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105-405: Annexation can be legitimized if generally recognized by other states and international bodies. The illegality of annexation means that states carrying out such acts usually avoid using the word annexation in describing their actions; in each of the unresolved annexations by Israel , Morocco and Russia , the states have avoided characterizing their actions as such. International law regarding

210-527: A federation with Eritrea . He dissolved it in 1962 and annexed Eritrea , resulting in the Eritrean War of Independence . The part of former Mandatory Palestine occupied by Jordan during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War was renamed "the West Bank ". It was annexed to Jordan in 1950 at the request of a Palestinian delegation. It had been questioned, however, how representative that delegation was, and at

315-479: A PPL perspective, it emanates from appropriate actors. In the social contract tradition, Hobbes and Locke focused on NPL (stressing security and liberty, respectively), while Rousseau focused more on PPL ("the people" as the legitimator). Arguably, political stability depends on both forms of legitimacy. Weber's understanding of legitimacy rests on shared values , such as tradition and rational-legality. But policies that aim at (re-)constructing legitimacy by improving

420-527: A claimed annexation after World War II is the Kingdom of Norway 's southward expansion of the dependent territory Queen Maud Land . On most maps, there had been an unclaimed area between Queen Maud Land's borders of 1939 and the South Pole until 12 June 2015, when Norway formally claimed to have annexed that area. On 18 September 1955 at precisely 10:16 am, Rockall was declared officially annexed by

525-565: A conflict zones, may construct legitimacy more successfully than the state in certain strata of the population. Political theorist Ross Mittiga has proposed an alternative typology, consisting of two parts: foundational and contingent legitimacy. According to Mittiga, foundational legitimacy (FL) "pertains to a government's ability to ensure the safety and security of its citizens," while contingent legitimacy (CL) obtains in situations in which governments "exercise[] power in acceptable ways." Mittiga specifies further that FL: ...is bound up with

630-485: A governing law or a regime . Whereas authority denotes a specific position in an established government, the term legitimacy denotes a system of government—wherein government denotes " sphere of influence ". An authority viewed as legitimate often has the right and justification to exercise power . Political legitimacy is considered a basic condition for governing, without which a government will suffer legislative deadlock(s) and collapse. In political systems where this

735-482: A government legitimate, the Center for Public Impact launched a project to hold a global conversation about legitimacy stating, inviting citizens, academics and governments to participate. The organization also publishes case studies that consider the theme of legitimacy as it applies to projects in a number of different countries and cities including Bristol, Lebanon and Canada. The United Nations Human Rights Office of

840-451: A key term ( communism , democracy , constitutionalism , etc.) has different meanings within a given political argument. Hence, the intellectually restrictive politics of dogmatism ("My answer is right, and all others are wrong"), scepticism ("I don't know what is true, and I even doubt my own opinion"), and eclecticism ("Each meaning gives a partial view, so the more meanings the better") are inappropriate philosophic stances for managing

945-558: A month was needed. They were given 50,000 Palestine pounds credit with the Histadrut 's wholesalers, Hamashbir Hamerkazi . In January 1948 the number of trucks supplying Jewish Jerusalem had fallen to thirty per day. By March the daily average number of trucks reaching Jerusalem was six. By the end of March it was clear that food supplies for civilians in Jewish Jerusalem would run out. On 1 April The Times estimated that

1050-451: A political term that has more than one meaning (see Walter Bryce Gallie ). Establishing what qualifies as a legitimate form of government continues to be a topic of great philosophical controversy. Forms of legitimate government are posited to include: Battle for Jerusalem (1948) Central and Jerusalem front Northern front International Massacres Biological warfare The Battle for Jerusalem took place during

1155-418: A range of political capacities and actions including, among other things, being able to ensure continuous access to essential goods (particularly food, water, and shelter), prevent avoidable catastrophes, provide immediate and effective disaster relief, and combat invading forces or quell unjustified uprisings or rebellions. If a government cannot fulfill these basic security functions, it is not legitimate, if it

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1260-502: A report to the United Nations General Assembly , Michael Lynk contrasted de jure annexation as a formal declaration by a state that it is claiming permanent sovereignty over territory and de facto annexation without the formal declaration as a descriptive term for a state establishing facts on the ground as the prelude to a future claim of sovereignty. The Fourth Geneva Convention (GCIV) of 1949 amplified

1365-400: A serving rather than an extractive attitude. As long as authorities do not satisfy people's more immediate expectation of interactive dignity, people support and consider alternative authorities to be more legitimate. In a theocracy , government legitimacy derives from the spiritual authority of a god or a goddess. The political legitimacy of a civil government derives from agreement among

1470-637: A small-scale yet bloody conflict with the Indonesian military since the 1960s. North Vietnam de facto annexed South Vietnam following the military defeat and effective dissolution of its government system and military on 30 April 1975. Vietnam was officially reunited one year later as the merger of the Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam and North Vietnam . One example of

