Academic freedom is the right of a teacher to instruct and the right of a student to learn in an academic setting unhampered by outside interference. It may also include the right of academics to engage in social and political criticism.
155-424: Academic freedom is often premised on the conviction that freedom of inquiry by faculty members is essential to the mission of the academy as well as the principles of academia , and that scholars should have freedom to teach or communicate ideas or facts (including those that are inconvenient to external political groups or to authorities) without the fear of being repressed, losing their job or being imprisoned. While
310-761: A model and inspiration for modern colleges in Germany and universities in the West. The concept of academic freedom was also formulated in response to the encroachments of the totalitarian state on science and academia in general for the furtherance of its own goals. For instance, in the Soviet Union , scientific research was brought under strict political control in the 1930s. A number of research areas were declared " bourgeois pseudoscience " and forbidden, notably genetics (see " Lysenkoism ") and sociology. Marxist scientist John Desmond Bernal characterized this as part of
465-604: A balance between those invited. Referring to that background, the Minister of Education at the time Naftali Bennett (in 2017) asked Prof. Asa Kasher to compile an academic Code of Ethics for universities, a code that was approved by "The Council" in March 2018. All the research universities (7 universities), with the exception of Ben-Gurion University of the Negev , which already had for an academic code of ethics that also included
620-517: A consequence of the Pavlovian session, Soviet physiologists were forced to accept a dogmatic ideology; the quality of physiological research deteriorated and Soviet physiology excluded itself from the international scientific community. Later Soviet biologists heavily criticised Lysenko's theories and pseudo-scientific methods. Cybernetics was also outlawed as bourgeois pseudoscience during Stalin's reign. Norbert Wiener 's 1948 book Cybernetics
775-466: A general freedom of speech. For example, a non-academic has the freedom of speech to criticize the efficacy of vaccines, but only has academic freedom to do so if they possess the prerequisite academic qualifications to do so. Unlike public speech, academic speech is also subject to quality controls by academic peers, for example through peer review. The concept is defined differently across several countries. Universities UK has defined it as "protecting
930-506: A great influence on Renaissance Neo-Platonism . In Rome, after unity was restored following the Western Schism , humanist circles, cultivating philosophy and searching out and sharing ancient texts tended to gather where there was access to a library. The Vatican Library was not coordinated until 1475 and was never catalogued or widely accessible: not all popes looked with satisfaction at gatherings of unsupervised intellectuals. At
1085-402: A group of so-called "mechanists" (see Mechanists and dialecticians controversy [ ru ] ), later "Young Stalinists" joined the ranks of the relativity theory. At the same time a considerable number of prominent Soviet physicists defended the relativity theory. The attacks on the relativity theory intensified in 1949 under the auspices of the struggle against the "physical idealism" in
1240-474: A guarantee that research and teaching is "intellectually and morally independent of all political and economic interests", leading to openness, free enquiry and debate. Historically, academic freedom emerged tentatively. In medieval Europe, academics who criticized church doctrine or acted in ways considered objectionable by the church could face repression. Similarly during the era when nation-states were emerging, academic could face sanction for acting contrary to
1395-419: A lapse during the early Roman occupation, Akademia was refounded as a new institution of some outstanding Platonists of late antiquity who called themselves "successors" ( diadochoi , but of Plato) and presented themselves as an uninterrupted tradition reaching back to Plato. However, there cannot have actually been any geographical, institutional, economic or personal continuity with the original Academy in
1550-433: A letter by Arnold Chikobava criticizing the theory. He "summoned Chikobava to a dinner that lasted from 9 p.m. to 7 a.m. taking notes diligently." In this way he grasped enough of the underlying issues to oppose this simplistic Marxist formalism, ending Marr's ideological dominance over Soviet linguistics. Stalin's principal work in the field was a small essay, " Marxism and Linguistic Questions . " The term " semiotics "
1705-635: A neutral manner and to not favor any particular political or religious point of view during the course of their duties. However, the academic freedom of university professors is a fundamental principle recognized by the laws of the Republic, as defined by the Constitutional Council ; furthermore, statute law declares about higher education that "teachers-researchers (university professors and assistant professors), researchers and teachers are fully independent and enjoy full freedom of speech in
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#17327808798841860-407: A parent of a Muslim student that was in the class where this lesson took place. This video was posted onto Facebook nine days before the tragedy took place. It was then reposted by another Facebook user who was a self-proclaimed imam that was known for having extreme Islamist views. This Facebook user also attached Paty's personal cell phone number and the address of the school he worked at to
2015-410: A police officer. The third bill's goal was to strengthen respect for the principles of the Republic by means of tweaking the education system in a multitude of ways. The French Government described this bill as a part of President Macron's strategy to counter radical Islamists attempts to influence French society in a negative way. It would assign every French child with a tracking number to enforce
2170-464: A position has formed in the Soviet Union that historical materialism is in fact Marxist sociology, and the major discussion was whether to use the terms "sociology" and "historical materialism" synonymously or to abandon the term "sociology" altogether and consider it to be an anti-Marxist bourgeois science. From 1930s to 1950s, the independent discipline of sociology virtually ceased to exist in
2325-459: A professor of public health discovered that his country's infant mortality rate was higher than government figures indicated. He lost his job and was imprisoned. The fate of biology in the Soviet Union is cited by Jasper Becker as a reason why society has an interest in protecting academic freedom. A Soviet biologist Trofim Lysenko rejected Western science – then focused primarily on making advances in theoretical genetics, based on research with
2480-462: A proposal that steered away from traditional education and informed that the future of higher education sector should not be regulated by the central government. In 1992 the Law of Higher Education and Research (Wet op het hoger onderwijs en wetenschappelijk onderzoek, article 1.6) was published and became effective in 1993. However, this law governs only certain institutions. Furthermore, the above provision
2635-462: A public official from motives drawn from convictions or beliefs." Shortly after the murders, Macron also began to push for another proposed anti-extremist bill that would force imams to train in France while cracking down on the various groups that spread extremist and separatist ideals. This bill would also increase public funding for Islamic studies along with providing funds for low-income housing in
