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79-655: Historical sources record the recovery of a group of texts during the last half of the 2nd century BC from the walls of Confucius ’s old residence in Qufu , the old capital of the State of Lu , when Prince Liu Yu (d. 127 BC) attempted to expand it into a palace upon taking the throne there. In the course of taking the old wall apart, the restorers found versions of the Classic of History , Rites of Zhou , Yili , Analects of Confucius and Classic of Filial Piety , all written in

158-546: A perfect man . For example, the Annals would allow them to relate the moral problems of the present to past political events; the Book of Odes reflects the "mood and concerns" of the commoners and their view on government; while the Book of Changes encompasses the key theory and practice of divination. Although some Chinese people follow Confucianism in a religious manner, many argue that its values are secular and that it

237-465: A "transmitter who invented nothing". He puts the greatest emphasis on the importance of study, and it is the Chinese character for study (學) that opens the text. Far from trying to build a systematic or formalist theory, he wanted his disciples to master and internalize older classics, so that they can capture the ancient wisdoms that promotes "harmony and order", to aid their self-cultivation to become

316-745: A bureaucratic apparatus peculiarly like that available to Han dynasty rulers, and hence by methods which strikingly echoed those of putative enemies of Wang Mang , the modernists. The Former Han (206 BC – AD 8), prior to Wang Mang, had favored the Current Script Text. When Wang seized power, he declared the Ancient Script Texts to be the state orthodoxy. After the Han restoration, the Current Script Texts became orthodox again. Later Han (AD 25–220) scholars began favoring

395-400: A capital G ), and other translations that have been put forth include "authoritativeness" and "selflessness". Confucius's moral system was based upon empathy and understanding others, rather than divinely ordained rules. To develop one's spontaneous responses of rén so that these could guide action intuitively was even better than living by the rules of yì . Confucius asserts that virtue is

474-519: A decade after his death. Both schools did not survive the chaos, but Zheng's conception of Confucianism would be the mainstream interpretation for centuries. In 200, during the Battle of Guandu , Zheng was ordered by the warlord Yuan Shao to Yuan's stronghold (in modern-day Daming County , Hebei Province ), where he died of illness in c. July. The commemorative shrine of Zheng Xuan in Shandong

553-742: A head in 223  BCE when the Qin state conquered all of China. Li Si , Prime Minister of the Qin dynasty , convinced Qin Shi Huang to abandon the Confucians' recommendation of awarding fiefs akin to the Zhou dynasty before them which he saw as being against to the Legalist idea of centralizing the state around the ruler. Under the succeeding Han and Tang dynasties, Confucian ideas gained even more widespread prominence. Under Emperor Wu of Han ,

632-462: A loyalist official rose up with the people of Hou and forced Hou Fan to flee to the state of Qi . The situation may have been in favor for Confucius as this likely made it possible for Confucius and his disciples to convince the aristocratic families to dismantle the fortifications of their cities. Eventually, after a year and a half, Confucius and his disciples succeeded in convincing the Shu family to raze

711-497: A mean between extremes. For example, the properly generous person gives the right amount – not too much and not too little. Confucius's political thought is based upon his ethical thought. He argued that the best government is one that rules through "rites" ( lǐ ) and morality, and not by using incentives and coercion. He explained that this is one of the most important analects: "If the people be led by laws, and uniformity sought to be given them by punishments, they will try to avoid

790-515: A person throughout life?" The Master replied: "How about 'reciprocity'! Never impose on others what you would not choose for yourself." Often overlooked in Confucian ethics are the virtues to the self: sincerity and the cultivation of knowledge. Virtuous action towards others begins with virtuous and sincere thought, which begins with knowledge. A virtuous disposition without knowledge is susceptible to corruption, and virtuous action without sincerity

869-438: A ruler's responsibilities to lead by virtue. Confucius considered himself a transmitter for the values of earlier periods which he claimed had been abandoned in his time. He advocated for filial piety , endorsing strong family loyalty, ancestor veneration , the respect of elders by their children and of husbands by their wives. Confucius recommended a robust family unit as the cornerstone for an ideal government. He championed

