vikramashila (established under Dharmapala c.  783 to 820) becoming quite powerful and influential. During this period of Late Mahāyāna, four major types of thought developed: Mādhyamaka, Yogācāra, Buddha-nature ( Tathāgatagarbha ), and

4205-398: Is the world's fourth-largest religion , with over 520 million followers, known as Buddhists , who comprise seven percent of the global population. It arose in the eastern Gangetic plain as a śramaṇa movement in the 5th century BCE, and gradually spread throughout much of Asia. Buddhism has subsequently played a major role in Asian culture and spirituality, eventually spreading to

4350-474: Is vast, with many different textual collections in different languages (such as Sanskrit , Pali , Tibetan , and Chinese ). Buddhist schools vary in their interpretation of the paths to liberation ( mārga ) as well as the relative importance and "canonicity" assigned to various Buddhist texts , and their specific teachings and practices. Two major extant branches of Buddhism are generally recognized by scholars: Theravāda ( lit.   ' School of

4495-750: The Dharma of the Buddha , fójiào in Chinese, bukkyō in Japanese, nang pa sangs rgyas pa'i chos in Tibetan, buddhadharma in Sanskrit, buddhaśāsana in Pali. Korean Empire During this period, Emperor Gojong oversaw the Gwangmu Reform , a partial modernization and westernization of Korea's military, economy, land system, education system, and various industries. In 1905, the Korean Empire became

Buddhism in the United States - Misplaced Pages Continue

4640-838: The Dharmaguptaka school. The Islamic conquest of the Iranian Plateau in the 7th-century, followed by the Muslim conquests of Afghanistan and the later establishment of the Ghaznavid kingdom with Islam as the state religion in Central Asia between the 10th- and 12th-century led to the decline and disappearance of Buddhism from most of these regions. The origins of Mahāyāna ("Great Vehicle") Buddhism are not well understood and there are various competing theories about how and where this movement arose. Theories include

4785-691: The Imo Incident and Gapsin Coup . However, following the Japanese victory in the First Sino-Japanese War , Joseon won independence from the Qing dynasty . Proclaiming an empire was seen by many politicians as a good way to maintain independence. After Gojong of Korea returned from his exile in the Russian legation , many officials requested Gojong to proclaim an empire to strengthen

4930-673: The Imperial Korean Navy . With the central and provincial armies, the Korean Imperial grew immensely to 28,000 before 1907. Succeeding the former Joseon Army and Navy , the Gwangmu Reform reorganized the military into a modern, Western-style one. Unlike in the Joseon dynasty, service was voluntary. It had a size of about 30,000, including soldiers and cadets. The military disbanded on August 1, 1907, due to

5075-715: The Independence Club . Moreover, protests were not banned and people protested for reforms in Seoul. The Independence Club tried to bring many reforms to the country to improve civil rights. The club established the Junchuwon , which was a westernized senate of the Korean Empire. In October 1898, the Independence Club made six requests to the emperor: However, the Sugu Party, which was in opposition to

5220-489: The Japanese Korean Army . The Taft–Katsura Agreement (also known as the Taft–Katsura Memorandum) was issued on July 17, 1905. It was not actually a secret pact or agreement between the United States and Japan, but rather a set of notes regarding discussions on U.S.-Japanese relations between members of the governments of both countries. The Japanese Prime Minister Taro Katsura used the opportunity presented by Secretary of War William Howard Taft 's stopover in Tokyo to extract

5365-492: The Jōdo-shū school under the guidance of Reverend Gakuo Okabe. In 1898, Japanese missionaries and immigrants established a Young Men's Buddhist Association, and the Rev. Sōryū Kagahi was dispatched from Japan to be the first Buddhist missionary to Hawai‘i. The first Japanese Buddhist temple in the continental U.S. was built in San Francisco in 1899, and the first in Canada was built at the Ishikawa Hotel in Vancouver in 1905. The first Buddhist clergy to take up residence in

5510-461: The Milindapanha version, expressing doubts whether Menander was Buddhist or just favourably disposed to Buddhist monks. The Kushan empire (30–375 CE) came to control the Silk Road trade through Central and South Asia, which brought them to interact with Gandharan Buddhism and the Buddhist institutions of these regions. The Kushans patronised Buddhism throughout their lands, and many Buddhist centres were built or renovated (the Sarvastivada school

5655-419: The Pali canon . The history of Indian Buddhism may be divided into five periods: Early Buddhism (occasionally called pre-sectarian Buddhism ), Nikaya Buddhism or Sectarian Buddhism (the period of the early Buddhist schools), Early Mahayana Buddhism , Late Mahayana, and the era of Vajrayana or the "Tantric Age". According to Lambert Schmithausen Pre-sectarian Buddhism is "the canonical period prior to

5800-457: The Rochester Zen Center in Rochester, New York . In 1967, Kapleau had a falling-out with Yasutani over Kapleau's moves to Americanize his temple, after which it became independent of Sanbo Kyodan. One of Kapleau's early disciples was Toni Packer , who left Rochester in 1981 to found a nonsectarian meditation center, not specifically Buddhist or Zen. Robert Aitken was introduced to Zen as a prisoner in Japan during World War II. After returning to

5945-405: The Russo-Japanese War , Korea tried to show her neutrality to different Western countries. On 27 January 1904, Russia, France, Germany, and the United Kingdom formally commended Korea's declaration of neutrality. Later that year on August 22, the first treaty between Japan and Korea, known as the First Japan–Korea Convention , was signed. This allowed the creation of a Japanese garrison in Korea,

Buddhism in the United States - Misplaced Pages Continue

6090-447: The Tarim Basin . The first documented Buddhist texts translated into Chinese are those of the Parthian An Shigao (148–180 CE). The first known Mahāyāna scriptural texts are translations into Chinese by the Kushan monk Lokakṣema in Luoyang , between 178 and 189 CE. From China, Buddhism was introduced into its neighbours Korea (4th century), Japan (6th–7th centuries), and Vietnam ( c.  1st –2nd centuries). During