2790-649: A purge of scientists who professed "harmful ideas", resulting in the expulsion, imprisonment, or death of hundreds of Soviet scientists. Lysenko's ideas were then implemented on collectivised farms in the Soviet Union and China. Famines that resulted partly from Lysenko's influence are believed to have killed 30 million people in China alone. Sociologist Ruth Pearce argued that the concept of academic freedom exists to protect scholarship from censure by state or religious authorities, and not to defend intolerance. A large-scale empirical study, covering more than 157 countries over
2945-645: A right of faculty members is an established part of most legal systems. While in the United States the constitutional protection of academic freedom derives from the guarantee of free speech under the First Amendment , the constitutions of other countries (particularly in civil law systems) typically grant a separate right to free learning, teaching, and research. Academic freedom has been severely limited in China. Academics have noted an incentive not to express 'incorrect' opinions about issues sensitive to
3100-402: A rule these academies, all very much alike, were merely circles of friends or clients gathered around a learned man or wealthy patron, and were dedicated to literary pastimes rather than methodical study. They fitted in, nevertheless, with the general situation and were in their own way one element of the historical development. Despite their empirical and fugitive character, they helped to keep up
3255-483: A task force under their management, saying scientific publication should be orchestrated like "a game of chess", warning that those who publish without permission will be held accountable. According to National Public Radio , from 2013 to 2017, at least 109 universities in China issued their first charters affirming the CCP leadership. In 2020, Shanghai's Fudan University removed freedom of thought from its charter following
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#17327808798843410-457: A university that adhered to two principles of academic freedom: freedom of scientific inquiry and the unity between research and teaching. According to Humboldt, the fundamental proposition underlying the principles of academic freedom was to uphold the view that science is not something that has already been found but as knowledge that will never be fully discovered and, yet, needs to be searched for unceasingly. The university he founded later became
3565-402: A university, and limitations of freedom of speech in universities. Academia An academy ( Attic Greek : Ἀκαδήμεια; Koine Greek Ἀκαδημία) is an institution of secondary or tertiary higher learning (and generally also research or honorary membership). The name traces back to Plato 's school of philosophy , founded approximately 386 BC at Akademia , a sanctuary of Athena ,
3720-523: A version of the statistical interpretation of quantum mechanics , which was seen as more adhering to the principles of dialectical materialism . Special and general relativity were a matter of controversy among the Soviet scientists since 1920. Some of them argued that this theory is grounded in Machism (acutely criticized by Vladimir Lenin in his Materialism and Empiriocriticism ), others were
3875-402: A wall, it contained a sacred grove of olive trees dedicated to Athena , the goddess of wisdom , outside the city walls of ancient Athens . The archaic name for the site was Hekademia , which by classical times evolved into Akademia and was explained, at least as early as the beginning of the 6th century BC, by linking it to an Athenian hero , a legendary " Akademos ". The site of Akademia
4030-438: Is analogous to the way in which agents co-ordinate themselves within a free market . Just as consumers in a free market determine the value of products, science is a spontaneous order that arises as a consequence of open debate among specialists. Science can therefore only flourish when scientists have the liberty to pursue truth as an end in itself: [S]cientists, freely making their own choice of problems and pursuing them in
4185-535: Is causing academic scholars to move out of France, just like what the author of this article did. "I shudder to think where this may end, but it does at least reassure me that I made the right decision when I joined all those émigrés and left France for the UK" says the author, Barylo (2022, para.11). On October 16, 2020, a middle school history teacher in the Conflans-Sainte-Honorine area, Samuel Paty,
4340-444: Is exercised with respect for the values of the republic" without any further discussion of those values or the limitations of those values. Later, an "approximate of 40 academic research networks, associations, unions, and interest groups, in addition to almost 100 academic journals" signed an open letter to drop the amendment (p. 77). This shows the disagreement among the stakeholders of European Union (EU) about academic freedom and
4495-636: Is interpreted as a threat to the freedom of academics to follow their own research and teaching agenda". The other "new threat" would be " Strategic lawsuit against public participation (SLAPP)". This lawsuit is made to "silence the critics burdening them with the cost of a legal defense until they abandon their criticism or opposition". Increasing use of this lawsuit is endangering the " freedom of speech " and "academic freedom". Another "new threat according to Beaud (2022, para.50)" pointed out by Maassen et al. (2023, p. 78) would be regarding "students and academic activist groups ". According to this new threat,
4650-479: Is known today as the Old Academy . By extension, academia has come to mean the accumulation, development and transmission of knowledge across generations as well as its practitioners and transmitters. In the 17th century, British, Italian and French scholars used the term to describe types of institutions of higher learning. Before Akademia was a school, and even before Cimon enclosed its precincts with
4805-516: Is part of an ordinary statute and lacks constitutional status, so it can be changed anytime by a simple majority in Parliament. The Education Act 1989 (s161(2)) defines Academic freedom as: a) The freedom of academic staff and students, within the law, to question and test received wisdom, to put forward new ideas and to state controversial or unpopular opinions; b) The freedom of academic staff and students to engage in research; c) The freedom of
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4960-715: Is said to have been composed in Takshashila itself. Chanakya (or Kautilya), the Maurya Emperor Chandragupta and the Ayurvedic healer Charaka studied at Taxila. Generally, a student entered Takshashila at the age of sixteen. The Vedas and the Eighteen Arts , which included skills such as archery , hunting , and elephant lore, were taught, in addition to its law school , medical school , and school of military science . Nalanda
5115-587: Is supposed to guard academic freedom is the "Committee of the Heads of the Universities", which is a voluntary body, but has an influence on the work of the Legislature and "The Council ". Through their employee committees, and through the personal activity of each of them, these bodies can try and influence the preservation of academic freedom. In general, it can be said that the essential academic freedom,
5270-461: Is that this bill would criminalize the publication/sharing of photos of police officers unless their identifying features have been blurred. This bill also stated that law enforcement will now be able to use drones to film citizens in public, along with allowing body-camera footage from police officers to be live streamed in real time to French authorities. Lastly, this bill would also harshen sentences for people that are charged with assaulting
