115-453: Theravada Buddhism is the largest and official religion of Sri Lanka , practiced by 70.2% of the population as of 2012. Practitioners of Sri Lankan Buddhism can be found amongst the majority Sinhalese population as well as among the minority ethnic groups. Sri Lankan Buddhists share many similarities with Southeast Asian Buddhists, specifically Myanmarese Buddhists and Thai Buddhists due to traditional and cultural exchange. Sri Lanka
230-708: A Yona (Greek) head monk named Mahadharmaraksita led 30,000 Buddhist monks from "the Yona city of Alasandra" ( Alexandria in the Caucasus , around 150 kilometres (93 mi) north of modern Kabul , Afghanistan ) to Sri Lanka for the dedication of the Ruwanwelisaya Stupa in Anuradhapura . This happened during the reign of the Sinhala king Dutugamunu (161 BC to 137 BCE), who was the first to truly unite
345-595: A Buddhist education. Anagarika Dhammapala , Migettuwatte Gunananda Thera , Hikkaduwe Sri Sumangala Thera and Henry Steel Olcott (one of the first American western converts to Buddhism) were some of the main figures of the Sri Lankan Buddhist revival. Two new monastic orders were formed in the 19th century, the Amarapura Nikāya and the Rāmañña Nikāya . In Burma, an influential modernist figure
460-637: A dominant religion in the Southeast Asian kingdoms of Sri Ksetra and Dvaravati from about the 5th century CE onwards. The oldest surviving Buddhist texts in the Pāli language are gold plates found at Sri Ksetra dated circa the 5th to 6th century. Before the Theravāda tradition became the dominant religion in Southeast Asia, Mahāyāna, Vajrayana and Hinduism were also prominent. Starting at around
575-812: A flowering of religious poetry, such as the Kavsilumina , written by the king Parākramabāhu II in mahakavya style and the Saddharma Ratnavaliya (which retells stories of the Dhammapada commentary). Veneration of Avalokiteśvara (Lokeshwara Natha) has continued to the present day in Sri Lanka, where he is called Nātha. In more recent times, some western-educated Theravādins have attempted to identify Nātha with Maitreya . However, traditions and basic iconography, including an image of Amitābha on his crown, identify Nātha as Avalokiteśvara. It
690-569: A lesser extent. The Mahāvihāra tradition meanwhile considered many of the Mahāyāna doctrines, such as Lokottaravāda ("transcendentalism"), as heretical and considered the Mahāyāna sutras as being counterfeit scriptures. Religious debate and conflict among these sects were also not unusual, particularly because the close relationship between the sangha and Sinhalese rulers led to competition for royal patronage, though most rulers supported all sects. During
805-599: A refutation of various opposing views of various schools at the time. The Vibhajjavādins, fueled by Mauryan patronage (as can be seen in Ashoka's edicts), spread throughout South Asia, forming different groups and communities. In South India, they had an influential center at Avanti , as well as being active in Andhra , Vanavasa (in modern Karnataka ), Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda . As they became established in Sri Lanka (at Anuradhapura ), they also started to become known as
920-594: A self ( attā ) and conditioned. This is spelled out in the Patisambhidhamagga , which states that dhammas are empty of svabhava ( sabhavena suññam ). According to Ronkin, the canonical Pāli Abhidhamma remains pragmatic and psychological, and "does not take much interest in ontology " in contrast with the Sarvastivada tradition. Paul Williams also notes that the Abhidhamma remains focused on
1035-620: A significant impact of Indian religious trends on the society of Lanka. Some traditional Sinhalese Temple layout also includes individual shrines dedicated to Hindu gods. Some of the most important Hindu gods worshipped by some Sinhalese Buddhists include Vishnu, Murugan, Pathini, Nata, Gambara, Dedimunda, Saraswati, Ganesh, Lakshmi, Shiva, Kali, etc. Demons and spirits are also invoked during Exorcisms and rituals, which seem to be customs passed down from Pre-Buddhist indigenous times. In 2007, there were around 6,000 Buddhist monasteries in Sri Lanka with approximately 15,000 monks. The Theravāda ("Elders")
1150-501: A substantial part of the island came under Portuguese rule , though their control was rather tenuous and prone to rebellion. Only the kingdom of Kandy retained its independence. The Portuguese sought to introduce Catholicism to the island, and in their wars, with the Sinhalese, they often destroyed Buddhist monasteries or handed them over to Catholic orders. From the 16th century onward, Christian missionaries attempted to convert
1265-807: A tradition of Indian commentaries on the scriptures existed even during Mahinda's early days. There were also various commentaries on the Tipitaka written in the Sinhala language , such as the Maha-atthakatha ("Great commentary"), the main commentary tradition of the Mahavihara monks, which is now lost. Furthermore, there were also Sinhala texts that were written to translate and explain the Pali Buddhist teachings to those who did not have knowledge of Pali. The Sinhala language thus developed during
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#17327722206061380-556: Is nibbana . The 81 conditioned dhammas are divided into three broad categories: consciousness ( citta ), associated mentality ( cetasika ) and materiality, or physical phenomena ( rupa ). Since no dhamma exists independently, every single dhamma of consciousness, known as a citta , arises associated ( sampayutta ) with at least seven mental factors ( cetasikas ) . In Abhidhamma, all awareness events are thus seen as being characterized by intentionality and never exist in isolation. Much of Abhidhamma philosophy deals with categorizing
1495-560: Is Taprobane (Greek). Ancient grave sites that were used before 600 BC and other signs of civilisation have also been discovered in Sri Lanka, but little is known about the history of the island before this time. According to the Mahāvamsa , a chronicle written in Pāḷi , the inhabitants of Sri Lanka prior to the Sinhala migration were the mythical Yakkha ( Sanskrit : यक्ष yakṣa ; Pali : yakkha ) and Nāga races. Sinhalese history and
1610-538: Is "only for the purposes of description" that they are postulated. Noa Ronkin defines dhammas as "the constituents of sentient experience; the irreducible 'building blocks' that make up one's world, albeit they are not static mental contents and certainly not substances." Thus, while in Theravāda Abhidhamma, dhammas are the ultimate constituents of experience, they are not seen as substances , essences or independent particulars, since they are empty ( suñña ) of