6235-454: The Theravada tradition had not established any deities, but were epistemologically cautious rather than directly atheist . Later Buddhist traditions were more influenced by the critique of deities within Hinduism and therefore more committed to a strongly atheist stance. These developments were historic and epistemological as documented in verses from Śāntideva 's Bodhicaryāvatāra , and supplemented by reference to suttas and jātakas from

6380-486: The epistemological tradition of Dignaga and Dharmakirti . According to Dan Lusthaus , Mādhyamaka and Yogācāra have a great deal in common, and the commonality stems from early Buddhism. During the Gupta period (4th–6th centuries) and the empire of Harṣavardana ( c.  590 –647 CE), Buddhism continued to be influential in India, and large Buddhist learning institutions such as Nalanda and Valabahi Universities were at their peak. Buddhism also flourished under

6525-420: The pancasila vows of a lay Buddhist before a monk and a large crowd. Although most of the Theosophists appear to have counted themselves as Buddhists, they held idiosyncratic beliefs that separated them from known Buddhist traditions; only Olcott was enthusiastic about following mainstream Buddhism. He returned twice to Sri Lanka, where he promoted Buddhist education, and visited Japan and Burma . Olcott authored

6670-436: The Śramaṇa traditions. New ideas developed both in the Vedic tradition in the form of the Upanishads, and outside of the Vedic tradition through the Śramaṇa movements. The term Śramaṇa refers to several Indian religious movements parallel to but separate from the historical Vedic religion , including Buddhism, Jainism and others such as Ājīvika . Several Śramaṇa movements are known to have existed in India before

6815-401: The 1200s. The Silk Road transmission of Buddhism to China is most commonly thought to have started in the late 2nd or the 1st century CE, though the literary sources are all open to question. The first documented translation efforts by foreign Buddhist monks in China were in the 2nd century CE, probably as a consequence of the expansion of the Kushan Empire into the Chinese territory of

6960-461: The 1849 California Gold Rush . Immigrant Buddhist congregations in North America are as diverse as the different peoples of Asian Buddhist extraction who settled there. The US is home to Sri Lankan Buddhists , Chinese Buddhists , Japanese Buddhists , Korean Buddhists , Thai Buddhists , Cambodian Buddhists , Vietnamese Buddhists and Buddhists with family backgrounds in most Buddhist countries and regions. The Immigration Act of 1965 increased

7105-602: The 1960s but he died in 1971. His low-key teaching style was described in the popular book Zen Mind, Beginner's Mind , a compilation of his talks. Ordained in 1974 in Japan by Tosui Ohta, came to the United States in 1983, initially posted to Zenshuji in Los Angeles. In 1985 he became the abbot of Milwaukee Zen Center, which he led and developed until 2000. He has three dharma heirs: Jisho Warner in California, abiding teacher of Stone Creek Zen Center; Tonen Sara O'Connor in Wisconsin, former head priest of Milwaukee Zen Center; and Toshu Neatrour in Idaho. Taizan Maezumi arrived as

7250-505: The 6th century BCE (pre-Buddha, pre- Mahavira ), and these influenced both the āstika and nāstika traditions of Indian philosophy . According to Martin Wilshire, the Śramaṇa tradition evolved in India over two phases, namely Paccekabuddha and Savaka phases, the former being the tradition of individual ascetic and the latter of disciples, and that Buddhism and Jainism ultimately emerged from these. Brahmanical and non-Brahmanical ascetic groups shared and used several similar ideas, but

7395-501: The Bhairava Vidyapitha tantras. Ronald M. Davidson meanwhile, argues that Sanderson's claims for direct influence from Shaiva Vidyapitha texts are problematic because "the chronology of the Vidyapitha tantras is by no means so well established" and that the Shaiva tradition also appropriated non-Hindu deities, texts and traditions. Thus while "there can be no question that the Buddhist tantras were heavily influenced by Kapalika and other Saiva movements" argues Davidson, "the influence

SECTION 50

#1732780161543

7540-435: The Buddha advised meditation practices and ethical precepts rooted in non-harming . Widely observed teachings include the Four Noble Truths , the Noble Eightfold Path , and the doctrines of dependent origination , karma , and the three marks of existence . Other commonly observed elements include the Triple Gem , the taking of monastic vows , and the cultivation of perfections ( pāramitā ). The Buddhist canon

7685-484: The Buddhist path may initially have been as simple as the term "the middle way". In time, this short description was elaborated, resulting in the description of the eightfold path. According to numerous Buddhist scriptures, soon after the parinirvāṇa (from Sanskrit: "highest extinguishment") of Gautama Buddha, the first Buddhist council was held to collectively recite the teachings to ensure that no errors occurred in oral transmission. Many modern scholars question

7830-403: The Chinese Tang dynasty (618–907), Chinese Esoteric Buddhism was introduced from India and Chan Buddhism (Zen) became a major religion. Chan continued to grow in the Song dynasty (960–1279) and it was during this era that it strongly influenced Korean Buddhism and Japanese Buddhism. Pure Land Buddhism also became popular during this period and was often practised together with Chan. It

7975-461: The Dharma Sangha of Buddha and published a bimonthly magazine, The Light of Dharma . In Illinois, Paul Carus wrote more books about Buddhism and set portions of Buddhist scripture to Western classical music. By 1970, most all sects of Asian Buddhism were present in America. Don Morreale's 1988 catalogue of Buddhist America: Centers, Retreats, Practices had 350 pages of listings. One American who attempted to establish an American Buddhist movement

8120-495: The Elders ' ) and Mahāyāna ( lit.   ' Great Vehicle ' ). The Theravada tradition emphasizes the attainment of nirvāṇa ( lit.   ' extinguishing ' ) as a means of transcending the individual self and ending the cycle of death and rebirth ( saṃsāra ), while the Mahayana tradition emphasizes the Bodhisattva ideal , in which one works for the liberation of all sentient beings. Additionally, Vajrayāna ( lit.   ' Indestructible Vehicle ' ),