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948-517: A town. Eventually, he rose to the position of Minister of Crime. The Xunzi says that once assuming the post, Confucius ordered the execution of Shaozheng Mao , another Lu state official and scholar whose lectures attracted the three thousand disciples several times except Yan Hui . Shaozheng Mao was accused of 'five crimes', each worth execution, including 'concealed evilness, stubborn abnormality, eloquent duplicity, erudition in bizarre facts and generosity to evildoers'. Confucius desired to return

1027-473: A year later the couple had their first child, their son Kong Li ( 孔鯉 ). Qiguan and Confucius later had two daughters together, one of whom is thought to have died as a child and one was named Kong Jiao ( 孔姣 ). Confucius was educated at schools for commoners, where he studied and learned the Six Arts . Confucius was born into the class of shi ( 士 ), between the aristocracy and the common people. He

1106-426: Is based upon the idea of reciprocity. Yì can be translated as righteousness , though it may mean what is ethically best to do in a certain context. The term contrasts with action done out of self-interest . While pursuing one's own self-interest is not necessarily bad, one would be a better, more righteous person if one's life was based upon following a path designed to enhance the greater good. Thus an outcome of yì

1185-509: Is doing the right thing for the right reason. Just as action according to lǐ should be adapted to conform to the aspiration of adhering to yì , so yì is linked to the core value of rén ( 仁 ). Rén consists of five basic virtues: seriousness, generosity, sincerity, diligence, and kindness. Rén is the virtue of perfectly fulfilling one's responsibilities toward others, most often translated as "benevolence", "humaneness", or "empathy"; translator Arthur Waley calls it "Goodness" (with

1264-571: Is found in this famous anecdote: 廄焚。子退朝，曰：傷人乎？不問馬。 When the stables were burnt down, on returning from court Confucius said, "Was anyone hurt?" He did not ask about the horses. This remark was considered a strong manifestation of Confucius' advocacy in humanism. One of his teachings was a variant of the Golden Rule , sometimes called the " Silver Rule " owing to its negative form: 子貢問曰：有一言而可以終身行之者乎？子曰：其恕乎！己所不欲、勿施於人。 Zi Gong [a disciple] asked: "Is there any one word that could guide

1343-455: Is less a religion than a secular morality. Proponents of religious Confucianism argue that despite the secular nature of Confucianism's teachings, it is based on a worldview that is religious. Confucius was considered more of a humanist than a spiritualist, his discussions on afterlife and views concerning Heaven remained indeterminate, and he is largely unconcerned with spiritual matters often considered essential to religious thought, such as

1422-462: Is not true righteousness. Cultivating knowledge and sincerity is also important for one's own sake; the superior person loves learning for the sake of learning and righteousness for the sake of righteousness. The Confucian theory of ethics as exemplified in lǐ ( 禮 ) is based on three important conceptual aspects of life: (a) ceremonies associated with sacrifice to ancestors and deities of various types, (b) social and political institutions, and (c)

1501-511: Is notable for his syncretic attempt to bridge the two centuries of rivalry between the two schools. He adopted the strengths of each school in the interpretation of the Confucian classics although he usually favored the Old Text teachings. He was very influential, but the government never officially adopted his teachings. The Han dynasty was already in decline during his lifetime and collapsed

1580-438: Is said to have worked in various government jobs during his early 20s, and as a bookkeeper and a caretaker of sheep and horses, using the proceeds to give his mother a proper burial. When his mother died, Confucius (aged 23) is said to have mourned for three years , as was the tradition. In Confucius's time, the state of Lu was headed by a ruling ducal house. Under the duke were three aristocratic families , whose heads bore

1659-508: Is the emperor who is ultimately responsible for keeping or losing the Mandate of Heaven. The "ancient script texts" had a peculiarly archaist bent. They emphasized the sage-like as opposed to the prophet-like characteristics of Confucius, thereby making him look more like the earlier sages who founded and ruled the Zhou dynasty or even the still more archaic states which preceded it. And yet, these archaic sage-kings are shown ruling China with

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1738-457: Is thought that Confucius was born on 28 September 551 BCE, in Zou ( 鄒 , in modern Shandong ). The area was notionally controlled by the kings of Zhou but effectively independent under the local lords of Lu , who ruled from the nearby city of Qufu. His father Kong He (or Shuliang He) was an elderly commandant of the local Lu garrison. His ancestry traced back through the dukes of Song to