1725-589: Is "the earliest record we have of Buddhist scriptures being committed to writing anywhere". The surviving Pāli texts all derive from the Mahāvihāra tradition. While the other traditions like Abhayagiri no doubt had their own prolific literature, nothing of their work has survived in Pali. Theravāda Buddhists also developed a series of scriptural commentaries (called the Atthakatha ). The Theravāda tradition holds that
1840-645: Is a branch of the Vibhajjavāda ("Doctrine of Analysis", "the analysts") school, which was a division of the Sthāvira Nikāya, one of the Indian early Buddhist schools . The Sthāviras had emerged from the first schism in the Buddhist community. There is no agreement among modern historians on the details and dating of this schism (even on if it was before or after the date of the emperor Ashoka : 304–232 BCE). It
1955-669: Is a far greater volume of Theravāda literature in vernacular languages than in Pāli." An important genre of Theravādin literature, in both Pāli and vernacular languages, are the Jataka tales , stories of the Buddha's past lives. They are very popular among all classes and are rendered in a wide variety of media formats, from cartoons to high literature. The Vessantara Jātaka is one of the most popular of these. Most Theravāda Buddhists generally consider Mahāyāna Buddhist scriptures to be apocryphal , meaning that they are not authentic words of
2070-628: Is a name derived from Tāmraparṇī or Tāmravarṇī (in Sanskrit ). This has got reference to the Thamirabarani river in Southern Tamil Nadu , India . This means the colour of copper or bronze because when Vijaya and his followers landed in Sri Lanka, when their hands and feet touched the ground they became red with the dust of the red-earth. Therefore, the city founded on that spot was named Tambapaṇṇī. A derivative of this name
2185-453: Is also known for rebuilding the ancient cities of Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa , restoring Buddhist stupas and Viharas (monasteries). He appointed a Sangharaja , or "King of the Sangha", a monk who would preside over the Sangha and its ordinations in Sri Lanka, assisted by two deputies. According to Alastair Gornall, the period between the 10th to 13th centuries saw a massive explosion in
2300-551: Is also the author of a very important compendium of Theravāda doctrine, the Visuddhimagga . Other figures like Dhammapala and Buddhadatta also wrote Theravāda commentaries and other works in Pali during the time of Buddhaghosa. While these texts do not have the same scriptural authority in Theravāda as the Tipiṭaka, they remain influential works for the exegesis of the Tipiṭaka. An important genre of Theravādin literature
2415-479: Is attained in four stages of awakening ( bodhi ): In Theravāda Buddhism, a Buddha is a sentient being who has discovered the path out of samsara by themselves, has reached Nibbana and then makes the path available to others by teaching (known as "turning the wheel of the Dhamma"). A Buddha is also believed to have extraordinary powers and abilities ( abhiññā ), such as the ability to read minds and fly through
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#17327722206062530-414: Is clear from sculptural evidence alone that the Mahāyāna was fairly widespread throughout [Sri Lanka], although the modern account of the history of Buddhism on the island presents an unbroken and pure lineage of Theravāda. (One can only assume that similar trends were transmitted to other parts of Southeast Asia with Sri Lankan ordination lineages.) Relics of an extensive cult of Avalokiteśvara can be seen in
2645-552: Is notable that Ashokan inscriptions do not refer to this council or the schism. According to Theravāda sources, the Theravāda school maintains the Vibhajjavāda doctrines that were agreed upon during the putative Third Buddhist council held around 250 BCE under the patronage of Ashoka and the guidance of the elder Moggaliputta-Tissa . A record of their doctrinal position survives in the Kathavatthu ("Points of Controversy"),
2760-529: Is one of only five countries in the world with a Theravada Buddhist majority, and others are Thailand , Cambodia , Laos and Myanmar . Buddhism has been declared as the state religion under Article 9 of the Sri Lankan Constitution which can be traced back to an attempt to bring the status of Buddhism back to the status it enjoyed prior to the British colonial era . Sri Lanka is one of
2875-460: Is shorter handbooks and summaries, which serve as introductions and study guides for the larger commentaries. Two of the more influential summaries are Sariputta Thera's Pālimuttakavinayavinicchayasaṅgaha, a summary of Buddhaghosa's Vinaya commentary and Anuruddha's Abhidhammaṭṭhasaṅgaha (a "Manual of Abhidhamma"). Throughout the history of Theravāda, Theravāda monks also produced other works of Pāli literature such as historical chronicles (like
2990-473: Is the fact that Theravāda rejects the authenticity of the Mahayana sutras (which appeared c. 1st century BCE onwards). Consequently, Theravāda generally does not recognize the existence of many Buddhas and bodhisattvas believed by the Mahāyāna school, such as Amitābha and Vairocana , because they are not found in the canonical scriptures. Modern Theravāda derives from Sri Lankan Branch of
3105-420: Is the language of realism that one encounters. The whole Buddhist practical doctrine and discipline, which has the attainment of Nibbana as its final goal, is based on the recognition of the material world and the conscious living beings living therein. The Theravāda Abhidhamma holds that there is a total of 82 possible types of dhammas, 81 of these are conditioned ( sankhata ), while one is unconditioned, which
3220-541: The Dipavamsa and the Mahavamsa ), hagiographies , poetry, Pāli grammars, and " sub-commentaries " (that is, commentaries on the commentaries). While Pāli texts are symbolically and ritually important for many Theravādins, most people are likely to access Buddhist teachings through vernacular literature, oral teachings, sermons, art and performance as well as films and Internet media. According to Kate Crosby, "there