8265-416: The Gwangmu Emperor in the fall of 1905 to entities outside of Korea presenting Korea's desperate case to preserve their sovereignty, as normal diplomatic channels were no longer an option, due to the constant surveillance by the Japanese. Until 1905, the Korean Empire was advancing due to reforms. However, things changed after the Eulsa Treaty . Through numerous treaties, Japan isolated Korea. Emperor Gojong

8410-411: The Independence Party, spread false rumors that the club was attempting to depose the Emperor, establish a republic, and make Bak Jeongyang President with Yun Chi-ho as Vice President. Upon hearing this rumor, Gojong ordered the immediate apprehension of members of the Independence Club . Among the 20 leaders of the club, 17 were arrested. Members of the Sugu Party wanted to execute these leaders, but

8555-502: The Indian subcontinent before declining there ; it also had a foothold to some extent elsewhere in Asia, namely Afghanistan , Turkmenistan , Uzbekistan , and Tajikistan . The names Buddha Dharma and Bauddha Dharma come from Sanskrit : बुद्ध धर्म and बौद्ध धर्म respectively ("doctrine of the Enlightened One" and "doctrine of Buddhists"). The term Dharmavinaya comes from Sanskrit: धर्मविनय , literally meaning "doctrines [and] disciplines". The Buddha ("the Awakened One")

8700-453: The Japan-Korea Treaty of 1907. Major Park Seung-hwan protested by committing suicide, sparking a revolt led by former imperial soldiers leading to the battle at Namdaemun Gate. Emperor Sunjong incorporated the remaining soldiers into the Imperial Guards until 1910, while others formed the foundations of the Righteous armies. Some modern enterprises emerged in the Korean Empire, including some hand-operated machinery. These enterprises faced

8845-414: The Korean Empire as a more embarrassing event than the loss of the First Sino-Japanese War . Eventually foreign monarchs acknowledged Gojong as an emperor. Even though all authority resided with the emperor, popular influence in politics increased from the Joseon era. Many newspapers such as Tongnip sinmun were established, promoting political awareness. Many organizations were established, including

SECTION 60

#1732780161543

8990-399: The Korean Empire that made the country richer and stronger. Moreover, land system reforms were initiated to establish a proper ownership of land. Under the leadership of Minister of Interior Bak Jeongyang , and Minister of Agriculture and Industry Yi Do-jae , land system reforms were purposed in June 1898. The new system not only included the land or house itself but also the surroundings of

9135-404: The Korean ministers in the conference room. Except for Han Kyu-seol, Min Yeoung-gi, and Yi Ha-yeong, all the ministers agreed with the treaty, which established a Japanese protectorate over Korea. After the treaty was signed, the Waebu , which was the ministry of foreign affairs, was dissolved. All of Korea's foreign affairs were now handled by Tokyo. Many embassies were recalled from Korea due to

9280-450: The Orientals meant by contemplation and the forsaking of works." Poet Walt Whitman also references Indian religions in his writing. In Whitman's well-known poem "Passage to India", he refers to Indian rivers, history and theology. An early American to publicly convert to Buddhism was Henry Steel Olcott . Olcott, a former U.S. army colonel during the Civil War , had grown interested in reports of supernatural phenomena that were popular in

9425-447: The Russells and then as a hotel porter, manager and eventually, owner. In 1922 Senzaki rented a hall and gave an English talk on a paper by Shaku; his periodic talks at different locations became known as the "floating zendo". Senzaki established an itinerant sitting hall from San Francisco to Los Angeles in California, where he taught until his death in 1958. Sokatsu Shaku, one of Shaku's senior students, arrived in late 1906, founding

9570-483: The Sōtō temple, Soko-ji. Suzuki also taught zazen or sitting meditation which soon attracted American students and " beatniks ", who formed a core of students who in 1962 would create the San Francisco Zen Center and its eventual network of highly influential Zen centers across the country, including the Tassajara Zen Mountain Center , the first Buddhist monastery in the Western world. He provided innovation and creativity during San Francisco's countercultural movement of

9715-416: The Theravada Majjhima Nikaya and Sarvastivada Madhyama Agama contain mostly the same major doctrines. Richard Salomon , in his study of the Gandharan texts (which are the earliest manuscripts containing early discourses), has confirmed that their teachings are "consistent with non-Mahayana Buddhism, which survives today in the Theravada school of Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia, but which in ancient times

9860-436: The United States as an emissary in order to repudiate the treaty. In June 1906, Nicholas II secretly sent Gojong an invitation for the Hague Convention of 1907. He sent emissaries to the Hague in order to repudiate the Eulsa Treaty. However, the emissaries were not accorded recognition. The houses of Ye Wanyong were burned by the people and the Japanese Korean Army intervened to suppress public discontent. These acts against

10005-402: The United States, going through eighty editions and selling more than 500,000 copies. Paul Carus , a German American philosopher and theologian , was at work on a more scholarly prose treatment of the same subject. Carus was the director of Open Court Publishing Company , an academic publisher specializing in philosophy , science , and religion , and editor of The Monist , a journal with

10150-480: The United States, he studied with Nyogen Senzaki in Los Angeles in the early 1950s. In 1959, while still a Zen student, he founded the Diamond Sangha , a zendo in Honolulu, Hawaii . Aitken became a dharma heir of Yamada's, authored more than ten books, and developed the Diamond Sangha into an international network with temples in the United States, Argentina, Germany, and Australia. In 1995, he and his organization split with Sanbo Kyodan in response to reorganization of

10295-564: The United States, such as the Potomac Zen Sangha, the Patriarchal Zen Society and the Baltimore Zen Center. Recently, many Korean Buddhist monks have come to the United States to spread the Dharma. They are establishing temples and zen (Korean, 'Seon') centers all around the United States. For example, Hyeonho established the Goryosah Temple in Los Angeles in 1979, and Muil Woohak founded the Budzen Center in New York. Vietnamese Zen ( Thiền ) teachers in America include Thích Thiên-Ân and Thích Nhất Hạnh . Thích Thiên-Ân came to America in 1966 as