5425-426: Is the "country’s lack of thinktank culture", which is blocking the flow of "Academic expertise" into the "government policy". Other countries like "US", "Canada" and "UK" may share those flaws with France but at least they have "equality laws" which allows people to express themselves and have an established "government structure" which takes those expressions under consideration. This lack of "Academic Freedom in France"
5580-602: Is the Council for Higher Education – hereinafter "The Council". This council consists of academics who serve as professors at universities, and public figures, with the Minister of Education as the head of the council. At the disposal of "The Council" is an executive body called the " Committee for Planning and Budgeting", which mainly deals with the matter of universities budgeting and establishing relevant procedures and guidelines for budget and salary matters. Another body that
5735-605: The Accademia Pontaniana , after Giovanni Pontano . The 16th century saw at Rome a great increase of literary and aesthetic academies, more or less inspired by the Renaissance, all of which assumed, as was the fashion, odd and fantastic names. We learn from various sources the names of many such institutes; as a rule, they soon perished and left no trace. In the 1520s came the Accademia degli Intronati , for
5890-717: The Accademia di Santa Cecilia for music from 1585; Paris had the Académie Royale de Musique from 1669 and the Académie Royale d'Architecture from 1671. The Accademia degli Infiammati of Padova and the Accademia degli Umidi, soon renamed the Accademia Fiorentina , of Florence were both founded in 1540, and were both initially concerned with the proper basis for literary use of the volgare , or vernacular language of Italy, which would later become
6045-591: The Government of China and the ruling Chinese Communist Party (CCP). These efforts have been effective in causing academics to self-censor and shift academic discourse. In December 2020, the Associated Press reported that China was controlling scientific research into the origins of COVID-19 under direct orders from CCP general secretary Xi Jinping . According to the report, an order by China's State Council required all research to be approved by
6200-583: The Guild of Saint Luke , as the bodies responsible for training and often regulating artists, a change with great implications for the development of art, leading to the styles known as Academic art . The private Accademia degli Incamminati set up later in the century in Bologna by the Carracci brothers was also extremely influential, and with the Accademia di San Luca of Rome (founded 1593) helped to confirm
6355-1037: The Göttingen Academy of Sciences , in 1754 in Erfurt , in 1759 the Bavarian Academy of Sciences and Humanities , in 1763 the Academia Theodoro-Palatina in Heidelberg , in 1779 the Sciences Academy of Lisbon , in 1783 the Royal Society of Edinburgh , in 1782 the Accademia dei Quaranta in Rome, in 1784 in Turin . Suppressed research in the Soviet Union Many fields of scientific research in
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6510-683: The Italian language . In 1582 five Florentine literati gathered and founded the Accademia della Crusca to demonstrate and conserve the beauty of the Florentine vernacular tongue, modelled upon the authors of the Trecento. The main instrument to do so was the Vocabolario degli Accademici della Crusca . The Crusca long remained a private institution, criticizing and opposing the official Accademia Fiorentina. The first institution inspired by
6665-611: The New Academy . In 335 BC, Aristotle refined the method with his own theories and established the Lyceum in another gymnasium. The Musaeum , Serapeum and library of Alexandria Egypt was frequented by intellectuals from Africa, Europe and Asia studying various aspects of philosophy, language and mathematics. The University of Timbuktu was a medieval university in Timbuktu , present-day Mali, which comprised three schools:
6820-479: The Philippine Supreme Court tend to reflexively defer to the institutional autonomy of higher institutions of learning in determining academic decisions with respect to the outcomes of individual cases filed in the courts regarding the abuse of Academic Freedom by professors, despite the individual merits or demerits of any cases. A closely watched case was the controversial case of University of
6975-570: The Quadrivium ( Arithmetic , Geometry , Music , and Astronomy )—had been codified in late antiquity . This was the basis of the curriculum in Europe until newly available Arabic texts and the works of Aristotle became more available in Europe in the 12th century. It remained in place even after the new scholasticism of the School of Chartres and the encyclopedic work of Thomas Aquinas , until
7130-826: The Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando in Madrid (founded 1744), the Imperial Academy of Arts in Saint Petersburg (1757), the Royal Academy in London (1768) and the Accademia di Belle Arti di Brera in Milan (1776) still run art schools and hold large exhibitions, although their influence on taste greatly declined from the late 19th century. A fundamental feature of academic discipline in
7285-668: The Sabians ). The Grand School was the main center of learning in the Persian capital Ctesiphon , but little is known about it. Perhaps the most famous center of learning in Persia was the Academy of Gundishapur , teaching medicine, mathematics, astronomy, and logic. The academy was later instrumental in founding the Muslim city of Baghdad as a center of learning, and serving as the model for
7440-484: The Stalin era and continued after his death. The ideologically motivated persecution damaged many fields of Soviet science . In the mid-1930s, the agronomist Trofim Lysenko started a campaign against genetics and was supported by Stalin. If the field of genetics' connection to Nazis wasn't enough, Mendelian genetics was also suppressed due to beliefs that it was "bourgeoisie science" and its association with
7595-408: The authorities of the institution, appointing teachers and promoting them, determining a teaching method and study, and any other scientific, educational or economic activity". It seems that the paragraph is worded in a clear and comprehensible way even for laymen. The body that is supposed to guard academic freedom, as well as maintain an adequate academic level in the higher education institutions,
7750-523: The " Animosi " (1576), and the " Illuminati " (1598); this last, founded by the Marchesa Isabella Aldobrandini Pallavicino . Towards the middle of the 16th century there were also the academy of the " Notti Vaticane ", or " Vatican Nights ", founded by St . Charles Borromeo ; an "Accademia di Diritto civile e canonico", and another of the university scholars and students of philosophy ( Accademia Eustachiana ). As
7905-512: The "new threats" of "academic freedom". “The first new threat according to Beaud (2022) identified by Maassen et al. (2023, p.78) is formed by the university administration (referred to as the ‘close administration’), formed by the academics in leadership positions, and the institutional bureaucracy. It is argued that French universities have experienced the emergence of a “subtle form of hierarchization" mentioned by Maassen et al. (2023, p. 78) referring to (Legrand 2008, p. 2242). The latter