3335-719: The Agamas , the parallel collections used by non-Theravāda schools in India which are preserved in Chinese and partially in Sanskrit , Prakrit , and Tibetan , as well as the various non-Theravāda Vinayas. On this basis, these Early Buddhist texts (i.e. the Nikayas and parts of the Vinaya) are generally believed to be some of the oldest and most authoritative sources on the doctrines of pre-sectarian Buddhism by modern scholars. Much of
3450-464: The Jain cosmology . This entire cyclical multiverse of constant birth and death is called samsara . Outside of this system of samsara is nibbana (lit. "vanishing, quenching, blowing out"), a deathless ( amata ) and transcendent reality, which is a total and final release ( vimutti ) from all suffering ( dukkha ) and rebirth. According to Theravāda doctrine, release from suffering (i.e. nibbana )
3565-559: The Mahāvihāra , Abhayagiri and Jetavana sects. All three were based in Anuradhapura, the large and populous capital of the ancient Sinhalese kings, which saw themselves as the defenders and supporters of Buddhism. The Mahāvihāra was the first tradition to be established, while Abhayagiri Vihāra and Jetavana Vihāra were established by monks who had broken away from Mahāvihāra and were more open to Mahayana. According to A. K. Warder ,
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3680-462: The Pāli Canon for over two millennia. The Pāli Canon is the most complete Buddhist canon surviving in a classical Indian language , Pāli , which serves as the school's sacred language and lingua franca . In contrast to Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna , Theravāda tends to be conservative in matters of doctrine ( pariyatti ) and monastic discipline ( vinaya ). One element of this conservatism
3795-698: The Sixth Buddhist council ( Vesak 1954 to Vesak 1956) to create a new redaction of the Pāli Canon , which was then published by the government in 40 volumes. The Vipassana movement continued to grow after independence, becoming an international movement with centers around the world. Influential meditation teachers of the post-independence era include U Narada , Mahasi Sayadaw , Sayadaw U Pandita , Nyanaponika Thera , Webu Sayadaw , U Ba Khin and his student S.N. Goenka. Meanwhile, in Thailand (the only Theravāda nation to retain its independence throughout
3910-613: The Sri Lankan kings , who saw themselves as the protectors of the religion. Over time, two other sects split off from the Mahāvihāra tradition, the Abhayagiri and Jetavana . While the Abhayagiri sect became known for the syncretic study of Mahayana and Vajrayana texts, as well as the Theravāda canon, the Mahāvihāra tradition did not accept these new scriptures. Instead, Mahāvihāra scholars like Buddhaghosa focused on
4025-645: The Sthāvira nikāya , one of the two major orders that arose after the first schism in the Indian Buddhist community. Theravāda sources trace their tradition to the Third Buddhist council when elder Moggaliputta-Tissa is said to have compiled the Kathavatthu , an important work which lays out the Vibhajjavāda doctrinal position. Aided by the patronage of Mauryan kings like Ashoka , this school spread throughout India and reached Sri Lanka through
4140-554: The Tambapaṇṇiya (Sanskrit: Tāmraśāṭīya, Tāmraparṇīya) , the name refers to a red copper-like colour. The name Tāmraparṇi also became a name for Sri Lanka itself. According to traditional Sri Lankan chronicles such as the Mahavamsa and the Dipavamsa , Buddhism was introduced into the island in the third century BCE after the Third Buddhist council by the elder Mahinda and by the elder nun Sanghamitta . According to
4255-509: The Tooth Relic of the Buddha to Sri Lanka. Kithsirimevan enshrined the relic and ordered a procession to be held annually in its honour. The Tooth Relic of the Buddha soon became one of the most sacred objects in the country, and a symbol of Sinhala Buddhist kingship . It was housed and promoted by the Abhayagiri tradition. When the Chinese monk Faxian visited the island in the early 5th century, he noted 5000 monks at Abhayagiri, 3000 at
4370-652: The Vipassana movement which reinvigorated Theravāda meditation practice, the growth of the Thai Forest Tradition which reemphasized forest monasticism and the spread of Theravāda westward to places such as India and Nepal, along with Buddhist immigrants and converts in the European Union and in the United States . The Theravāda school descends from the Vibhajjavāda , a division within
4485-513: The five aggregates or khandha and the eighteen elements of cognition or dhatus . Theravāda traditionally promotes itself as the Vibhajjavāda "teaching of analysis" and as the heirs to the Buddha's analytical method. Expanding this model, Theravāda Abhidhamma scholasticism concerned itself with analyzing " ultimate truth " ( paramattha-sacca ) which it sees as being composed of all possible dhammas and their relationships. The central theory of
4600-684: The 11th century, Sinhalese Theravāda monks and Southeast Asian elites led a widespread conversion of most of mainland Southeast Asia to the Theravādin Mahavihara school. The patronage of monarchs such as the Burmese king Anawrahta (Pali: Aniruddha, 1044–1077) and the Thai king Ram Khamhaeng ( floruit . late 13th century) was instrumental in the rise of Theravāda Buddhism as the predominant religion of Burma and Thailand. Burmese and Thai kings saw themselves as Dhamma Kings and as protectors of
4715-598: The 19th and 20th centuries, Theravāda Buddhists came into direct contact with western ideologies, religions and modern science. The various responses to this encounter have been called " Buddhist modernism ". In the British colonies of Ceylon (modern Sri Lanka) and Burma (Myanmar), Buddhist institutions lost their traditional role as the prime providers of education (a role that was often filled by Christian schools). In response to this, Buddhist organizations were founded which sought to preserve Buddhist scholarship and provide
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4830-405: The 19th century, a modern Buddhist revival took place on the island which promoted Buddhist education. Due to the island's close ties with India, Sinhalese Buddhism has been in part influenced by Hinduism and indigenous beliefs, and some Buddhists share similar beliefs with Hindus, such as the worship of Hindu deities, the caste system, and Animism. Pre-Buddhist historical accounts of Sri Lanka reveal