1575-677: A treaty in December 1974. During the British colonial rule in India, Sikkim had an ambiguous status, as an Indian princely state or as an Indian protectorate . Prior to Indian independence, Jawaharlal Nehru , acting as the leader of Executive Council, agreed that Sikkim would not be treated as an Indian state. Between 1947 and 1950, Sikkim enjoyed de facto independence. However, Indian independence spurred popular political movements in Sikkim and

1680-415: Is a more abstract normative judgment, which is underpinned by shared values. If a person believes that an entity has the right to exercise social control, he or she may also accept personal disadvantages." Establishing legitimacy is not simply transactional; service provision, elections and rule of law do not automatically grant legitimacy. State legitimacy rests on citizens' perceptions and expectations of

1785-463: Is about the object of legitimation (answering what is legitimate), and positive political legitimacy (PPL), which is about the source of legitimation (answering who is the 'legitimator'). NPL is concerned with establishing where to draw the line between good and bad; PPL with who should be drawing it in the first place. From the NPL perspective, political legitimacy emanates from appropriate actions; from

1890-560: Is always the primary —though, in good states, under reasonably favorable conditions, not the exclusive —end of political power. Aristotle expresses something like this in insisting that the point of political society is to furnish the resources needed not just to live but to live well . Crudely put, FL is about living, CL about living well. And it is of course impossible to live well without living: after all, there can be no democracy of desolation, no fair social cooperation in conditions of extreme scarcity, no real rights when political stability

1995-803: Is at a given level, political stability is maintained, if it falls below the required level, political legitimacy is endangered. Legitimacy is "a value whereby something or someone is recognized and accepted as right and proper". In political science, legitimacy has traditionally been understood as the popular acceptance and recognition by the public of the authority of a governing régime, whereby authority has political power through consent and mutual understandings, not coercion. The three types of political legitimacy described by German sociologist Max Weber , in "Politics as Vocation", are traditional, charismatic, and rational-legal: More recent scholarship distinguishes between multiple other types of legitimacy in an effort to draw distinctions between various approaches to

2100-558: Is even a government at all. [p.3] On the other hand, Mittiga acknowledges that there is "extensive debate" about which factors are relevant to CL, but argues that, "[a]mong the most commonly defended factors" are "the presence of democratic rights and processes, consent, guarantees of equal representation, provision of core public benefits, protection of basic individual rights and freedoms, social justice, and observance of fairness principles." [pp. 4–5] Mittiga specifies further that "[m]ost contemporary theorists maintain that legitimacy [in

2205-398: Is maintainable only through raw assertions of coercive power (if it can be maintained at all). In this sense, FL is necessarily prior to CL, and must be regarded as such in moments when trade-offs become a necessary part of the political calculus. [p.7] Max Weber proposed that societies behave cyclically in governing themselves with different types of governmental legitimacy. That democracy

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2310-522: Is not the case, unpopular regimes survive because they are considered legitimate by a small, influential elite . In Chinese political philosophy , since the historical period of the Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC), the political legitimacy of a ruler and government was derived from the Mandate of Heaven , and unjust rulers who lost said mandate therefore lost the right to rule the people. In moral philosophy ,

2415-598: Is now officially known as Timor-Leste . After being allied with Iraq during the Iran–Iraq War (largely due to desiring Iraqi protection from Iran ), Kuwait was invaded and annexed by Iraq (under Saddam Hussein ) in August 1990. Hussein's primary justifications included a charge that Kuwaiti territory was in fact an Iraqi province, and that annexation was retaliation for "economic warfare" Kuwait had waged through slant drilling into Iraq's oil supplies. The monarchy

2520-522: Is prohibited under international law", adding that unilateral changes to borders violate "the rules-based international order and the UN Charter". In 1975, and following the Madrid Accords between Mauritania , Morocco , and Spain , the last Spanish troops withdrew from the territory and ceded the administration to Mauritania and Morocco. This was challenged by an independentist movement,

2625-536: The 1947–1948 civil war phase of the 1947–1949 Palestine war . It saw Jewish and Arab militias in Mandatory Palestine , and later the militaries of Israel and Transjordan , fight for control over the city of Jerusalem . Under the 1947 United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine , Jerusalem was to be a corpus separatum ( lit.   ' separated body ' ) administered by an international body. Fighting nevertheless immediately broke out in

2730-463: The British Crown when Lieutenant-Commander Desmond Scott RN , Sergeant Brian Peel RM , Corporal AA Fraser RM, and James Fisher (a civilian naturalist and former Royal Marine), were deposited on the island by a Royal Navy helicopter from HMS  Vidal (coincidentally named after the man who first charted the island). The team cemented in a brass plaque on Hall's Ledge and hoisted

2835-532: The Haganah 's Etzioni Brigade of 1,200 with another 1,200 second line troops, commanded by David Shaltiel . In addition there was a Jewish Home Guard of 2,500, and 500 members of the dissident organisations, Irgun and Lehi . In a tactical change from defensive to offensive action, in early April the Haganah was ordered to launch Operation Nachshon , an offensive to clear the strategic hilltop villages along