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#17327808798848060-529: The 1900-2015 period, links academic freedom to the quality and quantity of patents filed in a given country. David Audretsch and colleagues estimate that academic freedom has declined over the last decade for the first time over their century-long observation period, resulting in at least 4% fewer patents filed. The study claims to be the first to link academic freedom to economic growth through an innovation channel. Janika Spannagel and Katrin Kinzelbach call
8215-528: The 1997 Universities Act. Academic freedom in Israel is taken from "the Law of the Council for Higher Education ". Paragraph 15 in which it states that "a recognized institution is free to all its academic and administrative matters, within the framework of its budget , as it sees fit. In this paragraph, 'academic and administrative matters' – includes: determining a research and teaching program, appointing
8370-497: The 19th century. By one estimate, academic freedom has substantially increased worldwide since the 1960s. Academic freedom is more likely in liberal democratic states, while it is more heavily constrained in authoritarian states, illiberal states, and states embroiled in military conflict. A minimal definition of academic freedom is that a teacher has a right to instruct, and a student has a right to learn in an academic setting unhampered by outside interference. Other definitions include
8525-524: The 23rd Party Congress in 1966 , sociology in Soviet Union was once again officially recognized as an acceptable branch of science. The quality (accuracy and reliability) of data published in the Soviet Union and used in historical research is another issue raised by various Sovietologists . The Marxist theoreticians of the Party considered statistics as a social science ; hence many applications of statistical mathematics were curtailed, particularly during
8680-547: The Academic Freedom Index the first comprehensive global index of Academic Freedom around the world, with retroactive ratings for countries going back to 1900 that are also updated yearly. The index estimate academic freedom using five categories: As of 2023, Academic freedom overall around the world has been in retreat since 2013. Causes cited have included authoritarianism as well as political polarization and populism . The concept of academic freedom as
8835-756: The Academic Freedom of the department was exercised, in keeping with traditions within the University of the Philippines in providing a basis that may be subject to peer review, for Academic decisions made under the mantle of Academic Freedom. The South African Constitution of 1996 offers protection of academic freedom and the freedom of scholarly research. Academic freedom became a main principle for higher education by 1997. Three main threats are believed to jeopardize academic freedom: government regulations, excessive influence of private sector sponsor on
8990-533: The Ben-Gurion university of the Negev – the only one as mentioned that has a binding academic code of ethics. In this matter there are some variations among the universities. The university auditor's authority to review issues under the authority of the university senate (especially academic issues and academic appointments) is limited in all universities, except for the Ben-Gurion University in
9145-628: The Byzantine empire in 532 guaranteed their personal security (an early document in the history of freedom of religion ), some members found sanctuary in the pagan stronghold of Harran , near Edessa . One of the last leading figures of this group was Simplicius, a pupil of Damascius, the last head of the Athenian school. It has been speculated that Akademia did not altogether disappear. After his exile, Simplicius (and perhaps some others), may have travelled to Harran , near Edessa . From there,
9300-843: The Caliph. The collection was said to have grown to 400,000 volumes. In Europe, the academy dates to the ancient Greeks and Romans in the pre-Christian era. Newer universities were founded in the 12th and 13th centuries, and the European institution of academia took shape. Monks and priests moved out of monasteries to cathedral cities and other towns where they opened the first schools dedicated to advanced study. The most notable of these new schools were in Bologna and Salerno , Naples , Salamanca , Paris , Oxford and Cambridge , while others were opened throughout Europe. The seven liberal arts —the Trivium ( Grammar , Rhetoric , and Logic ), and
9455-641: The Crusca was the Fruitbearing Society for German language, which existed from 1617 to 1680. The Crusca inspired Richelieu to found in 1634 the analogous Académie française with the task of acting as an official authority on the French language , charged with publishing the official dictionary of that language. The following year the Académie received letters patent from the king Louis XIII as
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#17327808798849610-736: The December 2019 revision of the school charter to emphasize loyalty to the CCP. Hong Kong academia expressed concerns about the impact of the 2020 Hong Kong National Security Law on academic freedom in Hong Kong. In an August 2021 study, Jue Jiang from the University of London argued that academic freedom in China is impaired by the CCP's system of student informants, who are recruited and encouraged to watch and inform on their professors on university campuses. Professors at public French universities and researchers in public research laboratories are expected, as are all civil servants , to behave in
9765-411: The Higher Education Council Law. The author of the article further maintains that the fact that the paragraph indicating the authority of the university auditor by virtue of the "Internal Audit Law 1992" in the Higher Education Council Law appears as a sub-paragraph in section 15, which grants universities and their faculty members academic freedom, adds validity to his approach. To say: academic freedom on
9920-406: The Mosque of Djinguereber, the Mosque of Sidi Yahya, and the Mosque of Sankore. During its zenith, the university had an average attendance of around 25,000 students within a city of around 100,000 people. In China a higher education institution Shang Xiang was founded by Shun in the Youyu era before the 21st century BC. The Imperial Central Academy at Nanjing , founded in 258, was a result of
10075-500: The Negev. There it is written in its constitution and in the general regulations: "There is no control over the University Internal Auditor except the law, the constitution (of the university) and the general regulations", and according to the general regulations the auditor must (only) "respect the academic freedom granted to the university, including its faculty members" . The question immediately arises: who will determine which matter enjoys academic freedom and which does not. According to
10230-443: The Party – on pre-revolution historic Russian figures. Many works of Western historians were forbidden or censored , many areas of history were also forbidden for research as, officially, they never happened. Translations of foreign historiography were often produced in a truncated form, accompanied with extensive censorship and corrective footnotes. For example, in the Russian 1976 translation of Basil Liddell Hart 's History of
10385-423: The Philippines System President Emerlinda R. Roman , Roman denied the appeal which was elevated by Professor Raymundo to the university's board of regents for decision and the BOR granted her request for tenure. A major bone of contention among the supporters of Professor Raymundo was not to question the institutional Academic Freedom of the department in not granting her tenure, but in asking for transparency in how