1817-524: The Analects . Confucius's disciples and his only grandson, Zisi , continued his philosophical school after his death. These efforts spread Confucian ideals to students who then became officials in many of the royal courts in China, thereby giving Confucianism the first wide-scale test of its dogma . Two of Confucius's most famous later followers emphasized radically different aspects of his teachings. In

1896-574: The Shang dynasty which had preceded the Zhou. Traditional accounts of Confucius's life relate that Kong He's grandfather had migrated the family from Song to Lu. Not all modern scholars accept Confucius's descent from Song nobility. Kong He died when Confucius was three years old, and Confucius was raised by his mother Yan Zhengzai ( 顏徵在 ) in poverty. His mother later died at less than 40 years of age. At age 19, he married Lady Qiguan ( 亓官氏 ), and

1975-687: The Silver Rule , or a negative form of the Golden Rule , advising, "Do not do unto others what you do not want done to yourself." The time of Confucius's life saw a rich diversity of thought , and was a formative period in China's intellectual history. His ideas gained in prominence during the Warring States period , but experienced setback immediately following the Qin conquest . Under Emperor Wu of Han , Confucius's ideas received official sanction, with affiliated works becoming mandatory readings for career paths leading to officialdom. During

2054-734: The Tang and Song dynasties, Confucianism developed into a system known in the West as Neo-Confucianism , and later as New Confucianism . From ancient dynasties to the modern era, Confucianism has integrated into the Chinese social fabric and way of life. Traditionally, Confucius is credited with having authored or edited many of the ancient texts including all of the Five Classics . However, modern scholars exercise caution in attributing specific assertions to Confucius himself, for at least some of

2133-474: The works attributed to Confucius were made the official imperial philosophy and required reading for civil service examinations in 140  BCE which was continued nearly unbroken until the end of the 19th century. As Mohism lost support by the time of the Han, the main philosophical contenders were Legalism, which Confucian thought somewhat absorbed, the teachings of Laozi , whose focus on more spiritual ideas kept it from direct conflict with Confucianism, and

2212-399: The "ancient script texts" because they were written in the pre-Qin writing. The discoverers of the "ancient script texts", such as Liu Xin , claimed that all existing texts suffered from an interrupted pedigree, which was rectified by the newly discovered texts. "Current Script text" supporters claimed that the "ancient script texts" are forgeries that lack a line of transmission. In reality,

2291-707: The 16th century during the late Ming dynasty . The first known effort was by Michele Ruggieri , who returned to Italy in 1588 and carried on his translations while residing in Salerno . Matteo Ricci started to report on the thoughts of Confucius, and a team of Jesuits— Prospero Intorcetta , Philippe Couplet , and two others—published a translation of several Confucian works and an overview of Chinese history in Paris in 1687. François Noël , after failing to persuade Clement   XI that Chinese veneration of ancestors and Confucius did not constitute idolatry , completed

2370-521: The Analects, Confucius described the importance of the poetry in the intellectual and moral development of an individual: The Master said, "My children, why do you not study the Book of Poetry ? " The Odes serve to stimulate the mind. "They may be used for purposes of self-contemplation. "They teach the art of sociability. "They show how to regulate feelings of resentment. "From them you learn

2449-409: The Ancient Script Texts. Zheng Xuan synthesized the teachings of both schools. While he was very influential, he was unable to unseat the Current Script Texts orthodoxy though the issue became moot when both schools disappeared after the collapse of the Han. Zheng became the mainstream source of interpretation until the appearance of Neo-Confucianism in the Tang and Song dynasties . The controversy

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2528-669: The Confucian canon at Prague in 1711, with more scholarly treatments of the other works and the first translation of the collected works of Mencius . It is thought that such works had considerable importance on European thinkers of the period, particularly among the Deists and other philosophical groups of the Enlightenment who were interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius into Western civilization . Zheng Xuan Zheng Xuan (127– c. July 200 ), courtesy name Kangcheng ( Chinese : 康成 ),

2607-574: The Ji's palace complex and ascended the Wuzi Terrace. Confucius ordered two officers to lead an assault against the rebels. At least one of the two officers was a retainer of the Ji family, but they were unable to refuse the orders while in the presence of the duke, viscounts, and court. The rebels were pursued and defeated at Gu. Immediately after the revolt was defeated, the Ji family razed the Bi city walls to