2940-484: The Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 with respect to the question of the protection of civilians, and the rules regarding inviolability of rights have "an absolute character", making it much more difficult for a state to bypass international law through the use of annexation. During the 1967 Six-Day War , Israel captured East Jerusalem , a part of the West Bank , from Jordan . While Jordan had annexed

3045-659: The Jerusalem Embassy Act , which recognizes Jerusalem as the united capital of Israel and requires the relocation of the U.S. embassy there in 1995. The act included a provision permitting the President to delay its implementation due to national security concerns. This waiver was used by presidents Clinton , Bush , Obama , and Trump , but was allowed to expire in 2019. Law professor Omar M. Dajani and others discuss de facto annexation (also referred to as "creeping annexation"). The debate considers whether, in all

3150-538: The Middle East ; that the rule-proving exceptions are Islamic Iran and Saudi Arabia . Furthermore, the third Weber type of political legitimacy, rational-legal authority, exists in so many permutations no longer allow it to be limited as a type of legitimate authority. In determining the political legitimacy of a system of rule and government, the term proper— political legitimacy —is philosophically an essentially contested concept that facilitates understanding

3255-573: The Polisario Front that waged a guerrilla war against both Mauritania and Morocco. In 1979, and after a military putsch , Mauritania withdrew from the territory that left it controlled by Morocco. A United Nations peace process was initiated in 1991, but it has been stalled, and as of mid-2012, the UN is holding direct negotiations between Morocco and the Polisario front to reach a solution to

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3360-846: The Qing dynasty over Tibet was established after a Qing expedition force defeated the Dzungar Khanate which had occupied Tibet in 1720, and lasted until the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1912. The Imperial Edict of the Abdication of the Qing Emperor issued in 1912 provided the legal basis for the Republic of China (ROC) to inherit all Qing territories, including Tibet. However, the ROC had no effective control over Tibet from 1912 to 1951; In

3465-587: The Union Flag to stake the UK's claim. However, any effect of this annexation on valuable maritime rights claims under UNCLOS in the waters beyond 12 nautical miles from Rockall are neither claimed by Britain nor recognised by Denmark (for the Faroe Islands ), Iceland or Ireland . Legitimacy (political) In political science , legitimacy is the right and acceptance of an authority , usually

3570-406: The annexation of territories in southern and eastern Ukraine. As a result, Russia claimed sovereignty over the territories of four Ukrainian oblasts – Luhansk , Donetsk , Zaporizhzhia and Kherson – and recognised as its federal subjects Donetsk People's Republic , Luhansk People's Republic , Zaporizhzhia and Kherson Oblasts. In 1952, Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie orchestrated

3675-589: The use of force by states evolved significantly in the 20th century. Key agreements include the 1907 Porter Convention , the 1920 Covenant of the League of Nations and the 1928 Kellogg–Briand Pact , culminating in Article 2(4) of Chapter I of the United Nations Charter , which is in force today: "All Members shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against

3780-817: The Arab militias in the city pushed Abdullah I of Jordan to order the Arab Legion to intervene. Jordanian forces deployed in East Jerusalem , fought the Israelis and took the Jewish Quarter of the Old City , following which the population was expelled and fighters taken as prisoners of war to Jordan. Israeli forces launched three assaults on Latrun to free the road to the city but without success; they then built an alternative road to Jerusalem before

3885-477: The British Army. At the end of March the decision was taken to resist arms searches. On 17 March a 16-vehicle convoy reached the city without incident. But the following week a two-mile long, 80-vehicle convoy came under attack, and five passengers were killed. Dov Yosef refers to a convoy being "wiped out", 27 March, but gives no details. Two days later a 60-vehicle convoy came under attack at Hulda and

3990-509: The British put an end to the standoff; by then 78 Jews (mostly unarmed medical personnel) had been killed, as was one British soldier. According to Dov Yosef the turning point of Operation Nachshon was the death of Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni on 8 April. 30,000 people attended his funeral at the Haram al-Sharif and subsequently the morale of his forces collapsed. The end of the siege came with

4095-613: The Golan Heights as sovereign Israeli territory. In response, United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres stated "the status of Golan has not changed", and the decision received worldwide condemnation with European members of the United Nations Security Council noting "we raise our strong concerns about the broader consequences of recognizing illegal annexation and also about broader regional consequences" and that "annexation of territory by force

4200-642: The Golan Heights in 1981, 95% of the Majdal Shams residents refused Israeli citizenship, and are still firmly of that opinion, in spite of the Syrian Civil War . On 29 November 2012, the United Nations General Assembly reaffirmed it was "[d]eeply concerned that Israel has not withdrawn from the Syrian Golan, which has been under occupation since 1967, contrary to the relevant Security Council and General Assembly resolutions," and "[s]tress[ed]

4305-706: The Government of Tibet and the PRC, and a military conflict in the Chamdo area of western Kham in October 1950. Many analysts consider the incorporation of Tibet into the PRC an annexation. If the actions of 1950 constituted an annexation, it was subsequently legalized by the Seventeen Point Agreement by the Government of Tibet in October 1951. From 1959 onwards, claims were made that this agreement

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4410-529: The High Commission (OHCHR) established standards of what is considered "good governance" that include the key attributes transparency, responsibility, accountability, participation and responsiveness (to the needs of the people). Assessing the political legitimacy of a government can be done by looking at three different aspects of which a government can derive legitimacy. Fritz Scharpf introduced two normative criteria, which are output legitimacy, i.e.