10540-400: The Philippines at Diliman Sociology Professor Sarah Raymundo who was not granted tenure due to an appeal by the minority dissenting vote within the faculty of the Sociology Department. This decision was sustained upon appeal by the dissenting faculty and Professor Raymundo to the University of the Philippines at Diliman Chancellor Sergio S. Cao; and though the case was elevated to University of
10695-408: The Second World War pre-war purges of Red Army officers , the secret protocol to the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact , many details of the Winter War , the occupation of the Baltic states , the Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina , Western Allied assistance to the Soviet Union during the war, many other Western Allies' efforts, the Soviet leadership's mistakes and failures, criticism of
10850-507: The Soviet Union and other content were censored out. Of note was the ban of the theory about the Varangian origin of Kievan Rus for ideological reasons. At the beginning of Stalin's rule, the dominant figure in Soviet linguistics was Nikolai Yakovlevich Marr , who argued that language is a class construction and that language structure is determined by the economic structure of society. Stalin, who had previously written about language policy as People's Commissar for Nationalities, read
11005-430: The Soviet Union were banned or suppressed with various justifications. All humanities and social sciences were tested for strict accordance with dialectical materialism . These tests served as a cover for political suppression of scientists who engaged in research labeled as "idealistic" or "bourgeois". Many scientists were fired, others were arrested and sent to Gulags . The suppression of scientific research began during
11160-465: The Soviet Union. Even in the era where it was allowed to be practiced, and not replaced by Marxist philosophy , it was always dominated by Marxist thought ; hence sociology in the Soviet Union and the entire Eastern Bloc represented, to a significant extent, only one branch of sociology: Marxist sociology . With the death of Joseph Stalin and the 20th Party Congress in 1956 , restrictions on sociological research were somewhat eased, and finally, after
11315-433: The Soviet authorities, there is little evidence that most statistics were significantly affected by falsification or insertion of false data with the intent to confound the West. Data was however falsified both during collection – by local authorities who would be judged by the central authorities based on whether their figures reflected the central economy prescriptions – and by internal propaganda, with its goal to portray
11470-536: The Stalin era. Under central planning , nothing could occur by accident. The law of large numbers and the idea of random deviation were decreed as "false theories". Statistical journals and university departments were closed; world-renowned statisticians like Andrey Kolmogorov and Eugen Slutsky abandoned statistical research. As with all Soviet historiography, reliability of Soviet statistical data varied from period to period. The first revolutionary decade and
11625-580: The academic circle, like Publio Fausto Andrelini of Bologna who took the New Learning to the University of Paris , to the discomfiture of his friend Erasmus . In their self-confidence, these first intellectual neopagans compromised themselves politically, at a time when Rome was full of conspiracies fomented by the Roman barons and the neighbouring princes: Paul II (1464–71) caused Pomponio and
11780-468: The academic community itself. Historically, academic freedom emerged tentatively, as academics in medieval and early modern Europe could face repression for acting in ways considered objectionable by religious authorities or by governments. Scholars tend to link the institutionalization of academic freedom to the rise of the modern research university and the Humboldtian model of higher education from
11935-643: The academy of Oscuri became the Royal Academy of Lucca . The Académie de peinture et de sculpture in Paris, established by the monarchy in 1648 (later renamed) was the most significant of the artistic academies, running the famous Salon exhibitions from 1725. Artistic academies were established all over Europe by the end of the 18th century, and many, like the Akademie der Künste in Berlin (founded 1696),
12090-460: The academy's existence were relatively informal, since no statutes had as yet been laid down for the institution. In contrast to Royal Society , the academy was founded as an organ of government. In 1699, Louis XIV gave the academy its first rules and named it Académie royale des sciences . Although Prussia was a member of Holy Roman Empire, in 1700 Prince-elector Frederick III of Brandenburg founded its own Prussian Academy of Sciences upon
12245-831: The advice of Gottfried Leibniz , who was appointed president. During the 18th century many European kings followed and founded their own academy of sciences: in 1714 the Academy of Sciences of the Institute of Bologna , in 1724 the Russian Academy of Sciences , in 1731 the Royal Dublin Society , in 1735 in Tuscany , in 1739 the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences , in 1742 the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters , in 1751
12400-684: The art of war. The center had eight separate compounds, 10 temples, meditation halls, classrooms, lakes and parks. It had a nine-story library where monks meticulously copied books and documents so that individual scholars could have their own collections. It had dormitories for students, perhaps a first for an educational institution, housing 10,000 students in the university's heyday and providing accommodation for 2,000 professors. Nalanda University attracted pupils and scholars from Korea, Japan, China, Tibet, Indonesia, Persia and Turkey. The geographical position of Persia allowed it to absorb cultural influences and ideas from both west and east. This include
12555-463: The article, only the Chief Internal auditor will determine this and in light of 2 rules: 1. Any issue on which the academic regulations stipulate a rule does not enjoy academic freedom, because the faculty members must act according to what is dictated in the regulations; 2. The university auditor will refrain from initiating an audit in the areas that appear in paragraph 15, mentioned above, of
12710-551: The artistic academies was regular practice in making accurate drawings from antiquities, or from casts of antiquities, on the one hand, and on the other, in deriving inspiration from the other fount, the human form. Students assembled in sessions drawing the draped and undraped human form , and such drawings, which survive in the tens of thousands from the 17th through the 19th century, are termed académies in French. Similar institutions were often established for other arts: Rome had
12865-455: The attendance of each child in government-recognized schools. This would effectively end most homeschooling practices and privately religious owned schools in France, which means that French parents now cannot guide their child's education path to best suit their needs. Elective home education would be subjected to an issuance of authorization by the State, and it would only be approved if
13020-536: The banlieues around Paris, which has been an area notorious for violence. The German Constitution (German: Grundgesetz ) specifically grants academic freedom: "Art and science, research and teaching are free. Freedom of teaching does not absolve from loyalty to the constitution" (Art. 5, para. 3). In a tradition reaching back to the 19th century, jurisdiction has understood this right as one to teach ( Lehrfreiheit ), study ( Lernfreiheit ), and conduct research ( Freiheit der Wissenschaft ) freely, although