4945-554: The Abhidhamma is thus known as the " dhamma theory ". "Dhamma" has been translated as "factors" (Collett Cox), "psychic characteristics" (Bronkhorst), "psycho-physical events" (Noa Ronkin) and "phenomena" ( Nyanaponika Thera ). According to the Sri Lankan scholar Y. Karunadasa , a dhammas ("principles" or "elements") are "those items that result when the process of analysis is taken to its ultimate limits". However, this does not mean that they have an independent existence, for it
5060-451: The Anuradhapura period under the influence of Pali (as well as Sanskrit and Tamil). As a result of the work of later South Indian scholars who were associated with the Mahāvihāra, mainly Buddhaghosa (4th–5th century CE), Dhammapala and Buddhadatta , Sri Lankan Buddhists adopted Pali as their main scholastic language. This adoption of a lingua franca allowed the Sri Lankan tradition to become more international, allowing easier links with
5175-510: The Buddha. Consequently, Theravādin generally does not recognize the existence of many Buddhas and bodhisattvas believed by the Mahāyāna school, such as Amitābha and Vairocana , because they are not found in the canonical scriptures. The core of Theravāda Buddhist doctrine is contained in the Pāli Canon, the only complete collection of Early Buddhist Texts surviving in a classical Indic language . These basic Buddhist ideas are shared by
5290-527: The Dutch and the Portuguese fought over the island, and Kandy sided with the Dutch. The Dutch won and occupied most of the coastal sections of the island ( Dutch Ceylon , 1640–1796), while the kingdom of Kandy retained the interior. The Dutch were less zealous than the Portuguese in their religious proselytizing though they still discriminated against non-Christians (as well as Catholics). Non-Protestant worship
5405-601: The Hindu Cholas, and the three main traditions had fragmented into eight fraternities. Parākramabāhu united all of these into a common community, which seems to have been dominated by the Mahāvihāra but did not bring an end to sectarian competition completely. Parākramabāhu seems to have seen the Sangha as being divided, corrupt and in need of reform, especially the Abhayagiri. The Cūḷavaṁsa states that Buddhist monastic communities were experiencing much conflict at this time. This chronicle also claims that many monks in
5520-504: The Indian Mahīśāsaka sect also established itself in Sri Lanka alongside the Theravāda, into which they were later absorbed. Northern regions of Sri Lanka also seem to have been ceded to sects from India at certain times. Abhayagiri Theravādins maintained close relations with Indian Buddhists over the centuries, adopting many of the latter's teachings, including many Mahāyāna elements, whereas Jetavana Theravādins adopted Mahāyāna to
5635-686: The Mahāvihāra, and 2000 at the Cetiyapabbatavihāra. Faxian also obtained a Sanskrit copy of the Vinaya of the Mahīśāsaka at the Abhayagiri vihāra (c. 406). This was then translated into Chinese and remains extant in the Chinese Buddhist canon as Taishō Tripiṭaka 1421. The main architectural feature of Sri Lankan Buddhism at this time was the dome-shaped stupa , which enshrined Buddhist relics and were objects of veneration. In Anuradhapura,
5750-474: The Pali Nikayas, then we should be compelled to conclude that Buddhism is realistic. There is no explicit denial anywhere of the external world. Nor is there any positive evidence to show that the world is mind-made or simply a projection of subjective thoughts. That Buddhism recognizes the extra-mental existence of matter and, the external world is clearly suggested by the texts. Throughout the discourses it
5865-621: The Polonnaruva era, Theravāda also saw the increasing popularity of ārannavāsin (forest dweller) monks, who gained prominence in scholarship and took the lead in reform movements. As the new Mahāvihāra Theravāda school became dominant in Sri Lanka, it gradually spread through mainland Southeast Asia. Theravāda established itself in Myanmar in the late 11th century, in Thailand in the 13th and early 14th centuries, and in Cambodia and Laos by
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#17327722206065980-506: The Pāli Canon. From the 5th century (after the death of Mahanama in 428 CE) to the eleventh century, the island of Sri Lanka saw the weakening of royal Anuradhapura authority, continuous warfare between Sinhala kings, pretenders and foreign invaders from South Indian dynasties (the Cholas , Pallavas and Pandyas ). These South Indian dynasties were strongly Hindu and often sought to eliminate Buddhist influence. In time, South Indian Buddhism
6095-813: The Pāli Tipiṭaka has been transmitted with a high degree of accuracy for well over 1,500 years." There are numerous editions of the Tipiṭaka, some of the major modern editions include the Pali Text Society edition (published in Roman script), the Burmese Sixth Council edition (in Burmese script , 1954–56) and the Thai Tipiṭaka edited and published in Thai script after the council held during
6210-400: The Sangha (the community of monks and nuns)." The language of the Tipiṭaka, Pāli , is a middle-Indic language which is the main religious and scholarly language in Theravāda. This language may have evolved out of various Indian dialects, and is related to, but not the same as, the ancient language of Magadha . An early form of the Tipiṭaka may have been transmitted to Sri Lanka during
6325-420: The Sinhala kings. These Buddhist establishments were also often plundered during times of internal strife by Sinhala rulers competing among themselves, such as during the reigns of Dathopatissa I (639–650) and Kashyapa II (650–659). Between the reigns of Sena I (833–853) and Mahinda IV (956–972), the city of Anuradhapura saw a "colossal building effort" by various kings during a period of peace and prosperity,
6440-479: The Sri Lankan Sangha had even begun to marry and have children, behaving more like lay followers than monastics. Parākramabāhu's chief monastic leader in these reforms was Mahathera Kassapa, an experienced monk well versed in the Suttas and Vinaya. According to some sources, some monks were defrocked and given the choice of either returning to the laity, or attempting re-ordination under the new unified Theravāda tradition as "novices" ( sāmaṇera ). Parākramabāhu I
6555-478: The Sri Lankan chronicles, both were children of the emperor Ashoka . Although Ashoka's Edicts mention sending a Buddhist mission to Sri Lanka (among many other places), nowhere does the edicts mention specifically about Mahinda or Sanghamitta. Thus, the claims aren't fully accepted by modern scholars. According to the Mahavamsa , they arrived in Sri Lanka during the reign of Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura (307–267 BCE) who converted to Buddhism and helped build