4515-661: The Indian Parliament for a change in Sikkim's status so that it could become a state of India. In April, the Indian Army moved into Sikkim, seizing the city of Gangtok and disarming the Palace Guards. A referendum was held in which 97.5% of the voting people (59% of the people entitled to vote) voted to join the Indian Union. A few weeks later, on 16 May 1975, Sikkim officially became the 22nd state of

4620-721: The Indian Union and the monarchy was abolished. Western New Guinea officially became part of Indonesia through the Act of Free Choice in 1969, supervised by the UN. Based on the New York Agreement (1962) between Indonesia and the Netherlands, the UN held the Act of Free Choice to determine whether Western New Guinea would join Indonesia or not. Through a deliberation of representatives, the majority voted to join, and this result

4725-700: The Israelis launched several assaults on the Latrun salient but without success. During Operation Dani they launched two other attacks on Latrun, again without success and attacked several Arab villages to widen Jerusalem corridor that was 2 km wide in the area of Latrun. Part of the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine , which the Jews of Mandatory Palestine accepted and the Arabs of Mandatory Palestine and neighboring states rejected,

4830-768: The Jerusalem Municipality. Although at the time, Israel informed the United Nations that its measures constituted administrative and municipal integration rather than annexation. Later rulings by the Israeli Supreme Court indicated that East Jerusalem had become part of Israel. In 1980, Israel passed the Jerusalem Law as part of its Basic Law , which declared Jerusalem the "complete and united" capital of Israel. In other words, Israel purported to annex East Jerusalem. The annexation

4935-464: The Jewish attack on the Arab village of Deir Yassin west of Jerusalem which caused many civilian casualties, Arab forces attacked a Jewish medical convoy on its way to Hadassah Hospital on Mount Scopus . The British had provided no escort (as they had in previous months) and both they and Palmach forces were slow to intervene during the attack and help the ambushed Jews. After seven hours of fighting,

5040-601: The Jewish population of Jerusalem required a minimum of 50 truckloads of supplies per week. On 3 April, The Scotsman reported that a spokesman at a meeting of Arab military leaders in Damascus had announced that Jerusalem would be "strangled" by a blockade. One estimate of the size of the opposing forces at the beginning of March 1948 gives the Arabs 5,300 men in Jerusalem and surrounding district, including 300 Iraqi irregulars and 60 Yugoslav Muslims. Jewish forces included

5145-442: The Jewish population resided. The Arabs blocked access to Jerusalem "at Latrun and Bab al-Wad ," a narrow valley surrounded by Arab villages on hills on both sides. The breaking of the siege of Jerusalem and the annexation of the captured areas to the Jewish state became primary goals for the Israelis in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War . Ambushes by Palestinian Arab irregulars became more frequent and more sophisticated. The intention of

5250-644: The Old City of Jerusalem. The defenders of the Jewish Quarter surrendered to the Arab Legion on 28 May 1948, this leading to the forced evacuation of all Jewish inhabitants. Dov Yosef listed the problems faced in relieving Jewish Jerusalem as: In addition there was the British ban on the carrying of weapons. On 17 March six members of the Palmach accompanying a convoy were killed in a clash with

5355-466: The Old City. Aside from having a large Jewish population, Jerusalem held special importance to the Yishuv for "religious and nationalist" reasons . Following the outbreak of disturbances at the end of 1947, the road between Tel Aviv and Jewish Jerusalem became increasingly difficult for Jewish vehicles. Arab forces tried to cut off the road to Jerusalem from the coastal plain, where the majority of

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5460-535: The Russian Federation an "occupying power". Russia rejects the view that this was an annexation and regards it as an accession to the Russian Federation of a state that had just declared independence from Ukraine following a disputed referendum , and considers it secession as a result of irredentism . A term often used in Russia to describe these events is "re-unification" (воссоединение) to highlight

5565-556: The West Bank in 1950, it was considered an illegal occupation and Jordan was recognized as the legal sovereign by the United Kingdom and possibly Pakistan. On 31 July 1988, Jordan relinquished this claim. It has remained occupied until the present day. On 27 June 1967, Israel unilaterally extended its law and jurisdiction to East Jerusalem and some of the surrounding area, incorporating about 70 square kilometers of territory into