13175-421: The case of " Ernest Renan and Louis-Napolean " to show how the political parties in France have been the limiting factors of Academic Freedom in France for a long time now. The authority in power, Louis-Napolean, suspended Ernest Renan course from the " College de France " after his lecture where "he presented the main theses of his book on The Life of Jesus , a “scientific" biography of Jesus Christ". Following
13330-514: The child's specific situation was defined by law. This would also give the French government control over the quality and quantity of education that a French child gets, while also ensuring that all French children are educated in the values of the French Republic. The bill would also criminalize sharing identifying information about a public servant that could be used to inflict harm along with "intimidating/threatening violence upon
13485-412: The city walls of Athens , the gymnasium was made famous by Plato as a center of learning. The sacred space, dedicated to the goddess of wisdom, Athena , had formerly been an olive grove , hence the expression "the groves of Academe". In these gardens, the philosopher Plato conversed with followers. Plato developed his sessions into a method of teaching philosophy and in 387 BC, established what
13640-518: The classic philosophy. The next generation of humanists were bolder admirers of pagan culture, especially in the highly personal academy of Pomponius Leto , the natural son of a nobleman of the Sanseverino family, born in Calabria but known by his academic name, who devoted his energies to the enthusiastic study of classical antiquity, and attracted a great number of disciples and admirers. He
13795-466: The core of academic freedom covers scholars acting in an academic capacity – as teachers or researchers expressing strictly scholarly viewpoints —, an expansive interpretation extends these occupational safeguards to scholars' speech on matters outside their professional expertise. Academic tenure protects academic freedom by ensuring that teachers can be fired only for causes such as gross professional incompetence or behavior that evokes condemnation from
13950-625: The course of their research and teaching activities, provided they respect, following university traditions and the dispositions of this code, principles of tolerance and objectivity". The nomination and promotion of professors is largely done through a process of peer review rather than through normal administrative procedures. Academic freedom in France is different compared to other countries in European Union (EU). According to Maassen et al. (2023) " Recent discussions about academic freedom in France have, amongst other things, been focused on
14105-521: The court overturned the decision, and ordered the Minister of Education to award Goldreich the award. Godreich received the award a year later. In recent years, a fierce debate has erupted on the issue of academic freedom, following extreme political statements by a number of university faculty members. The vast majority of the controversial statements were those that called for an academic boycott of Israel, or support for organizations that support an economic and academic boycott of Israel. The question that
14260-408: The dependence on the state for funds has restricted the freedom of academics to criticize government policy. Dr. Kasenally, an educator at the University of Mauritius stated that in 1970s to 1980s the university was at the forefront of controversial debates, but in the 1990s the university stepped away after academic freedom was curtailed to not express views or ideas especially if they oppose those of
14415-416: The development of computing in the Soviet Union . Soviet historiography (the way in which history was and is written by scholars of the Soviet Union ) was significantly influenced by the strict control by the authorities aimed at propaganda of communist ideology and Soviet power . Since the late 1930s, Soviet historiography treated the party line and reality as one and the same. As such, if it
14570-408: The encouragement of theatrical representations. There were also the academy of the " Vignaiuoli ", or " Vinegrowers " (1530), and the Accademia della Virtù [ it ] (1542), founded by Claudio Tolomei under the patronage of Cardinal Ippolito de' Medici . These were followed by a new academy in the " Orti " or Farnese gardens. There were also the academies of the " Intrepidi " (1560),
14725-554: The entirety of this field. Lernfreiheit means a student's right to determine an individual course of study. Finally, Freiheit der Wissenschaft permits academic self-governance and grants the university control of its internal affairs. Protections for academic freedom for research, teaching and other activity "to question and test received wisdom, to put forward new ideas and to state controversial or unpopular opinions" without being disadvantaged, are provided in Section 14 of
14880-663: The evolution of Shang Xiang and it became the first comprehensive institution combining education and research and was divided into five faculties in 470, which later became Nanjing University . In the 8th century another kind of institution of learning emerged, named Shuyuan , which were generally privately owned. There were thousands of Shuyuan recorded in ancient times. The degrees from them varied from one to another and those advanced Shuyuan such as Bailudong Shuyuan and Yuelu Shuyuan (later become Hunan University ) can be classified as higher institutions of learning. Taxila or Takshashila , in ancient India , modern-day Pakistan,
15035-694: The first Muslim hospital ( bimaristan ) at Damascus. Founded in Fes, University of Al-Karaouine in the 9th century and in Cairo, Al-Azhar University in the 10th century, and in Mali, the University of Timbuktu in about 1100. Mustansiriya Madrasah in Baghdad , Iraq was established in 1227 as a madrasah by the Abbasid Caliph al-Mustansir . Its library had an initial collection of 80,000 volumes, given by
15190-546: The first half of the 19th century some of these became the national academies of pre-unitarian states: the academy of Accesi became the Panomitan Academy of Buon Gusto ( Trento ); the academy of Timidi became the Royal Academy of Mantua ; the Accademia dei Ricovrati became the Galileiana Academy of Arts and Science ( Padova ); the academy of Dissonanti became the Royal Academy of Modena and
15345-566: The formation of a "College for the Promoting of Physico-Mathematical Experimental Learning", which would meet weekly to discuss science and run experiments. In 1662 Charles II of England signed a Royal Charter which created the "Royal Society of London", then "Royal Society of London for the Improvement of Natural Knowledge". In 1666 Colbert gathered a small group of scholars to found a scientific society in Paris. The first 30 years of
15500-526: The fruit fly ( Drosophila melanogaster ) – and proposed an approach to farming that was based on the collectivist principles of dialectical materialism . (Lysenko called this "Michurinism", but it is more popularly known today as Lysenkoism .) Lysenko's ideas appealed to the Soviet leadership, in part because of their value as propaganda, and he was ultimately made director of the Soviet Academy of Agricultural Sciences. Subsequently, Lysenko directed
15655-488: The general esteem for literary and other studies. Cardinals, prelates, and the clergy in general were most favourable to this movement, and assisted it by patronage and collaboration. In Florence, the Medici again took the lead in establishing the Accademia e Compagnia delle Arti del Disegno in 1563, the first of the more formally organised art academies that gradually displaced the medieval artists' guilds , usually known as