2686-455: The Mandate of Heaven in the dynasty's hand and is an act of greater loyalty. The Ancient Script school was rationalistic. They rejected apocrypha and believed that the classics were only edited by Confucius. They believed history was caused by human actions and viewed the Son of Heaven (the emperor of China ) as the axis mundi whose will was absolute . Officials may advise but not disobey as it

2765-478: The authority of the state to the duke by dismantling the fortifications of the city—strongholds belonging to the three families. This way, he could establish a centralized government. However, Confucius relied solely on diplomacy as he had no military authority himself. In 500  BCE , Hou Fan—the governor of Hou—revolted against his lord of the Shu family. Although the Meng and Shu families unsuccessfully besieged Hou,

2844-473: The basis of their moral merits instead of lineage. These would be rulers devoted to their people, striving for personal and social perfection , and such a ruler would spread his own virtues to the people instead of imposing proper behavior with laws and rules. While Confucius supported the idea of government ruling by a virtuous king, his ideas contained a number of elements to limit the power of rulers. He argued for representing truth in language, and honesty

2923-506: The books or were rescued by the Han dynasty in the provinces. Surviving scholars in the direct line of transmission of these texts got hold of surviving copies and transliterated them into the new orthography. The "ancient script texts" were the ones that off and on since the late 2nd and during the 1st century BC had turned up, some discovered in the walls of Confucius's residence, or in Warring States period graves. They were called

3002-469: The burning of the books probably did little more than symbolically burn a few copies of the Confucian books conveniently at hand in the capital. Many other copies survived elsewhere, and these were available for copying into the new orthographic standard set by Qin and its clerical script successor which evolved under Han dynasty. It was the change in orthography which divided the Warring States and early imperial period textual traditions, and in this respect

3081-407: The centuries after his death, Mencius ( 孟子 ) and Xunzi ( 荀子 ) both composed important teachings elaborating in different ways on the fundamental ideas associated with Confucius. Mencius (4th century  BCE ) articulated the innate goodness in human beings as a source of the ethical intuitions that guide people towards rén , yì , and lǐ , while Xunzi (3rd century  BCE ) underscored

3160-508: The courts of these states, he expounded his political beliefs but did not see them implemented. According to the Zuozhuan , Confucius returned home to his native Lu when he was 68, after he was invited to do so by Ji Kangzi, the chief minister of Lu. The Shiji depicts him spending his last years teaching 3000 pupils, with 72 or 77 accomplished disciples that mastered the Six Arts . Meanwhile, Confucius dedicated himself in transmitting

3239-437: The destruction of the Meng family. Even though Viscount Meng Yi gave his word not to interfere with an attempt, he went back on his earlier promise to dismantle the walls. Later in 498  BCE , Duke Ding of Lu personally went with an army to lay siege to Cheng in an attempt to raze its walls to the ground, but he did not succeed. Thus, Confucius could not achieve the idealistic reforms that he wanted including restoration of

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3318-411: The duke and the three viscounts together at the court. Zhong You was one of the disciples of Confucius and Confucius had arranged for him to be given the position of governor by the Ji family. When Confucius heard of the raid, he requested that Viscount Ji Huan allow the duke and his court to retreat to a stronghold on his palace grounds. Thereafter, the heads of the three families and the duke retreated to

3397-464: The duke neglected to send to Confucius a portion of the sacrificial meat that was his due according to custom, and Confucius seized upon this pretext to leave both his post and the Lu state. After Confucius's resignation, he travelled around the principality states of north-east and central China including Wey , Song , Zheng , Cao , Chu , Qi , Chen , and Cai (and a failed attempt to go to Jin ). At

3476-406: The duke of Lu. The duke indulged himself in pleasure and did not attend to official duties for three days. Confucius was disappointed and resolved to leave Lu and seek better opportunities, yet to leave at once would expose the misbehavior of the duke and therefore bring public humiliation to the ruler Confucius was serving. Confucius therefore waited for the duke to make a lesser mistake. Soon after,

3555-418: The etiquette of daily behavior. Some believed that lǐ originated from the heavens, but Confucius stressed the development of lǐ through the actions of sage leaders in human history. His discussions of lǐ seem to redefine the term to refer to all actions committed by a person to build the ideal society, rather than those conforming with canonical standards of ceremony. In the early Confucian tradition, lǐ