10440-529: The Vinaya (monastic rule), and this caused a split with the conservatives who rejected this change, they were called Mahāsāṃghikas . While most scholars accept that this happened at some point, there is no agreement on the dating, especially if it dates to before or after the reign of Ashoka. Buddhism may have spread only slowly throughout India until the time of the Mauryan emperor Ashoka (304–232 BCE), who

10585-404: The West in the 20th century. According to tradition, the Buddha instructed his followers in a path of development which leads to awakening and full liberation from dukkha ( lit.   ' suffering or unease ' ). He regarded this path as a Middle Way between extremes such as asceticism or sensual indulgence. Teaching that dukkha arises alongside attachment or clinging ,

10730-653: The Zen master Soyen Shaku and the Sri Lankan Buddhist revivalist Anagarika Dharmapala . Shaku contrasted the idea of karma as a principle of causality with the " Prime Mover " nature of the Christian God , while Dharmapala challenged the idea of Christianity as a "universal religion" by comparing it to the more ancient and "universal" teachings of the Buddha. In 1900 six white San Franciscans, working with Japanese Jodo Shinshu missionaries, established

10875-464: The age of 80 in Kushinagar , India. The Buddha's teachings were propagated by his followers, which in the last centuries of the 1st millennium BCE became various Buddhist schools of thought , each with its own basket of texts containing different interpretations and authentic teachings of the Buddha; these over time evolved into many traditions of which the more well known and widespread in

11020-759: The ancient religion Jainism , is also claimed to be ksatriya by his early followers. ) According to early texts such as the Pali Ariyapariyesanā-sutta ("The discourse on the noble quest", MN 26) and its Chinese parallel at MĀ 204, Gautama was moved by the suffering ( dukkha ) of life and death, and its endless repetition due to rebirth . He thus set out on a quest to find liberation from suffering (also known as " nirvana "). Early texts and biographies state that Gautama first studied under two teachers of meditation, namely Āḷāra Kālāma (Sanskrit: Arada Kalama) and Uddaka Ramaputta (Sanskrit: Udraka Ramaputra), learning meditation and philosophy, particularly

11165-458: The authority of the king. The Gyo Junso was dissolved in 1899, without having achieved success. In October 1897, Gojong was crowned in Hwangudan . The coronation included both Western style coronation and a traditional Asian one. Gojong named the new empire Daehan and changed the regnal year to Gwangmu , with 1897 being the first year of Gwangmu . Gojong implemented the constitution of

11310-595: The continental U.S. were Shuye Sonoda and Kakuryo Nishimjima, missionaries from Japan who arrived in 1899. The Buddhist Churches of America and the Honpa Hongwanji Mission of Hawaii are immigrant Buddhist organizations in the United States. The BCA is an affiliate of Japan's Nishi Hongwanji, a sect of Jōdo Shinshū , which is, in turn, a form of Pure Land Buddhism . Tracing its roots to the Young Men's Buddhist Association founded in San Francisco at

11455-407: The country in 1898, which gave the whole authority to the emperor. At first, most nations did not accept the proclamation of the empire. The negative foreign response to the new empire was due to the independence of Korea from foreign influence, which had dominated its political and economic landscape. Among foreign nations, Qing showed their opposition most explicitly. They regarded the formation of

11600-405: The country, and build a firm framework as an independent state. Moreover, Gojong realized that Korea needed a new constitution to gain public support, and an opportunity to start drastic reforms. He established Gyo Junso to manage the reformed constitution. The Gyo Junso included all factions of Korean, which impeded it from making notable achievements. The main conflict between the members was about

11745-467: The development of different schools with their different positions". The early Buddhist Texts include the four principal Pali Nikāyas (and their parallel Agamas found in the Chinese canon) together with the main body of monastic rules, which survive in the various versions of the patimokkha . However, these texts were revised over time, and it is unclear what constitutes the earliest layer of Buddhist teachings. One method to obtain information on

11890-625: The earliest Mahāyāna sūtras to include the first versions of the Prajnaparamita series, along with texts concerning Akṣobhya , which were probably composed in the 1st century BCE in the south of India. There is no evidence that Mahāyāna ever referred to a separate formal school or sect of Buddhism, with a separate monastic code (Vinaya), but rather that it existed as a certain set of ideals, and later doctrines, for bodhisattvas. Records written by Chinese monks visiting India indicate that both Mahāyāna and non-Mahāyāna monks could be found in

12035-738: The early texts, which has led most scholars to conclude that Gautama Buddha must have taught something similar to the Four Noble Truths , the Noble Eightfold Path , Nirvana , the three marks of existence , the five aggregates , dependent origination , karma and rebirth . According to N. Ross Reat, all of these doctrines are shared by the Theravada Pali texts and the Mahasamghika school's Śālistamba Sūtra . A recent study by Bhikkhu Analayo concludes that

12180-622: The empire tried to protect its people. Jinwidae forces were deployed in Jiandao , where many Koreans lived. The new cabinet also wanted to establish a modern navy by buying ships with KIS Yangmu being the first ship to be bought, for only 451,605 won. The government tried to industrialize the country by sending many students abroad to study industry. Many new technologies were brought in to Korea and many companies were established. Formalizing land ownership records also enabled better land tax collection. These reforms were able to bring changes to

12325-516: The end of the 19th century and the Buddhist Mission of North America founded in 1899, it took its current form in 1944. All of the Buddhist Mission's leadership, along with almost the entire Japanese American population, had been interned during World War II . The name Buddhist Churches of America was adopted at Topaz War Relocation Center in Utah ; the word "church" was used in analogy to

12470-506: The ending of the mental defilements ( asavas ), the ending of suffering, and the end of rebirth in saṃsāra . This event also brought certainty about the Middle Way as the right path of spiritual practice to end suffering. As a fully enlightened Buddha , he attracted followers and founded a Sangha (monastic order). He spent the rest of his life teaching the Dharma he had discovered, and then died, achieving " final nirvana ", at

12615-422: The exile of President Yun Chi-ho led the party to focus on arresting Yun. On November 5, 1898, Gojong banned the club through an imperial decree. Moreover, he replaced ministers who had signed the six requests of the Independence Club. The new cabinet was formed with many conservative politicians who were more conservative compared to the members of the Independence Club. Another part of reform under Korean Empire