6670-454: The Temple of the Tooth. The next influential figure in Sinhala Buddhism was Parākramabāhu I (1153–1186) who unified the island and set out to reform the Sri Lankan Buddhist sangha. De Silva notes that this significant reform event was traditionally seen as the triumph of the Mahāvihāra and the repression of the other schools, but that "recent research has shown this to be quite inaccurate." All Buddhist institutions had been severely damaged by
6785-484: The Theravāda faith. They promoted the building of new temples, patronized scholarship, monastic ordinations and missionary works as well as attempted to eliminate certain non-Buddhist practices like animal sacrifices. During the 15th and 16th centuries, Theravāda also became established as the state religion in Cambodia and Laos. In Cambodia, numerous Hindu and Mahāyāna temples, most famously Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom , were transformed into Theravādin monasteries. In
6900-400: The Theravāda school. There are also some texts which were late additions that are included in the fifth Nikaya, the Khuddaka Nikāya ('Minor Collection'), such as the Paṭisambhidāmagga (possibly c. 3rd to 1st century BCE) and the Buddhavaṃsa (c. 1st and 2nd century BCE). The main parts of the Sutta Pitaka and some portions of the Vinaya show considerable overlap in content with
7015-496: The Tipitaka , grammars, summaries and textbooks on Abhidhamma and Vinaya such as the influential Abhidhammattha-sangaha of Anuruddha. They also wrote kavya style Pali poetry and philological works. Their work owed much to the influence of Sanskrit grammar and poetics, particularly as interpreted by the Sri Lankan scholar Ratnamati. During this period, these new Pali doctrinal works also show an increasing awareness of topics found in Sanskrit Buddhist Mahayana literature. During
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#17327722206067130-450: The Tipiṭaka from Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia date to the 15th Century, and they are incomplete. Complete manuscripts of the four Nikayas are only available from the 17th Century onwards. However, fragments of the Tipiṭaka have been found in inscriptions from Southeast Asia, the earliest of which have been dated to the 3rd or 4th century. According to Alexander Wynne, "they agree almost exactly with extant Pāli manuscripts. This means that
7245-449: The Vibhajyavada tradition, which is in turn a sect of the Indian Sthavira nikāya . This tradition began to establish itself in Sri Lanka from the 3rd century BCE onwards. It was in Sri Lanka that the Pāli Canon was written down and the school's commentary literature developed. From Sri Lanka the Theravāda tradition subsequently spread to Southeast Asia . Theravāda is the official religion of Sri Lanka , Myanmar , and Cambodia , and
7360-443: The air. Kingdom of Tambapanni [REDACTED] Sri Lanka portal The Kingdom of Tambapaṇṇī ( Sinhala : තම්බපණ්ණිය රාජධානිය , romanized: Tambapaṇṇī Rājadhāniya ) was the first Sinhalese kingdom in Sri Lanka . Its administrative centre was based at Tambapaṇṇī . It existed between 543 BC and 437 BC. According to the Mahavamsa , the Kingdom was founded by Prince Vijaya and his followers. Tambapaṇṇī
7475-416: The buildings of the Mahāvihāra complex to build up Abhayagiri and a new monastery, the Jetavana. Due to this, Abhiyagiri emerged as the largest and most influential Buddhist tradition on the island, and the Mahāvihāra tradition would not regain its dominant position until the Polonnaruwa period in 1055. During the reign of Kithsirimevan (301–328 CE), Sudatta, the sub-king of Kalinga , and Hemamala brought
7590-436: The canon, mainly the Abhidhamma and some parts of the Vinaya, contain some distinctive elements and teachings which are unique to the Theravāda school and often differ from the Abhidharmas or Vinayas of other early Buddhist schools . For example, while the Theravāda Vinaya contains a total of 227 monastic rules for bhikkhus , the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya (used in East Asian Buddhism ) has a total of 253 rules for bhikkhus (though
7705-459: The colonial era), the religion became much more centralized, bureaucratized and controlled by the state after a series of reforms promoted by Thai kings of the Chakri dynasty . King Mongkut (r. 1851–1868) and his successor Chulalongkorn (1868–1910) were especially involved in centralizing sangha reforms. Under these kings, the sangha was organized into a hierarchical bureaucracy led by the Sangha Council of Elders ( Pali : Mahāthera Samāgama ),
7820-402: The community in South India and Southeast Asia. These Mahāvihāra Theravāda monks also produced new Pāli literature such as historical chronicles, hagiographies, practice manuals, summaries, textbooks, poetry, and Abhidhamma texts. Buddhaghosa's work on Abhidhamma and Buddhist practice, such as his Visuddhimagga , remains the most influential texts of the modern Theravāda tradition apart from
7935-551: The composition of Pali literature. Part of the impulse behind these literary efforts was the fear that the Indian invasions and various wars on the island could lead to the decline of Buddhism. To prevent this, Pali authors of the reform era attempted to write works which would protect the essence ( sara ) of the Buddha's teaching. This literature includes the work of prominent scholars such as Anuruddha, Sumangala, Siddhattha, Sāriputta Thera , Mahākassapa of Dimbulagala and Moggallana Thera. They worked on compiling subcommentaries to
8050-411: The decline of the discipline of the Sangha. Sinhala kings tried various measures to stem this decline, such as purging the sangha of undisciplined monks and introducing the post of sangharaja (chief of the sangha) under the Gampola kings. Regarding sectarian differences, these had mostly been worked out at this point in time, with the adoption of some Mahayana (as well as Hindu) deities and the rituals of
8165-406: The different consciousnesses and their accompanying mental factors as well as their conditioned relationships ( paccaya ). The Pāli Tipiṭaka outlines a hierarchical cosmological system with various planes existence ( bhava ) into which sentient beings may be reborn depending on their past actions. Good actions lead one to the higher realms, bad actions lead to the lower realms. However, even for