15810-483: The goddess of wisdom and skill , north of Athens , Greece. The Royal Spanish Academy defines academy as scientific, literary or artistic society established with public authority and as a teaching establishment, public or private, of a professional, artistic, technical or simply practical nature. The word comes from the Academy in ancient Greece , which derives from the Athenian hero , Akademos . Outside
15965-512: The good of freedom of expression. The first bill would criminalize on-campus gatherings that trouble the good order of the establishment; the punishment for violating this would be a $ 45,000 fine and/or 3 years in prison. The second bill was a global-security bill that aimed to aid law enforcement in situations similar to the Paty murders. However, a multitude of the details/provisions of this bill made French citizens upset. One of these provisions
16120-569: The government approach to so-called “ Islamo-leftism " in academia". "French Academia" has been accused of creating an "Intellectual breeding ground for Islamic terrorism "; this alleged relationship has become somewhat of a political issue in France. Purported movements of "Islamo-Leftism" were debated during 2022 presidential election . However, The National Centre for Scientific research (CNRS) has denied any presence of so-called "Islamo-leftism" in reality (p. 76). Maassen et al. (2023) also argues that "The debates in France illustrate that over
16275-538: The government to decide what will be the tuition fee for a student at the budgeted universities in Israel. But, In 2021, an academic committee of the prestigious Israel Prize decided to award the Israel Prize in the field of mathematics and computer science to Professor Oded Goldreich from the Weizmann Institute of Science . The Minister of Education did not accept the committee's recommendation on
16430-436: The government. Academic freedom began to gain institutional footing with the emergence of the modern research university. The Humboldtian model of higher education from the 19th century enshrined the basic ideas of academic freedom and diffused them to other countries. Wilhelm von Humboldt was a philosopher and linguist who was given the authority to create a new university in Berlin in the early 19th century. He then founded
16585-584: The grounds that Goldreich signed a petition calling for an academic boycott of Ariel University , which is located in the territories of Judea and Samaria , which are occupied territory , as well as for appealing to the German government to revoke its decision that the BDS movement is an anti-Semitic movement. The award committee appealed to the Supreme Court for a violation of its academic freedom, and
16740-485: The head of this movement for renewal in Rome was Cardinal Bessarion , whose house from the mid-century was the centre of a flourishing academy of Neoplatonic philosophy and a varied intellectual culture. His valuable Greek as well as Latin library (eventually bequeathed to the city of Venice after he withdrew from Rome) was at the disposal of the academicians. Bessarion, in the latter years of his life, retired from Rome to Ravenna , but he left behind him ardent adherents of
16895-551: The humanism of the 15th and 16th centuries opened new studies of arts and sciences. With the Neoplatonist revival that accompanied the revival of humanist studies , academia took on newly vivid connotations. During the Florentine Renaissance , Cosimo de' Medici took a personal interest in the new Platonic Academy that he determined to re-establish in 1439, centered on the marvellous promise shown by
17050-488: The intellectual independence of academics to question and test received views and wisdom, and to put forward new ideas and controversial or unpopular opinions, without placing themselves in danger of losing their jobs or privileges", while the American Federation of Teachers has seen it as "based on the idea that the free exchange of ideas on campus is essential to good education". Norwegian education sees it as
17205-513: The interdependence between " applied science " and " pure science ". Michael Polanyi argued that a structure of liberty is essential for the advancement of science. In 1936, as a consequence of an invitation to give lectures for the Ministry of Heavy Industry in the USSR, Polanyi met Bukharin , who told him that in socialist societies all scientific research is directed to accord with the needs of
17360-402: The issue of freedom of expression, refused to adopt this code on the grounds of infringing academic freedom. All research universities in Israel have a Chief internal auditor , relatively independent. This issue of the interrelationship between the internal audit in universities and the principle of academic freedom is discussed in detail in an article that appeared in a book issued on behalf of
17515-422: The last concept has sometimes been taken as a cover term for the first two. Lehrfreiheit embraces the right of professors to determine the content of their lectures and to publish the results of their research without prior approval. Since professors through their Habilitation receive the right to teach ( Latin : venia docendi ) in a particular academic field, academic freedom is deemed to cover at least
17670-480: The last decades higher education and society in the EU Member States and elsewhere have developed a new relationship, where traditional borders and distinctions have become less prominent" (pp. 76–77). According to Maassen et al. (2023) in 2020, an amendment particularly speaking about "academic freedom raised concern amongst the academic community". The concerning amendment stated that "Academic freedom
17825-726: The latest five-year plan . Demands in Britain for centrally planned scientific research led Polanyi, together with John Baker , to found the Society for Freedom in Science. The society promoted a liberal conception of science as free enquiry against the instrumental view that science should exist primarily to serve the needs of society. In a series of articles, re-published in The Contempt of Freedom (1940) and The Logic of Liberty (1951), Polanyi claimed that co-operation among scientists
17980-600: The leaders of the academy to be arrested on charges of irreligion, immorality, and conspiracy against the Pope . The prisoners begged so earnestly for mercy, and with such protestations of repentance, that they were pardoned. The Letonian academy, however, collapsed. In Naples, the Quattrocento academy founded by Alfonso of Aragon and guided by Antonio Beccadelli was the Porticus Antoniana , later known as
18135-482: The level of a promotion thus, the academics try to avoid participating in controversial debates. Academic freedom became a public issue in May 2009 when the University of Mauritius spoke out against the previous vice chancellor Professor I. Fagoonee, who had forwarded a circular sent by the Ministry of Education to academics. This circular targeted public officers and required them to consult their superiors before speaking to
18290-411: The light of their own personal judgment, are in fact co-operating as members of a closely knit organization. Such self-co-ordination of independent initiatives leads to a joint result which is unpremeditated by any of those who bring it about. Any attempt to organize the group ... under a single authority would eliminate their independent initiatives, and thus reduce their joint effectiveness to that of
18445-500: The management or government. In a 2012 paper on the University of Mauritius the author states that although there are no records of abuse of human rights or freedom of the state "subtle threats to freedom of expression do exist, especially with regard to criticisms of ruling political parties and their leaders as well as religious groups." While there have been no cases of arrests or extreme detention of academics, there has been fear that it would hinder their career progress especially at