12760-672: The first American woman to receive transmission in the Rinzai school of Buddhism. In the 1930s Soyu Matsuoka-roshi was sent to America by Sōtōshū, to establish the Sōtō Zen tradition in the United States. He established the Chicago Buddhist Temple in 1949. Matsuoka-roshi also served as superintendent and abbot of the Long Beach Zen Buddhist Temple and Zen Center. He relocated from Chicago to establish

12905-567: The first western writers to have access to translated Hindu and Buddhist texts. In 1844, The Dial , a small literary publication edited by Thoreau and Emerson, published an English version of a portion of the Lotus Sutra ; it had been translated by Dial business manager Elizabeth Palmer Peabody from a French version recently completed by Eugène Burnouf . His Indian readings may have influenced his later experiments in simple living: at one point in Walden Thoreau wrote: "I realized what

13050-528: The former members of the Independence Club. These officials tried to reform the country conservatively. The new cabinet formed with conservative politicians wanted to strengthen the power of the emperor. This required more taxes from the citizens. As a result, many minor taxes that were abolished by Gabo Reform were revived. These increased taxes enabled the Imperial Government to be rich enough to perform reform. The new cabinet also emphasized

13195-497: The historicity of this event. However, Richard Gombrich states that the monastic assembly recitations of the Buddha's teaching likely began during Buddha's lifetime, and they served a similar role of codifying the teachings. The so called Second Buddhist council resulted in the first schism in the Sangha . Modern scholars believe that this was probably caused when a group of reformists called Sthaviras ("elders") sought to modify

13340-434: The idea that it began as various groups venerating certain texts or that it arose as a strict forest ascetic movement. The first Mahāyāna works were written sometime between the 1st century BCE and the 2nd century CE. Much of the early extant evidence for the origins of Mahāyāna comes from early Chinese translations of Mahāyāna texts, mainly those of Lokakṣema . (2nd century CE). Some scholars have traditionally considered

13485-414: The independence of the country, leading to the enlargement of the Imperial Korean Army . Colonel Dmitry Putyata and some officers were sent from Russia to Korea. However, Putyata had conflicts with Min Young-hwan , who was the former ambassador to Russia. He returned to Russia on 26 November 1897 after assisting in the modernizing of the army. In 1898, 10 more battalions were formed. By sending troops,

13630-624: The land. This proposal was denied as only 4 out of 10 ministers assented with the proposal. However, when Gojong reviewed this cabinet conference, he ordered to proceed the land system reform just as the proposal. One of the key problems of the Korean Empire was its foreign affairs. Despite its official neutrality, the country had many policies that favored the Russian Empire . Russia frequently intervened in Korea and many of Korea's natural resources were sent to Russia. Historians are still unsure what Russia's real intentions were for Korea at

13775-564: The last century, numbers of Asian Buddhist masters and teachers have immigrated to the U.S. in order to propagate their beliefs and practices. Most have belonged to three major Buddhist traditions or cultures: Zen , Tibetan , and Theravadan . The Englishmen William Jones and Charles Wilkins translated Sanskrit texts into English . The American Transcendentalists Henry David Thoreau , Ralph Waldo Emerson and Walt Whitman , took an interest in Hindu and Buddhist philosophy. They were among

13920-584: The late 1880s and from Korea around 1903. In both cases, immigration was at first primarily to Hawai‘i . Populations from other Asian Buddhist countries followed, and in each case, the new communities established Buddhist temples and organizations. For instance, the first sanctioned Japanese temple in Hawai‘i, the Hāmākua Bukkyo Kaido (later renamed as the Hāmākua Jodo Mission), was built in 1896 by

14065-744: The late 19th century. In 1875, he, Helena Blavatsky , and William Quan Judge founded the Theosophical Society , dedicated to the study of the occult and influenced by Hindu and Buddhist scriptures. The leaders claimed to believe that they were in contact, via visions and messages, with a secret order of adepts called the "Himalayan Brotherhood" or "the Masters". In 1879, Olcott and Blavatsky traveled to India and in 1880, to Sri Lanka , where they were met enthusiastically by local Buddhists, who saw them as allies against an aggressive Christian missionary movement. On May 25, Olcott and Blavatsky took

14210-478: The latter following Yamada's death. The Pacific Zen Institute led by John Tarrant , Aitken's first Dharma successor, continues as an independent Zen line. There are also Zen teachers of Chinese Chán, Korean Seon, and Vietnamese Thien. In 1962, Hsuan Hua moved to San Francisco's Chinatown , where, in addition to Zen, he taught Chinese Pure Land, Tiantai , Vinaya , and Vajrayana Buddhism. Initially, his students were mostly westerners, but he eventually attracted

14355-569: The literary, artistic, and cultural elite. In the mid-1950s, writers associated with the Beat Generation took a serious interest in Zen, including Gary Snyder , Jack Kerouac , Allen Ginsberg , and Kenneth Rexroth , which increased its visibility. Prior to that, Philip Whalen had interest as early as 1946, and D. T. Suzuki began lecturing on Buddhism at Columbia in 1950. By 1958, anticipating Kerouac's publication of The Dharma Bums by three months, Time magazine said, "Zen Buddhism

14500-621: The maintenance of a political state during succession and wars to resist invasion. During the Middle Ages, Buddhism slowly declined in India, while it vanished from Persia and Central Asia as Islam became the state religion. The Theravada school arrived in Sri Lanka sometime in the 3rd century BCE. Sri Lanka became a base for its later spread to Southeast Asia after the 5th century CE ( Myanmar , Malaysia , Indonesia , Thailand , Cambodia and coastal Vietnam ). Theravada Buddhism

14645-412: The meditative attainment of "the sphere of nothingness" from the former, and "the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception" from the latter. Finding these teachings to be insufficient to attain his goal, he turned to the practice of severe asceticism , which included a strict fasting regime and various forms of breath control . This too fell short of attaining his goal, and then he turned to