3634-457: The ground. The attackers retreated after realizing that they would have to become rebels against the state and their lord. Through Confucius' actions, the Bi officials had inadvertently revolted against their own lord, thus forcing Viscount Ji Huan's hand in having to dismantle the walls of Bi—as it could have harbored such rebels—or confess to instigating the event by going against proper conduct and righteousness as an official. Dubs suggests that

3713-447: The incident brought to light Confucius' foresight, practical political ability, and insight into human character. When it was time to dismantle the city walls of the Meng family, the governor was reluctant to have his city walls torn down and convinced the head of the Meng family not to do so. The Zuo Zhuan recalls that the governor advised against razing the walls to the ground as he said that it made Cheng vulnerable to Qi, and cause

3792-586: The legitimate rule of the duke. He had made powerful enemies within the state, especially with Viscount Ji Huan, due to his successes so far. According to accounts in the Zuo Zhuan and the Records of the Grand Historian , Confucius departed his homeland in 497  BCE after his support for the failed attempt of dismantling the fortified city walls of the powerful Ji, Meng, and Shu families. He left

3871-524: The more immediate duty of serving one's father, and the remoter one of serving one's prince. "From them we become largely acquainted with the names of birds, beasts, and plants." Confucius frowned upon globalization encroaching on China, especially with music, and he preached against musical influences from Persians , Greco-Bactrians , and Mongols . Confucius's teachings were later turned into an elaborate set of rules and practices by his numerous disciples and followers, who organized his teachings into

3950-619: The nature of souls . One of the deepest teachings of Confucius may have been the superiority of personal exemplification over explicit rules of behavior. His moral teachings emphasized self-cultivation, emulation of moral exemplars, and the attainment of skilled judgment rather than knowledge of rules. Confucian ethics may, therefore, be considered a type of virtue ethics . His teachings rarely rely on reasoned argument, and ethical ideals and methods are conveyed indirectly, through allusion , innuendo , and even tautology . His teachings require examination and context to be understood. A good example

4029-620: The new Buddhist religion, which gained acceptance during the Southern and Northern Dynasties era. Both Confucian ideas and Confucian-trained officials were relied upon in the Ming dynasty and even the Yuan dynasty , although Kublai Khan distrusted handing over provincial control to them. During the Song dynasty , Confucianism was revitalized in a movement known as Neo-Confucianism. Neo-Confucianism

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4108-525: The newly discovered texts were no different from those used as the basis for the "current script text" transcriptions soon after the fall of Qin dynasty . The "current script texts" portray Confucius as a prophet or "uncrowned king" that should have received the Mandate of Heaven . He could perform miracles and wrote the Five Classics himself. The New Text school, founded by Dong Zhongshu , believed

4187-778: The north of Qufu City in Shandong Province. Starting as a humble tomb, the cemetery of Confucius had been expanded by emperors since the Han Dynasty. To date, the Cemetery of Confucius (孔林) covers an area of 183 hectares with more than 100,000 graves of the Kong descendants, it is included in the World Heritage List for its cultural and architectural value. In the Analects , Confucius presents himself as

4266-468: The old orthography used prior to the reforms of the clerical script . Hence, they were called "Ancient Script texts". By the 1st century, a new controversy had begun between these two texts. The "current script texts" are those that had been transliterated into the new orthography back in the beginning of 2nd century BC, either from oral transmissions or from texts that had survived the Qin dynasty's burning of

4345-462: The old wisdom by writing or editing the Five Classics . During his return, Confucius sometimes acted as an advisor to several government officials in Lu, including Ji Kangzi, on matters including governance and crime. Burdened by the loss of both his son and his favorite disciples, he died at the age of 71 or 72 from natural causes. Confucius was buried on the bank of the Sishui River , to

4424-400: The opportunity to put his principles into practice but he gave up on the idea in the end. Confucius disapproved the use of a violent revolution by principle, even though the Ji family dominated the Lu state by force for generations and had exiled the previous duke. Creel states that, unlike the rebel Yang Hu before him, Gongshan may have sought to destroy the three hereditary families and restore