8280-417: The doctrinal position that the canonical Abhidhamma Pitaka was actually taught by the Buddha himself. Modern scholarship in contrast, has generally held that the Abhidhamma texts date from the 3rd century BCE onwards. However some scholars, such as Frauwallner , also hold that the early Abhidhamma texts developed out of exegetical and catechetical work which made use of doctrinal lists which can be seen in
8395-514: The efforts of missionary monks like Mahinda . In Sri Lanka, it became known as the Tambapaṇṇiya (and later as Mahāvihāravāsins) which was based at the Great Vihara (Mahavihara) in Anuradhapura (the ancient Sri Lankan capital). According to Theravāda sources, another one of the Ashokan missions was also sent to Suvaṇṇabhūmi ("The Golden Land"), which may refer to Southeast Asia. By
8510-408: The end of the 14th century. Although Mahavihara never completely replaced other schools in Southeast Asia, it received special favour at most royal courts. This is due to the support it received from local elites, who exerted a very strong religious and social influence. After the death of Parākramabāhu I, his realm disintegrated into warring factions, and South Indian invaders resumed their attacks on
8625-683: The end of the communist regime the Cambodian Sangha was re-established by monks who had returned from exile. In contrast, communist rule in Laos was less destructive since the Pathet Lao sought to make use of the sangha for political ends by imposing direct state control. During the late 1980s and 1990s, the official attitudes toward Buddhism began to liberalise in Laos and there was a resurgence of traditional Buddhist activities such as merit-making and doctrinal study. The modern era also saw
8740-508: The exegesis of the Pali scriptures and on the Abhidhamma . These Theravāda sub-sects often came into conflict with each other over royal patronage. The reign of Parākramabāhu I (1153–1186) saw an extensive reform of the Sri Lankan sangha after years of warfare on the island. Parākramabāhu created a single unified sangha which came to be dominated by the Mahāvihāra sect. Epigraphical evidence has established that Theravāda Buddhism became
8855-426: The first Buddhist stupas and communities. Tissa donated a royal park in the city to the Buddhist community, which was the beginning of the Mahāvihāra tradition. Mahinda is associated with the site of Mihintale , one of the oldest Buddhist site in Sri Lanka. Mihintale includes numerous caves which may have been used by the early Sri Lankan sangha. According to S. D. Bandaranayake, the spread of Buddhism in this period
8970-530: The first century BCE, Buddhism was "well established in the main areas of settlement." De Silva also notes that as Buddhism was adopted by the Sinhalese, it assimilated pre-Buddhist cults, rituals and ceremonies. Buddhism became a powerful factor in the unification of Sri Lankan under a single political power with a unified culture. The Mahavamsa §29 records that during the rule of the Greco-Bactrian King Menander I (165/155 –130 BCE),
9085-519: The first century BCE, Theravāda Buddhism was well established in the main settlements of the Kingdom of Anuradhapura . The Pali Canon, which contains the main scriptures of the Theravāda, was committed to writing in the first century BCE. Throughout the history of ancient and medieval Sri Lanka, Theravāda was the main religion of the Sinhalese people and its temples and monasteries were patronized by
9200-957: The five most important stupas were: the Thuparama (part of the Mahāvihāra complex), the Mirisavati , the Ruvanvalisaya (also known as the Mahastupa), the Abhayagiri and the Jetavana (the largest stupa in the capital, and probably the largest in the Buddhist world at the time of construction). It is known that in the 8th century, both Mahāyāna and the esoteric Vajrayāna form of Buddhism were being practised in Sri ;Lanka, and two Indian monks responsible for propagating Esoteric Buddhism in China, Vajrabodhi and Amoghavajra , visited
9315-434: The gods ( devas ) in the higher realms like Indra , there is still death, loss and suffering. The main categories of the planes of existence are: These various planes of existence can be found in countless world systems ( loka-dhatu ), which are born, expand, contract and are destroyed in a cyclical nature across vast expanses of time (measures in kappas). This cosmology is similar to other ancient Indian systems, such as
9430-453: The great part of the present architectural remains in this city date from this period. However, this was followed by the invasion and conquest of the Anuradhapura heartland by the Chola empire ( between 993 and 1077 ), a war which devastated Anuradhapura and brought an end to the kingdom. The Sinhalese in the south of the island (mainly the kingdom of Rohana) continued to resist, and the island
9545-519: The highest body of the Thai sangha. Mongkut also led the creation of a new monastic order, the Dhammayuttika Nikaya, which kept a stricter monastic discipline than the rest of the Thai sangha (this included not using money, not storing up food and not taking milk in the evening). The Dhammayuttika movement was characterized by an emphasis on the original Pali Canon and a rejection of Thai folk beliefs which were seen as irrational. Under
9660-464: The historical period of Sri Lanka traditionally starts in 543 BC with the arrival of Prince Vijaya . Legend has it that when Prince Vijaya landed on the shores of the island he kissed the sand, called it 'Thambapanni' and planted a flag depicting a lion in the ground. (The famous ' Sanchi ' ruins of India depict the events of Prince Vijaya'a landing). After landing in Tambapaṇṇī, Vijaya met Kuveni
9775-536: The island during this time. Abhayagiri remained an influential centre for the study of Theravāda Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna thought from the reign of Gajabahu I until the 12th century. It saw various important Buddhist scholars working in both Sanskrit and Pāli. These include (possibly) Upatissa (who wrote the Vimuttimagga ), Kavicakravarti Ananda (authored the Saddhammopåyana ), Aryadeva , Aryasura, and
9890-433: The island, eventually leading to the swift decline of the Polonnaruva kingdom. There was a brief period of rebuilding under Nissanka Malla , who promoted the building of great Buddhist centres at Nissanka Latha Mandapaya , Rankoth Vihara and Hatadage . However, the kingdom continued to decline, under the attacks by South Indian states. The last Sinhala king to rule from Polonnaruva was Parākramabāhu III (1302–1310), who