14790-587: The meditative practice of dhyana . He famously sat in meditation under a Ficus religiosa tree—now called the Bodhi Tree —in the town of Bodh Gaya and attained "Awakening" ( Bodhi ). According to various early texts like the Mahāsaccaka-sutta, and the Samaññaphala Sutta , on awakening, the Buddha gained insight into the workings of karma and his former lives, as well as achieving

14935-484: The modern era are Theravada , Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism. Historically, the roots of Buddhism lie in the religious thought of Iron Age India around the middle of the first millennium BCE. This was a period of great intellectual ferment and socio-cultural change known as the "Second urbanisation" , marked by the growth of towns and trade, the composition of the Upanishads and the historical emergence of

15080-515: The most Buddhists at 8% of the population, due to its large East Asian population. Hawaii has the largest Buddhist population by percentage, amounting to 8% of the state's population. California follows Hawaii with 2%. Alaska , Arizona , Colorado , Connecticut , Illinois , Kansas , Louisiana , Maine , Maryland , Massachusetts , Michigan , Missouri , Montana , New Mexico , New York , Ohio , South Dakota , Tennessee , Texas , Utah , Vermont , Virginia , Washington , Wyoming have

15225-426: The name Ruth Fuller Sasaki . D.T. Suzuki had a great literary impact. Through English language essays and books, such as Essays in Zen Buddhism (1927), he became a visible expositor of Zen Buddhism and its unofficial ambassador to Western readers. In 1951, Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki returned to the United States to take a visiting professorship at Columbia University , where his open lectures attracted many members of

15370-711: The number of immigrants arriving from China, Vietnam and the Theravada -practicing countries of Southeast Asia. The first Buddhist temple in America was built in 1853 in San Francisco by the Sze Yap Company, a Chinese American fraternal society. Another society, the Ning Yeong Company, built a second in 1854; by 1875, there were eight temples, and by 1900 approximately 400 Chinese temples on

15515-596: The oldest core of Buddhism is to compare the oldest extant versions of the Theravadin Pāli Canon and other texts. The reliability of the early sources, and the possibility to draw out a core of oldest teachings, is a matter of dispute. According to Vetter, inconsistencies remain, and other methods must be applied to resolve those inconsistencies. According to Schmithausen, three positions held by scholars of Buddhism can be distinguished: According to Mitchell, certain basic teachings appear in many places throughout

15660-627: The origins of early Vajrayana has been taken up by various scholars. David Seyfort Ruegg has suggested that Buddhist tantra employed various elements of a "pan-Indian religious substrate" which is not specifically Buddhist, Shaiva or Vaishnava. According to Indologist Alexis Sanderson , various classes of Vajrayana literature developed as a result of royal courts sponsoring both Buddhism and Saivism . Sanderson has argued that Buddhist tantras can be shown to have borrowed practices, terms, rituals and more form Shaiva tantras. He argues that Buddhist texts even directly copied various Shaiva tantras, especially

15805-711: The power: Shim Sang-hun as the Uijeongbu Chanjung, Yu Gi-hwan as the Minister, Min Young-gi as the Minister of Economy, Shin Gi-sun as the Minister of Education, Min Byeong-seok as the Minister of Military, and Yi Gi-dong as the 1st Siwi Regiment 1st Battalion commander. Furthermore, many Bobusangs were integrated into the officialdom, that 46 Bobusangs received position in the officialdom; this rise of Bobusangs

15950-656: The precise dates are uncertain, although the 5th century BCE seems to be the best estimate. Early texts have the Buddha's family name as "Gautama" (Pali: Gotama), while some texts give Siddhartha as his surname. He was born in Lumbini , present-day Nepal and grew up in Kapilavastu , a town in the Ganges Plain , near the modern Nepal–India border, and he spent his life in what is now modern Bihar and Uttar Pradesh . Some hagiographic legends state that his father

16095-618: The righteous armies. Many members of the righteous armies fled to Manchuria or to the rest of China to join the Independence Army. Another way that Japanese controlled Korea was implanting Japanese into the Korean officialdom. According to the Japan-Korea Treaty of 1907, Japanese who served as advisors for Korea were incorporated to the Korean central government. By 31 December 1908, 40.7 percent of all officials and 36.9 percent of high-ranking officials were Japanese. As

16240-402: The same monasteries, with the difference that Mahāyāna monks worshipped figures of Bodhisattvas, while non-Mahayana monks did not. Mahāyāna initially seems to have remained a small minority movement that was in tension with other Buddhist groups, struggling for wider acceptance. However, during the fifth and sixth centuries CE, there seems to have been a rapid growth of Mahāyāna Buddhism, which

16385-603: The schisms, each Saṅgha started to accumulate their own version of Tripiṭaka (triple basket of texts). In their Tripiṭaka, each school included the Suttas of the Buddha, a Vinaya basket (disciplinary code) and some schools also added an Abhidharma basket which were texts on detailed scholastic classification, summary and interpretation of the Suttas. The doctrine details in the Abhidharmas of various Buddhist schools differ significantly, and these were composed starting about

16530-523: The society he grew up in may have been invented and interpolated at a later time into the Buddhist texts. Various details about the Buddha's background are contested in modern scholarship. For example, Buddhist texts assert that Buddha described himself as a kshatriya (warrior class), but Gombrich writes that little is known about his father and there is no proof that his father even knew the term kshatriya . ( Mahavira , whose teachings helped establish

16675-570: The state of Hawaii of the Honpa Hongwanji Mission have a similar history. While a majority of the Buddhist Churches of America's membership are ethnically Japanese , some members have non-Asian backgrounds. Thus, it has limited aspects of export Buddhism. As involvement by its ethnic community declined, internal discussions advocated attracting the broader public. Soka Gakkai , which means "Value Creation Society",

16820-595: The subject of debate among scholars who have noted the problematic nature of equating "ethnic" Buddhists with Asian immigrants which elides the ethnicity or cultural specificity of white American Buddhists. Buddhism was introduced into the US by Asian immigrants in the 19th century, when significant numbers of immigrants from East Asia began to arrive in the New World. In the United States, immigrants from China entered around 1820, but began to arrive in large numbers following