5670-683: The area, including the Shebaa farms area. This declaration was declared "null and void and without international legal effect" by United Nations Security Council Resolution 497 . The Federated States of Micronesia recognized the annexation and in 2019, the United States joined in recognition. The vast majority of Syrian Druze in Majdal Shams , the largest Syrian village in the Golan, have held onto their Syrian passports. When Israel annexed

5775-584: The areas after 36 hours of fighting, thus ending 451 years of Portuguese colonial rule in India. The action was viewed in India as a liberation of historically Indian territory; in Portugal, however, the loss of both enclaves was seen as a national tragedy. A condemnation of the action by the United Nations Security Council was vetoed by the Soviet Union . Goa and Daman and Diu were incorporated into India. Portugal recognized India's sovereignty over Goa in

5880-438: The autonomous constituent institutions—legislative, judicial, executive—combined for the national common good. In the United States, this issue has surfaced around how voting is impacted by gerrymandering , the United States Electoral College 's ability to produce winners by minority rule and discouragement of voter turnout outside of swing states , and the repeal of part of the Voting Rights Act in 2013. Another challenge to

5985-472: The beginning of the ascent. After two weeks some supplies came through using mules and 200 men from the Home Guard ( Mishmar Ha'am ) to cover the three miles which were impassable to vehicles. These men, mostly conscripts in their fifties, each carried a 45-pound load and made the trip twice a night. This effort lasted for five nights. Three weeks later, 10 June, the steepest section was opened to vehicles, though they needed assistance from tractors to get up it. By

6090-411: The besieging forces was to isolate the 100,000 Jewish residents of the city from the rest of the Jewish inhabitants of Palestine and, in the case of the Jordanian forces, to capture East Jerusalem, including the Old City . In December 1947 the Jewish Agency set up the Jerusalem Emergency Committee , headed by Dov Yosef , which stockpiled food and fuel. In January the Committee estimated 4,500 tons

6195-405: The broadcasts were picked up in Jordan, they sparked victory celebrations. Radio Amman announced that the fact that the Jews were eating leaves, which was food for donkeys and cattle, was a sign that they were dying of starvation and would soon surrender. On 27 March an attack on a convoy returning from the Gush Etzion settlement block south of Jerusalem left 15 Jews dead. In April, shortly after

6300-450: The circumstances, there is a pattern of behavior sufficient to conclude that Israel is in violation of the international prohibition against annexation, even absent a formal declaration. Israel occupied two-thirds of the Golan Heights from Syria during the 1967 Six-Day War, and subsequently built Jewish settlements in the area. In 1981, Israel passed the Golan Heights Law , which extended Israeli "law, jurisdiction, and administration" to

6405-423: The citizenry"; and (3) "the problem of exceptional circumstances," which is "the fact that even widely shared and seemingly stable CL factors are routinely relaxed or abandoned during emergencies, often without calling into question the basic legitimacy of the government." Mittiga summarizes the difference between these two types or levels or types of legitimacy as follows: The factors associated with CL condition

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6510-453: The city between Jewish and Arab militias, with bombings and other attacks being carried out by both sides. Beginning in February 1948, Arab militias under Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni blockaded the corridor from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem, preventing essential supplies from reaching the Jewish population. This blockade was broken in mid-April of that year by Jewish militias who carried out Operation Nachshon and Operation Maccabi . On 14 May and

6615-468: The city without being attacked. The supplies included 230 tons of flour and 800 pounds of chocolate. Two days later 300 trucks arrived in the Jewish enclave with 1,000 tons of supplies, also without incident. The third convoy on 20 April had a harder time. Consisting of 300 trucks with 2,000 Haganah and Irgun troops, the convoy battled all day to get through. Twenty trucks were knocked out, ten Jews were killed and 30 wounded. Also, during Nachshon , there

6720-408: The complex relationships that constitute a legitimate political system in the 21st century. Moreover, Dogan proposed that traditional authority and charismatic authority are obsolete as forms of contemporary government; e.g., the Islamic Republic of Iran (est. 1979) rule by means of the priestly Koranic interpretations by the Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini . That traditional authority has disappeared in

6825-479: The conflict. The Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic is a partially recognized state that has claimed the entire region since 1976. In March 2014, Russia annexed the Crimean Peninsula , which had been a part of Ukraine since 1991 and administers the territory as two federal subjects – the Republic of Crimea and the federal city of Sevastopol . The UN General Assembly considers the Russian possession of Crimea and Sevastopol to be an "attempted annexation" and

6930-577: The construct. These include empirical legitimacy versus normative legitimacy, instrumental versus substantive legitimacy, popular legitimacy, regulative legitimacy, and procedural legitimacy. Types of legitimacy draw distinctions that account for different sources of legitimacy, different frameworks for evaluating legitimacy, or different objects of legitimacy. Legitimacy in conflict zones, where multiple authorities compete over authority and legitimacy, can rest on other sources. The theory of interactive dignity by Weigand shows that interactions are key for