10005-563: The leadership of Prince Wachirayan Warorot , a new education and examination system was introduced for Thai monks. The 20th century also saw the growth of "forest traditions" which focused on forest living and strict monastic discipline. The main forest movements of this era are the Sri Lankan Forest Tradition and the Thai Forest Tradition , founded by Ajahn Mun (1870–1949) and his students. Theravāda Buddhism in Cambodia and Laos went through similar experiences in
10120-502: The local population to Christianity. Non-Christian religions were suppressed and persecuted, while Christians were given preferential treatment. Over time, a Christian minority developed on the island. This war-torn period weakened the Buddhist Sangha so much, that in 1592, Vimaladharmasuriya I of Kandy sought aid from Burma to ordain Buddhist monks, as there was hardly a single properly ordained monk left. From 1612 to 1658,
10235-585: The main dominant Buddhist variant found in Laos and Thailand . It is practiced by minorities in India , Bangladesh , China , Nepal , North Korea , Vietnam , the Philippines , Indonesia , Malaysia , and Taiwan . The diaspora of all of these groups, as well as converts around the world, also embrace and practice Theravāda Buddhism. During the modern era, new developments have included Buddhist modernism ,
10350-468: The material in the earlier portions is not specifically "Theravādan", but the collection of teachings that this school's adherents preserved from the early, non-sectarian body of teachings. According to Peter Harvey , while the Theravādans may have added texts to their Tipiṭaka (such as the Abhidhamma texts and so on), they generally did not tamper with the earlier material. The historically later parts of
10465-634: The modern era. Both had to endure French colonialism, destructive civil wars and oppressive communist governments. Under French Rule , French indologists of the École française d'Extrême-Orient became involved in the reform of Buddhism, setting up institutions for the training of Cambodian and Lao monks, such as the Ecole de Pali which was founded in Phnom Penh in 1914 . While the Khmer Rouge effectively destroyed Cambodia's Buddhist institutions, after
10580-416: The oldest traditionally Buddhist countries. The island has been a centre of Buddhist scholarship and practices since the introduction of Buddhism in the 3rd century BCE producing eminent scholars such as Buddhaghosa and preserving the vast Pāli Canon . Throughout most of its history, Sri Lankan kings have played a major role in the maintenance and revival of the Buddhist institutions of the island. During
10695-492: The other Early Buddhist schools as well as by Mahayana traditions . They include central concepts such as: The orthodox standpoints of Theravāda in comparison to other Buddhist schools are presented in the Kathāvatthu ("Points of Controversy"), as well as in other works by later commentators like Buddhaghosa. Traditionally, the Theravāda maintains the following key doctrinal positions, though not all Theravādins agree with
10810-589: The other sects into the Theravada orthodoxy. The cult of the tooth relic retained its importance for example. In spite of all the instability, Sri Lanka was seen by Buddhists in Southeast Asia as a new holy land, since it contained relics of the Buddha which were accessible, in contrast to India which had seen the disappearance of Buddhism and the Muslim invasions . This period of the Dambadeniya kings also saw
10925-440: The overall structure is the same). These differences arose from the systematization and historical development of doctrines and monasticism in the centuries after the death of the Buddha. The Abhidhamma-pitaka contains "a restatement of the doctrine of the Buddha in strictly formalized language." Its texts present a new method, the Abhidhamma method, which attempts to build a single consistent philosophical system (in contrast with
11040-471: The practicalities of insight meditation and leaves ontology "relatively unexplored". Ronkin does note however that later Theravāda sub-commentaries ( ṭīkā ) do show a doctrinal shift towards ontological realism from the earlier epistemic and practical concerns. On the other hand, Y. Karunadasa contends that the tradition of realism goes back to the earliest discourses, as opposed to developing only in later Theravada sub-commentaries: If we base ourselves on
11155-422: The practice of the ten pāramitās . In some cases, they explicitly claimed to have received predictions of Buddhahood in past lives. During the beginning of the 16th century, Sri Lanka was fragmented into several kingdoms. The Portuguese Empire exploited this and established Colombo as a way to control the cinnamon trade. The Portuguese became drawn into various wars with these kingdoms. Between 1597 and 1658,
11270-491: The present-day figure of Nātha. Kings of Sri Lanka were often described as bodhisattvas , starting at least as early as Sirisanghabodhi (r. 247–249), who was styled a " mahāsatta " ("great being", Sanskrit mahāsattva ), an epithet used almost exclusively in Mahayana. Many other Sri Lankan kings from the 3rd until the 15th century were also described as bodhisattvas and their royal duties were sometimes clearly associated with
11385-523: The queen of the Yakkhas , who was disguised as a beautiful woman but was really a yakkhini named Sesapathi. The Kingdom of Tambapaṇṇī was founded by Prince Vijaya , the first Sinhalese King, and 700 of his followers after landing in Sri Lanka in an area near modern-day Mannar , which is believed to be the district of Chilaw. It is recorded that Vijaya made his landing on the day of Buddha's death. Vijaya claimed Tambapaṇṇī as his capital and soon
11500-528: The reign of Ashoka , which saw a period of Buddhist missionary activity. After being orally transmitted (as was the custom for religious texts in those days) for some centuries, the texts were finally committed to writing in the 1st century BCE. Theravāda is one of the first Buddhist schools to commit its Tipiṭaka to writing. The recension of the Tipiṭaka which survives today is that of the Sri Lankan Mahavihara sect. The oldest manuscripts of