16965-651: The support of the Pāla Empire (8th–12th centuries). Under the Guptas and Palas, Tantric Buddhism or Vajrayana developed and rose to prominence. It promoted new practices such as the use of mantras , dharanis , mudras , mandalas and the visualization of deities and Buddhas and developed a new class of literature, the Buddhist Tantras . This new esoteric form of Buddhism can be traced back to groups of wandering yogi magicians called mahasiddhas . The question of

17110-519: The terms of the treaty led to the abdication of Gojong, who was succeeded by Sunjong on 19 July 1907. After Sunjong became emperor, the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1907 was signed. Under the treaty, more Japanese were employed in the Korean government and started to intervene in Korean affairs more. Forces of General Hasegawa garrisoned the palace. Some regiments of the Imperial Korean Army were disarmed. The Pyongyang Jinwidae , which

17255-692: The third century BCE and through the 1st millennium CE. According to the edicts of Aśoka , the Mauryan emperor sent emissaries to various countries west of India to spread "Dharma", particularly in eastern provinces of the neighbouring Seleucid Empire , and even farther to Hellenistic kingdoms of the Mediterranean. It is a matter of disagreement among scholars whether or not these emissaries were accompanied by Buddhist missionaries. In central and west Asia, Buddhist influence grew, through Greek-speaking Buddhist monarchs and ancient Asian trade routes,

17400-518: The three Vedic sacrificial fires, reinterpreting and explaining them as ethical conduct. The Śramaṇa religions challenged and broke with the Brahmanic tradition on core assumptions such as Atman (soul, self), Brahman , the nature of afterlife, and they rejected the authority of the Vedas and Upanishads . Buddhism was one among several Indian religions that did so. Early Buddhist positions in

17545-463: The time. According to a dispatch sent from Shanghai, Russia tried to make the Korean Empire a protectorate of the Russian Empire. But Czar Nicholas II himself did not desire colonizing Korea. In 1901, Nicholas told Prince Henry of Prussia , "I do not want to seize Korea but under no circumstances can I allow Japan to become firmly established there. That will be a casus belli." Before

17690-740: The treaty. On February 1, 1906, Itō Hirobumi , who led the Japanese treaty negotiations, became the first Japanese Resident-General of Korea . In order to manifest the invalidity of the Eulsa Treaty, Gojong sent several secret embassies to plea for support. Korean secret diplomacy's first target was Russia. Koreans believed that Russia would help the Korean independence as several Koreans who fled to Shanghai after Japan–Korea Treaty of 1904 , such as Yi Hak-gyun , sent letters from former Russian minister to Korea Pavlov, which said that Japan would be withdrawn by Russian forces, and Russia would ensure Korean independence. Another response to Eulsa Treaty

17835-471: The west coast of the United States, most of them containing some Buddhist elements. Unfortunately a casualty of racism , these temples were often the subject of suspicion and ignorance by the rest of the population, and were dismissively called joss houses . The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 curtailed growth of the Chinese American population, but large-scale immigration from Japan began in

17980-569: The Śramaṇa traditions also drew upon already established Brahmanical concepts and philosophical roots, states Wiltshire, to formulate their own doctrines. Brahmanical motifs can be found in the oldest Buddhist texts, using them to introduce and explain Buddhist ideas. For example, prior to Buddhist developments, the Brahmanical tradition internalised and variously reinterpreted the three Vedic sacrificial fires as concepts such as Truth, Rite, Tranquility or Restraint. Buddhist texts also refer to

18125-479: Was Dwight Goddard (1861–1939). Goddard was a Christian missionary to China when he first came in contact with Buddhism. In 1928, he spent a year living at a Zen monastery in Japan. In 1934, he founded "The Followers of Buddha, an American Brotherhood", with the goal of applying the traditional monastic structure of Buddhism more strictly than Senzaki and Sokei-an. The group was largely unsuccessful: no Americans were recruited to join as monks and attempts failed to attract

18270-473: Was Philip Kapleau, who first traveled to Japan in 1945 as a court reporter for the war crimes trials. In 1953, he returned to Japan, where he met with Nakagawa Soen , a protégé of Nyogen Senzaki . In 1965, he published a book, The Three Pillars of Zen , which recorded a set of talks by Yasutani outlining his approach to practice, along with transcripts of dokusan interviews and some additional texts. In 1965 Kapleau returned to America and, in 1966, established

18415-603: Was a Śramaṇa who lived in South Asia c. 6th or 5th century BCE. Followers of Buddhism, called Buddhists in English, referred to themselves as Sakyan -s or Sakyabhiksu in ancient India. Buddhist scholar Donald S. Lopez asserts they also used the term Bauddha , although scholar Richard Cohen asserts that that term was used only by outsiders to describe Buddhists. Details of the Buddha's life are mentioned in many Early Buddhist Texts but are inconsistent. His social background and life details are difficult to prove, and

18560-472: Was a king named Suddhodana , his mother was Queen Maya. Scholars such as Richard Gombrich consider this a dubious claim because a combination of evidence suggests he was born in the Shakya community, which was governed by a small oligarchy or republic-like council where there were no ranks but where seniority mattered instead. Some of the stories about the Buddha, his life, his teachings, and claims about

18705-635: Was a public supporter of the religion. The support of Aśoka and his descendants led to the construction of more stūpas (such as at Sanchi and Bharhut ), temples (such as the Mahabodhi Temple ) and to its spread throughout the Maurya Empire and into neighbouring lands such as Central Asia and to the island of Sri Lanka . During and after the Mauryan period (322–180 BCE), the Sthavira community gave rise to several schools, one of which

18850-731: Was a temple abbot in Seoul . After living in Hong Kong and Japan, he moved to the US in 1972 (not speaking any English) to establish the Kwan Um School of Zen . Shortly after arriving in Providence, he attracted students and founded the Providence Zen Center . The Kwan Um School has more than 100 Zen centers on six continents. Another Korean Zen teacher, Samu Sunim , founded Toronto 's Zen Buddhist Temple in 1971. He