4503-426: The people. Because his vision of personal and social perfections was framed as a revival of the ordered society of earlier times, Confucius is often considered a great proponent of conservatism, but a closer look at what he proposes often shows that he used (and perhaps twisted) past institutions and rites to push a new political agenda of his own: a revival of a unified royal state, whose rulers would succeed to power on

4582-402: The power of the duke. However, Dubs is of the view that Gongshan was encouraged by Viscount Ji Huan to invade the Lu capital in an attempt to avoid dismantling the Bi fortified walls. Whatever the situation may have been, Gongshan was considered an upright man who continued to defend the state of Lu, even after he was forced to flee. During the revolt by Gongshan, Zhong You had managed to keep

4661-436: The punishment, but have no sense of shame. If they be led by virtue, and uniformity sought to be given them by the rules of propriety, they will have the sense of the shame, and moreover will become good." ( Analects 2.3, tr. Legge). This "sense of shame" is an internalization of duty. Confucianism prioritizes creating a harmonious society over the ruler's interests, opposes material incentives and harsh punishments, and downplays

4740-611: The realistic and materialistic aspects of Confucian thought, stressing that morality was inculcated in society through tradition and in individuals through training. In time, their writings, together with the Analects and other core texts came to constitute the philosophical corpus of Confucianism . This realignment in Confucian thought was parallel to the development of Legalism , which held that humanity and righteousness were not sufficient in government, and that rulers should instead rely on statecrafts, punishments, and law. A disagreement between these two political philosophies came to

4819-524: The role of institutions in guiding behavior as in Legalism , emphasizing moral virtues instead. Confucius looked nostalgically upon earlier days, and urged the Chinese, particularly those with political power, to model themselves on earlier examples. In times of division, chaos, and endless wars between feudal states, he wanted to restore the Mandate of Heaven ( 天命 ) that could unify the "world" ( 天下 , "all under Heaven") and bestow peace and prosperity on

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4898-410: The starting point for each individual and that these sacred social functions allow each person's human nature to be harmonious with reality. Given this, Confucius believed that "music is the harmonization of heaven and earth; the rites is the order of heaven and earth". Thus the application of music in rites creates the order that makes it possible for society to prosper. The Confucian approach to music

4977-409: The state of Lu without resigning, remaining in self-exile and unable to return as long as Viscount Ji Huan was alive. The Shiji stated that the neighboring Qi state was worried that Lu was becoming too powerful while Confucius was involved in the government of the Lu state. According to this account, Qi decided to sabotage Lu's reforms by sending 100 good horses and 80 beautiful dancing girls to

5056-413: The subordinates must advise their superiors if the superiors are considered to be taking a course of action that is wrong. Confucius believed in ruling by example, if you lead correctly, orders by force or punishment are not necessary. Confucius heavily promoted the use of music with rituals or the rites order. The scholar Li Zehou argued that Confucianism is based on the idea of rites. Rites serve as

5135-422: The summer of 501  BCE , the three hereditary families had succeeded in expelling Yang Hu from Lu. By then, Confucius had built up a considerable reputation through his teachings, while the families came to see the value of proper conduct and righteousness, so they could achieve loyalty to a legitimate government. Thus, that year (501  BCE ), Confucius came to be appointed to the minor position of governor of

5214-476: The texts and philosophy associated with him were of a more ancient origin. Aphorisms concerning his teachings were compiled in the Analects , but not until many years after his death. The name "Confucius" is a Latinized form of the Mandarin Chinese Kǒng Fūzǐ ( 孔夫子 , "Master Kong"), and was coined in the late 16th century by early Jesuit missionaries to China . Confucius's family name

5293-425: The texts were sacred and carried hidden clues to the future that they tried to decode. They were also interested in apocryphal writings that were abstruse and esoteric. They believed historical events were caused by cosmic forces beyond the control of man. They also believed officials should disobey the sovereign's decree if it will harm the state or dynasty. To betray the sovereign for the sovereign's own sake will keep

5372-472: The title of viscount and held hereditary positions in the Lu bureaucracy. The Ji family held the position "Minister over the Masses", who was also the "Prime Minister"; the Meng family held the position "Minister of Works"; and the Shu family held the position "Minister of War". In the winter of 505  BCE , Yang Hu—a retainer of the Ji family—rose up in rebellion and seized power from the Ji family. However, by