11615-599: The reign of Rama VII (1925–35). There is also a Khmer edition, published in Phnom Penh (1931–69). The Pāli Tipitaka consists of three parts: the Vinaya Pitaka , Sutta Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka . Of these, the Abhidhamma Pitaka is believed to be a later addition to the collection, its composition dating from around the 3rd century BCE onwards. The Pāli Abhidhamma was not recognized outside
11730-475: The reign of Voharika Tissa (209–31 CE), the Mahāvihāra tradition convinced the king to repress the Mahāyān teachings, which they saw as incompatible with the true doctrine. The tables were turned during the reign of the king Mahasena (277 to 304 CE), which was marked by his support of Mahāyāna Buddhism and repression of the Mahāvihāra, which refused to convert to Mahāyāna. Mahasena went as far as to destroy some of
11845-515: The spread of Theravāda Buddhism around the world and the revival of the religion in places where it remains a minority faith. Some of the major events of the spread of modern Theravāda include: According to Kate Crosby, for Theravāda, the Pāli Tipiṭaka , also known as the Pāli Canon is "the highest authority on what constitutes the Dhamma (the truth or teaching of the Buddha) and the organization of
11960-405: The suttas, called matikas. There are numerous Theravāda works which are important for the tradition even though they are not part of the Tipiṭaka. Perhaps the most important texts apart from the Tipiṭaka are the works of the influential scholar Buddhaghosa (4th–5th century CE), known for his Pāli commentaries (which were based on older Sri Lankan commentaries of the Mahavihara tradition). He
12075-465: The suttas, which present numerous teachings given by the Buddha to particular individuals according to their needs). Because the Abhidhamma focuses on analyzing the internal lived experience of beings and the intentional structure of consciousness, it has often been compared to a kind of phenomenological psychology by numerous modern scholars such as Nyanaponika , Bhikkhu Bodhi and Alexander Piatigorsky . The Theravāda school has traditionally held
12190-586: The tantric masters Jayabhadra, and Candramåli. Sri Lankan (Sinhala) Buddhists initially preserved the Buddhist scriptures (the Tipitaka ) orally, however, according to the Mahavamsa , during the first century BCE, destruction brought by the Beminitiyaseya led to the writing down of these scriptures to preserve them. The site of this event was at Aluvihāra temple . According to Richard Gombrich this
12305-494: The traditional point of view: Theravāda scholastics developed a systematic exposition of the Buddhist doctrine called the Abhidhamma . In the Pāli Nikayas, the Buddha teaches through an analytical method in which experience is explained using various conceptual groupings of physical and mental processes, which are called "dhammas". Examples of lists of dhammas taught by the Buddha include the twelve sense 'spheres' or ayatanas ,
12420-524: The various Sri Lankan states on the island into one polity by defeating the Tamils who had conquered the north. The culture, laws, and government of the Anuradhapura Kingdom (as well as the other kingdoms which were mostly subservient to it) was strongly influenced by Buddhism. Over much of the early history of Anuradhapura Buddhism, there were three subdivisions of Theravāda, consisting of
12535-406: The whole island became known by this name. Tambapaṇṇī was originally inhabited and governed by Yakkhas , and their queen Kuveni , with their capital at Sirīsavatthu. Upatissagāma was the second capital of the kingdom. It was seven or eight miles further north of the previous capital Tambapaṇṇī . The city was established by Upatissa , a follower and senior minister of Vijaya . During
12650-455: Was actually a client king of the Pandyas and later had to retreat to Dambadeniya . After this, Sinhala kings were forced to retreat further to the south (to cities like Kurunagala and Gampola ), mainly in search of security from South Indian states and from the expansive Tamil kingdom of Jaffna (a Hindu realm which now controlled the north-west of the island). This instability also led to
12765-537: Was also not allowed in some towns, and Buddhist temple properties that had been confiscated by the Portuguese were not returned. Theravada Theravāda ( / ˌ t ɛr ə ˈ v ɑː ð ə / ; lit. 'School of the Elders') is the most commonly accepted name of Buddhism 's oldest existing school. The school's adherents, termed Theravādins ( anglicized from Pali theravādī ), have preserved their version of Gautama Buddha 's teaching or Dhamma in
12880-416: Was fully reconquered by Vijayabahu I (1055–1110) by 1070 who established the Kingdom of Polonnaruwa . The state of Sri Lankan Buddhism was so bad at this time that he could not find five bhikkhus in the whole island to ordain more monks and restore the monastic tradition; therefore, he sent an embassy to Burma , which sent back several eminent elders with Buddhist texts. Vijayabahu is also known for building
12995-641: Was king Mindon Min (1808–1878), known for his patronage of the Fifth Buddhist council (1871) and the Tripiṭaka tablets at Kuthodaw Pagoda (still the world's largest book) with the intention of preserving the Buddha Dhamma. Burma also saw the growth of the " Vipassana movement ", which focused on reviving Buddhist meditation and doctrinal learning . Ledi Sayadaw (1846–1923) was one of the key figures in this movement. After independence, Myanmar held
13110-512: Was promoted by the state as well as by lay persons. While there are few artistic or architectural remains from this initial period, there are hundreds of Buddhist caves that have survived that contain numerous Brahmi inscriptions which record gifts to the sangha by householders and chiefs. Bandaranayake states that the religion seems to have achieved "undisputed authority" during the reigns of Dutugamy and Valagamba (c. mid-2nd century BCE to mid-1st century BCE). K. M. de Silva states that by
13225-646: Was wiped out, and this severed a key cultural link between Sri Lanka and South India. This era of the conflict saw the sacking of Buddhist monasteries and often made the situation difficult for Buddhism. However, in spite of the instability, this era also saw the expansion of Buddhist culture, arts and architecture. By the 9th century, Buddhist monasteries were powerful institutions that owned property, land, estates, and irrigation works. They had been granted these estates by kings and generally hold them in perpetuity. Buddhist monasteries at this stage of Sri Lankan history were basically self-sufficient economic units protected by
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