7035-445: The construction of substantive legitimacy in such contexts. The aspect of an authority that most concerns people in the absence of other accountability mechanisms are its actions, particularly with regard to how authorities interact with them on a day-to-day basis. The value-based expectation people have with regard to such interactions is one of human dignity. People expect procedures to be fair and practices to be respectful, reflecting

7140-690: The contingent sense] requires multiple of these factors—some of which are procedural and others substantive." According to Mittiga, what makes certain aspects of legitimacy "contingent" (as opposed to "foundational") is that they are affected by (1) "the problem of pluralism"—i.e., the idea that "any firm agreement on" which factor(s) matters (or matter most of all) "will remain elusive or at least always open to contestation and renegotiation"; (2) "the problem of partial displacement," which holds that "when new legitimation factors emerge," as they often have historically, "earlier ones may not entirely disappear but only become less salient, at least for sizable portions of

7245-404: The different applications and interpretations of abstract, qualitative , and evaluative concepts such as " art ", " social justice ", et cetera, as applied in aesthetics , political philosophy , the philosophy of history , and the philosophy of religion . Therefore, in defining the political legitimacy of a system of government and rule, the term "essentially contested concept" indicates that

7350-424: The effectiveness of policy outcomes for people and input legitimacy, the responsiveness to citizen concerns as a result of participation by the people. A third normative criterion was added by Vivien Schmidt , who analyzes legitimacy also in terms of what she calls throughput, i.e. the governance processes that happen in between input and output. Abulof distinguishes between negative political legitimacy (NPL), which

7455-458: The end of June the usual nightly convoy delivered 100 tons of supplies a night. Harry Levin in his diary entry, 7 June, says that 12 tons a night were getting through and he estimated that the city needed 17 tons daily. On 28 July he notes that during the first truce, 11 June to 8 July, 8,000 truckloads arrived. This remained the sole supply route for several months until the opening of the Valor Road ( Kvish Hagevurah ). In late May and early June

7560-755: The fact that Crimea was a part of the Russian Empire from 1783 to 1917, and part of the Russian SFSR from 1921 to 1954. Few states recognize this view. Ukraine considers Crimea and Sevastopol its own territory, and oversees the Crimea Platform , an international diplomatic initiative to restore its sovereignty. On 30 September 2022, during the Russian invasion of Ukraine , the Russian Federation , following referendums , declared

7665-484: The following days, the Etzioni and Harel brigades, supported by Irgun troops, launched several operations that aimed to take over the Arab side of the city. In the meantime, the Arab Legion had deployed in the area of the former British Mandate that was allotted to the Arab state, not entering the corpus separatum but massively garrisoning Latrun to blockade West Jerusalem once again. Israeli victories against

7770-409: The governed : "The argument of the [ Second ] Treatise is that the government is not legitimate unless it is carried on with the consent of the governed." The German political philosopher Dolf Sternberger said that "[l]egitimacy is the foundation of such governmental power as is exercised, both with a consciousness on the government's part that it has a right to govern, and with some recognition by

7875-455: The governed of that right". The American political sociologist Seymour Martin Lipset said that legitimacy also "involves the capacity of a political system to engender and maintain the belief that existing political institutions are the most appropriate and proper ones for the society". The American political scientist Robert A. Dahl explained legitimacy as a reservoir: so long as the water

7980-607: The illegality of the Israeli settlement construction and other activities in the occupied Syrian Golan since 1967." The General Assembly then voted by majority, 110 in favour to 6 against (Canada, Israel, Marshall Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Palau, United States), with 59 abstentions, to demand a full Israeli withdrawal from the Syrian Golan Heights. On 25 March 2019, the United States recognized

8085-539: The insistence of the Arab League , Jordan was considered a trustee only. Only Pakistan and the United Kingdom recognized the annexation by Jordan. It was not condemned by the United Nations Security Council and it remained under Jordanian rule until 1967 when it was occupied by Israel . Jordan did not officially relinquish its claim to rule the West Bank until 1988. Israel has not taken the step of annexing

8190-464: The last few miles of the road to Jerusalem. At the same time a series of massive armoured convoys, involving hundreds of vehicles, forced their way through. The fighting led to the evacuation of the Jewish villages of Atarot (17 May) and Neve Yaakov (18 May) near Jerusalem, and Kalya and Beit HaArava near the Dead Sea (both on 20 May), as well as the expulsion of the Jewish inhabitants of

8295-520: The opening of the "Burma Road" in June. In Yosef's words, "by the time the first truce (11 June 1948) came it had already broken the siege." This alternative route had been conceived in April after the failure of Nachshon to secure the entrance to the road to Jerusalem at Latrun. Work started on 18 May using bulldozers and several hundred quarrymen from Jerusalem. The major problem was a very steep section at