18995-441: Was a torment for commoners who suffered from their tyranny as local officials. Even though the Independence Club was banned, reforms were not stopped and the Gwangmu Reform continued. Conservative or left of center Politicians such as Min Young-hwan , Han Kyu-seol , Yi Yong-ik , Shim Soon-taek , Yun Ung-nyeol , and Shim Sang-hun led the reforms. Among these ministers, Yun Ung-nyeol . Yi Yong-ik and Shim Sang-hun were hated by

19140-452: Was able to have good economic growth. The GDP per capita of the Korean Empire was $ 850 in 1900, which was 26th highest in the world and 2nd highest in Asia. The economic progress of the Korean Empire was reflected in a secret report that Hayashi Gonsuke sent to Aoki Shūzō , indicating that the Korean Empire was becoming an economic participant on the global stage. Era of Korean Empire was

19285-548: Was also during the Song that the entire Chinese canon was printed using over 130,000 wooden printing blocks. During the Indian period of Esoteric Buddhism (from the 8th century onwards), Buddhism spread from India to Tibet and Mongolia . Johannes Bronkhorst states that the esoteric form was attractive because it allowed both a secluded monastic community as well as the social rites and rituals important to laypersons and to kings for

19430-937: Was apparently mutual". Already during this later era, Buddhism was losing state support in other regions of India, including the lands of the Karkotas , the Pratiharas , the Rashtrakutas , the Pandyas and the Pallavas . This loss of support in favor of Hindu faiths like Vaishnavism and Shaivism , is the beginning of the long and complex period of the Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent . The Islamic invasions and conquest of India (10th to 12th century), further damaged and destroyed many Buddhist institutions, leading to its eventual near disappearance from India by

19575-608: Was committing suicide. Yi Han-eung and Min Young-hwan are examples for such resistance. Many joined the righteous armies and some even attempted to assassinate the five Korean ministers who consented to the treaty also known as the Five Eulsa Traitors . Often the Gojong of Korea himself led the resistance. He sent many messages to European monarchs such as Wilhelm II , George V , Nicholas II , etc. He sent Homer Hulbert , an American missionary and journalist, to

19720-717: Was head of the Buddhist Society for Compassionate Wisdom, which has temples in Ann Arbor , Chicago , Toronto , Mexico City , and New York City , along with a retreat center in Upstate New York. Hye Am (1884–1985) brought lineage Dharma to the United States. Hye Am's Dharma successor, Myo Vong founded the Western Son Academy (1976), and his Korean disciple, Pohwa Sunim, founded World Zen Fellowship (1994) which includes various Zen centers in

19865-483: Was introduced to the United States by Japanese priests who were sent to serve local immigrant groups. A small group also came to study the American culture and way of life. In 1893, Soyen Shaku was invited to speak at the Parliament of the World's Religions held in Chicago . During his talks, Shaku he challenged his mostly Christian audience's notions of religion and presented Zen Buddhism as rational , nontheistic , and compatible with modern science . In 1905, Shaku

20010-416: Was invited to stay in the United States by a wealthy American couple. He lived for nine months near San Francisco, where he established a small zendo in the home of Alexander and Ida Russell and gave regular zazen lessons, making him the first Zen Buddhist priest to teach in North America . Shaku was followed by Nyogen Senzaki , a young monk from Shaku's home temple in Japan . Senzaki briefly worked for

20155-523: Was military reform. Both conservatives and the progressives agreed with strengthening military. However, they faced obstacles as the Gabo Reform seriously weakened Korean armed forces. Right after dissolving the Independence Club and People's Joint Association by force, Gojong sought to design his new cabinet with conservative politicians. Liberal officials, such as Min Young-hwan , Han Kyu-seol , Yi Hak-gyun , and Yi Jong-geon , received their dismissal, while conservative counterparts experienced rise to

20300-411: Was opposed to the Eulsa Treaty, but negotiations proceeded without him. There were eight ministers in the conference room. Prime Minister Han Kyu-seol , Minister of the Army Yi Geun-taek , Minister of the Interior Yi Ji-yong, Minister of Foreign Affairs Park Je-sun , Minister of Agriculture, Commerce, and Industry Gwon Jung-hyeon, Minister of Finance Min Yeong-gi, and Minister of Justice Yi Ha-yeong were

20445-420: Was particularly favored), especially by Emperor Kanishka (128–151 CE). Kushan support helped Buddhism to expand into a world religion through their trade routes. Buddhism spread to Khotan , the Tarim Basin , and China, eventually to other parts of the far east. Some of the earliest written documents of the Buddhist faith are the Gandharan Buddhist texts , dating from about the 1st century CE, and connected to

20590-478: Was represented by eighteen separate schools." However, some scholars argue that critical analysis reveals discrepancies among the various doctrines found in these early texts, which point to alternative possibilities for early Buddhism. The authenticity of certain teachings and doctrines have been questioned. For example, some scholars think that karma was not central to the teaching of the historical Buddha, while other disagree with this position. Likewise, there

20735-476: Was the Theravada school which tended to congregate in the south and another which was the Sarvāstivāda school, which was mainly in north India. Likewise, the Mahāsāṃghika groups also eventually split into different Sanghas. Originally, these schisms were caused by disputes over monastic disciplinary codes of various fraternities, but eventually, by about 100 CE if not earlier, schisms were being caused by doctrinal disagreements too. Following (or leading up to)

20880-403: Was the dominant religion in Burma during the Mon Hanthawaddy Kingdom (1287–1552). It also became dominant in the Khmer Empire during the 13th and 14th centuries and in the Thai Sukhothai Kingdom during the reign of Ram Khamhaeng (1237/1247–1298). The term "Buddhism" is an occidental neologism, commonly (and "rather roughly" according to Donald S. Lopez Jr. ) used as a translation for

21025-417: Was the elite unit of the Imperial Korean Army, was disarmed. Starting this reduction of Jinwidae, many regiments of the Imperial Korean Army were dissolved starting from 31 July 1907. These Japanese interventions fueled the righteous armies and various local peasant militias to fight against the Japanese. These righteous armies fought against Japan with little success. From 1909, the Japanese suppressed all of

#542457