5451-478: The walls of Hou, the Ji family in razing the walls of Bi, and the Meng family in razing the walls of Cheng. First, the Shu family led an army towards their city Hou and tore down its walls in 498  BCE . Soon thereafter, Gongshan Furao, a retainer of the Ji family, revolted and took control of the forces at Bi. He immediately launched an attack and entered the capital Lu. Earlier, Gongshan had approached Confucius to join him, which Confucius considered as he wanted

5530-426: Was Kong ( 孔 , OC : *‍ kʰˤoŋʔ ) and his given name was Qiu ( 丘 , OC : *‍ [k]ʷʰə ). His courtesy name , a capping ( guan : 冠 ) given at his coming of age ceremony , and by which he would have been known to all but his older family members, was Zhongni ( 仲尼 , OC : *‍ N-‍truŋ-‍s nr[əj] ), the "Zhòng" indicating that he was the second son in his family. It

5609-522: Was a Chinese philosopher of the Spring and Autumn period who is traditionally considered the paragon of Chinese sages. Much of the shared cultural heritage of the Sinosphere originates in the philosophy and teachings of Confucius. His philosophical teachings, called Confucianism , emphasized personal and governmental morality, harmonious social relationships , righteousness, kindness, sincerity, and

5688-590: Was a Chinese philosopher, politician, and writer near the end of the Eastern Han dynasty. He was born in Gaomi, Beihai Commandery (modern Weifang, Shandong ), and was a student of Ma Rong , together with Lu Zhi . Like his teacher, he was a member of the Old Text School that was challenging the state orthodox New Text School . His contemporary rival was He Xiu ( Chinese : 何休 , 129–182). Zheng

5767-539: Was a revival of Confucianism that expanded on classical theories by incorporating metaphysics and new approaches to self-cultivation and enlightenment, influenced by Buddhism and Daoism. The most renowned scholar of this period was Zhu Xi (1130-1200CE). There are clear Buddhist and Daoist influences in the Neo-Confucian advocacy of "quiet sitting" (meditation) as a technique of self-cultivation that leads to transformative experiences of insight." In his life, Zhu Xi

5846-428: Was doing the proper thing at the proper time; balancing between maintaining existing norms to perpetuate an ethical social fabric, and violating them in order to accomplish ethical good. Training in the lǐ of past sages, cultivates virtues in people that include ethical judgment about when lǐ must be adapted in light of situational contexts. In Confucianism, the concept of li is closely related to yì ( 義 ), which

5925-561: Was forgotten until it was rediscovered during the Qing dynasty by scholars of Han learning . Significance of the ancient/current script text controversy is a debate topic in the modern sinology. Michael Nylan has proved that the issue itself was an artificial projection of the mid-Han problematic onto the early Han realities. Confucius Confucius ( 孔子 ; pinyin: Kǒngzǐ ; lit.   ' Master Kong ' ; c.  551  – c.  479 BCE ), born Kong Qiu ( 孔丘 ),

6004-530: Was heavily inspired by the Classic of Poetry and the Classic of Music , which was said to be the sixth Confucian classic until it was lost during the Han dynasty . The Classic of Poetry serves as one of the current Confucian classics and is a book on poetry that contains a diversified variety of poems as well as folk songs. Confucius is traditionally ascribed with compiling these classics within his school. In

6083-444: Was largely ignored, but not long after his death, his ideas became the new orthodox view of what Confucian texts actually meant. Modern historians view Zhu Xi as having created something rather different and call his way of thinking Neo-Confucianism . Neo-Confucianism held sway in China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam until the 19th century. The works of Confucius were first translated into European languages by Jesuit missionaries in

6162-420: Was of paramount importance. Even in facial expression , truth must always be represented. Confucius believed that if a ruler is to lead correctly, by action, that orders would be unnecessary in that others will follow the proper actions of their ruler. In discussing the relationship between a king and his subject (or a father and his son), he underlined the need to give due respect to superiors. This demanded that

6241-570: Was rebuilt under supervision of Ruan Yuan (阮元; 1764–1849) in 1793. Zheng Xuan appears in Chapter 22 of the novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms , which dramatises the end of the Han dynasty and the subsequent Three Kingdoms era . Zheng is depicted as living in Xuzhou . Liu Bei asks Zheng to write to Yuan Shao to propose an alliance against warlord Cao Cao . This biography of

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