8400-631: The opinion of the Chinese government, this condition does not represent Tibet's de jure independence as many other parts of China also enjoyed de facto independence when the Chinese state was torn by warlordism , Japanese invasion , and civil war . Tibet came under the control of the People's Republic of China (PRC) after attempts by the Government of Tibet to gain international recognition, efforts to modernize its military , negotiations between

8505-485: The political legitimacy offered by elections is whether or not marginalized groups such as women or those who are incarcerated are allowed to vote. Civil legitimacy can be granted through different measures for accountability than voting, such as financial transparency and stake-holder accountability. In the international system another method for measuring civil legitimacy is through accountability to international human rights norms. In an effort to determine what makes

8610-525: The princely states opted to join either Pakistan or India, Hyderabad State elected instead to resume full independence. Following the expiration of ultimatums from India, the Indian military launched its Operation Polo on 13 September 1948 and invaded Hyderabad. After conquering most of Hyderabad in five days of warfare, the Nizam signed a treaty on 18 September 1948 that saw Hyderabad annexed by India. In 1954,

8715-475: The residents of Dadra and Nagar Haveli , a Portuguese enclave within India, ended Portuguese rule with the help of nationalist volunteers. From 1954 to 1961, the territory enjoyed de facto independence. In 1961, the territory was merged with India after its government signed an agreement with the Indian government. In 1961, India and Portugal engaged in a brief military conflict over Portuguese-controlled Goa and Daman and Diu . India invaded and conquered

8820-462: The ruling Chogyal came under pressure. He requested Indian help to quell the uprising, which was offered. Subsequently, in 1950, India signed a treaty with Sikkim bringing it under its suzerainty , and controlling its external affairs, defence, diplomacy and communications. A state council was established in 1955 to allow for constitutional government under the Sikkimese monarch. Meanwhile, trouble

8925-475: The service delivery or 'output' of a state often only respond to shared needs . Therefore, Weigand distinguishes substantive sources of legitimacy from more instrumental ones. Instrumental legitimacy rests on "the rational assessment of the usefulness of an authority ..., describing to what extent an authority responds to shared needs. Instrumental legitimacy is very much based on the perceived effectiveness of service delivery. Conversely, substantive legitimacy

9030-525: The state, and these may be co-constructed between state actors and citizens. What legitimizes a state is also contextually specific. McCullough et al. (2020) show that in different countries, provision of different services build state legitimacy. In Nepal public water provision was most associated with state legitimacy, while in Pakistan it was health services. But it is not only states that that can build legitimacy. Other authorities, such as armed groups in

9135-598: The subject of legal debate. '[A]nnexation by the use of force of the territory of another State or part thereof' is an act of aggression according to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court . Illegally annexed territory is considered as still occupied under international law and the provisions of international humanitarian law continue to apply. For precision, such territory may be referred to as "occupied and illegally annexed". In

9240-443: The term legitimacy is often positively interpreted as the normative status conferred by a governed people upon their governors' institutions, offices, and actions, based upon the belief that their government's actions are appropriate uses of power by a legally constituted government. The Enlightenment -era British social John Locke (1632–1704) said that political legitimacy derives from popular explicit and implicit consent of

9345-536: The territorial integrity or political independence of any state, or in any other manner inconsistent with the Purposes of the United Nations". These principles were reconfirmed by the 1970 Friendly Relations Declaration . Since the use of force against territorial integrity or political independence is illegal, the question as to whether title or sovereignty can be transferred in such a situation has been

9450-476: The territory (except for the part of it that was made part of the Jerusalem Municipality). Rather, there were enacted a complex (and highly controversial) system of military government decrees in effect applying Israeli law in many spheres to Israeli settlements . Following an Indonesian invasion in 1975, East Timor (Timor-Leste) was annexed by Indonesia and was known as Timor Timur . It

9555-482: The truce imposed by the United Nations on 11 June and successfully broke the blockade. During the period known as the First Truce, West Jerusalem was supplied with food, ammunition, weapons and troops. Fighting did not resume during the remaining months of the 1948 war. Jerusalem was split between Israel and Jordan after the war, with Israel controlling West Jerusalem and Jordan controlling East Jerusalem along with

9660-435: The use of political power by specifying, for instance, what can or cannot be done or sacrificed, how decisions should be made, and who counts (and for how much). The answers to these questions often appear to us as moral universals; yet, in practice, they are the products of long and contentious historical processes. FL, on the other hand, does not vary between societies, generations, or circumstances. Ensuring safety and security

9765-495: Was 100 grams of wheat, 100 g beans, 40 g cheese, 100 g coffee or 100 g powdered milk, 160 g bread per day, 50 g margarine with one or two eggs for the sick. The mallow plant played an important role in Jerusalem history at this time. When convoys bearing foodstuffs could not reach the city, the residents of Jerusalem went out to the fields to pick mallow leaves, which are rich in iron and vitamins. The Jerusalem radio station, Kol Hamagen, broadcast instructions for cooking mallow. When

9870-420: Was 200 grams per person. The April Passover week ration per person was 2 lb potatoes, 2 eggs, 0.5 lb fish, 4 lb matzoth, 1.5 oz dried fruit, 0.5 lb meat and 0.5 lb matza flour. The meat cost one Palestine pound per pound. On 12 May, water rationing was introduced. The ration was two gallons/person/day, of which four pints was drinking water. In June the weekly ration per person

9975-410: Was a secret convoy that brought 1,500 Palmach soldiers into the city. After this Jewish Jerusalem was cut off from the outside world for seven weeks, with the exception of a dozen trucks which brought army supplies on 17 May. Starting in early 1948, the Arab forces had severed the supply line to Jewish Jerusalem. On 31 March, Dov Yosef introduced a draconian system of food rationing. The bread ration

10080-717: Was accepted by the UN General Assembly in a session in November 1969. This decision was implicitly considered to recognize Western New Guinea as part of Indonesia, because the General Assembly did not reject the report of the UN Secretary General regarding the implementation of Act of Free Choice. West Papua is the western half of the island of New Guinea and smaller islands to its west. The separatist Free Papua Movement (OPM) has engaged in

10185-600: Was brewing in the state after the Sikkim National Congress demanded fresh elections and greater representation for the Nepalese . In the 1967 Nathu La and Cho La clashes , Chinese border attacks were repulsed. In 1973, riots in front of the palace led to a formal request for protection from India. The Chogyal was proving to be extremely unpopular with the people. In 1975, the Kazi (prime minister) appealed to

10290-707: Was declared null and void by United Nations Security Council (UNSC) resolutions 252, 267, 271, 298, 465, 476 and 478. Jewish neighborhoods have since been built in East Jerusalem, and Israeli Jews have since also settled in Arab neighborhoods there, though some Jews may have returned from their 1948 expulsion after the Battle for Jerusalem . Only Costa Rica recognized Israel's annexation of East Jerusalem, and those countries who maintained embassies in Israel did not move them to Jerusalem. The United States Congress passed

10395-565: Was deposed after annexation, and an Iraqi governor installed. United States president George H. W. Bush ultimately condemned Iraq's actions, and moved to drive out Iraqi forces. Authorized by United Nations Security Council resolutions, an American-led coalition of 34 nations fought the Gulf War to reinstate the Kuwaiti Emir . Iraq's invasion (and annexation) was deemed illegal and Kuwait remains an independent nation today. The rule of

10500-536: Was forced to turn back with 17 Jews and 5 Arabs killed. Five captured vehicles were driven to Ramle . A food convoy escorted by the Palmach reached the city on 6 April without casualties despite being ambushed at Dir Muhsein by a force of "150 Arabs ... joined by 80 Arabs from Abu Shushe ." It also survived a second road block at Kolonia , "whose militiamen had repeatedly attacked", taking six hours to reach its destination. To coincide with Nachshon , Dov Yosef

10605-503: Was given £100,000 and Haganah authority to conscript as many men and trucks as he needed. He proceeded to assemble three large convoys at Bilu Camp with a stockpile of 10,000 tons of supplies. He obtained 150 trucks from the Solel Boneh - Shelev Transport Co-operative. A Haganah field force requisitioned a further 150 trucks with their drivers and conscripted 1,000 men as labourers. On 15 April 131 trucks with 550 tons of food reached

10710-414: Was regarded by Indonesia as the country's 27th province, but this was never recognised by the United Nations . The people of East Timor resisted Indonesian forces in a prolonged guerrilla campaign. Following a referendum held in 1999 under a UN -sponsored agreement between the two sides, the people of East Timor rejected the offer of autonomy within Indonesia. East Timor achieved independence in 2002 and

10815-570: Was signed under pressure; academics have debated this ever since, but Tibet is recognized internationally as part of China. After the withdrawal of the British Empire from India, each of the Princely States of India and Pakistan that had been protectorates of the British Empire were given the choice of either 1. opting to join India, 2. opting to join Pakistan or 3. resume their former status as fully independent states. While most of

10920-491: Was that Jerusalem would be a corpus separatum , under United Nations control and not part of either the proposed Arab or Jewish states. Israel argued that the partition plan regarding Jerusalem was "null and void" due to the UN's "active relinquishing of responsibility in a critical hour" when the UN did not act to protect the city. The Arabs, who had been against Jerusalem's internationalization all along, felt similarly. The appointment of Dov Yosef as "Military Governor of

11025-739: Was unnecessary for establishing legitimacy, a condition that can be established with codified laws, customs, and cultural principles, not by means of popular suffrage . That a society might decide to revert from the legitimate government of a rational–legal authority to the charismatic government of a leader; e.g., the Nazi Germany of Adolf Hitler , Fascist Italy under Benito Mussolini , and Francoist Spain under General Francisco Franco . The French political scientist Mattei Dogan 's contemporary interpretation of Weber's types of political legitimacy (traditional, charismatic, legal-rational) proposes that they are conceptually insufficient to comprehend

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