18600-601: The new organizational entity. The last "Greek" philosophers of the revived Akademia in the 6th century were drawn from various parts of the Hellenistic cultural world and suggest the broad syncretism of the common culture (see koine ): Five of the seven Akademia philosophers mentioned by Agathias were Syriac in their cultural origin: Hermias and Diogenes (both from Phoenicia), Isidorus of Gaza, Damascius of Syria, Iamblichus of Coele-Syria and perhaps even Simplicius of Cilicia . The emperor Justinian ceased
18755-449: The one aimed at the freedom of teaching and research, was preserved, and the government neither interfered nor tried to interfere in these contents. Its way of influencing this matter is by providing incentives for teaching in this or that way, or for research in certain fields, and this is through grants. The fact that the government finances a significant percentage of the current budget of the universities (around 70% or more), also allows
18910-581: The one hand, but not unlimited, and subject to audit on the other hand, and it all involves one short paragraph of the law. In the Chapter II Constitution of Mauritius, academics have the right to: the protection of Freedom of Conscience, Protection of Freedom of Expression, Protection of Freedom of Assembly and Association, Protection of Freedom to Establish schools and the Protection from Discrimination. The institutional bureaucracy and
19065-626: The only recognized academy for French language. In its turn the state established Académie was the model for the Real Academia Española (founded in 1713) and the Swedish Academy (1786), which are the ruling bodies of their respective languages and editors of major dictionaries. It also was the model for the Russian Academy , founded in 1783, which afterwards merged into the Russian Academy of Sciences. After
19220-520: The period of Stalin's dictatorship both appear highly problematic with regards to statistical reliability; very little statistical data was published from 1936 to 1956 ( see Soviet Census (1937) ). The reliability of data improved after 1956 when some missing data was published and Soviet experts themselves published some adjusted data for Stalin's era; however the quality of documentation deteriorated. While on occasion statistical data useful in historical research might have been completely invented by
19375-467: The post. Because of this extreme act of terror, French president Emmanuel Macron decided to stand firm on his stances against Muslim extremism while also wanting to uphold France's values on freedom of expression. Macron and members of his party that are in the French Parliament decided to propose three bills that would drastically change the atmosphere of French society and education for
19530-525: The press. The pushback resulted in the vice chancellor stepping down, with the author speculating the government used her as the scapegoat for its unpopular proposal to more overtly curtain academic freedom. In the Netherlands the academic freedom is limited. In November 1985 the Dutch Ministry of Education published a policy paper titled Higher Education: Autonomy and Quality . This paper had
19685-610: The priest Gregor Mendel due to hostility to religion because of the Soviet policy of state atheism. In 1950, the Soviet government organized the Joint Scientific Session of the USSR Academy of Sciences and the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences , the " Pavlovian session ". Several prominent Soviet physiologists ( L.A. Orbeli , P.K. Anokhin , Aleksey Speransky [ ru ] , Ivane Beritashvili ) were accused of deviating from Pavlov's teaching. As
19840-461: The reach of political parties to limit academic freedom. Various threats to "Academic Freedom in France" identified by Beaud (2022) and mentioned by Maassen et al. (2023, pp. 77–78) in the European Union article are as follow. The first type of "classical threat" is due to the intervention of "Political authorities", as most of the universities in France are "Public universities" and under political supervision. Beaud (2022, para.31) refers to
19995-590: The religious instruction was most likely still provided on an individualistic basis. Takshashila is described in some detail in later Jātaka tales, written in Sri Lanka around the 5th century AD. It became a noted centre of learning at least several centuries BC, and continued to attract students until the destruction of the city in the 5th century AD. Takshashila is perhaps best known because of its association with Chanakya. The famous treatise Arthashastra ( Sanskrit for The knowledge of Economics ) by Chanakya,
20150-402: The right of teachers to engage in social and political criticism. A broader definition of academic freedom incorporates individual, extramural and institutional components. Under this broader definition, an academic has freedom of expression without government interference, but this freedom is circumscribed by academic expertise and position. Academic freedom of speech is therefore narrower than
20305-457: The school's funding in AD 529, a date that is often cited as the end of Antiquity . According to the sole witness, the historian Agathias , its remaining members looked for protection under the rule of Sassanid king Khosrau I in his capital at Ctesiphon , carrying with them precious scrolls of literature and philosophy, and to a lesser degree of science. After a peace treaty between the Persian and
20460-555: The short-lived Academia Secretorum Naturae of Naples, the first academy exclusively devoted to sciences was the Accademia dei Lincei founded in 1603 in Rome, particularly focused on natural sciences. In 1657 some students of Galileo founded the Accademia del Cimento (Academy of Experiment) in Florence , focused on physics and astronomy. The foundation of academy was funded by Prince Leopoldo and Grand Duke Ferdinando II de' Medici . This academy lasted after few decades. In 1652
20615-707: The single person directing them from the centre. It would, in effect, paralyse their co-operation. Proponents of academic freedom believe that the freedom of inquiry by students and faculty members is essential to the mission of the academy. They argue that academic communities are repeatedly targeted for repression due to their ability to shape and control the flow of information. When scholars attempt to teach or communicate ideas or facts that are inconvenient to external political groups or to authorities, they may find themselves targeted for public vilification, job loss, imprisonment, or even death. For example, in North Africa,
20770-703: The spread of the Greek form of schools in the new Hellenistic cities built in Persia after the invasion of Alexander the Great . Under the Sasanians , Syriac became an important language of the administration and intellectuals, rivaling Greek. Several cities developed centers of higher learning in the Sasanian Empire, including Mosul , al-Hira , and Harran (famous for the Pythagorean School of
20925-607: The students of an academy-in-exile could have survived into the 9th century, long enough to facilitate the Arabic revival of the Neoplatonist commentary tradition in Baghdad . In ancient Greece, after the establishment of the original Academy, Plato 's colleagues and pupils developed spin-offs of his method. Arcesilaus , a Greek student of Plato established the Middle Academy . Carneades , another student, established
21080-575: The subsequent Soviet leaders were able to let go of the controls completely. Government control over science turned out to be a grand failure, and the attempt to patch the widening gap between the West and the East by espionage did not help. Today Russia is hopelessly behind the West in both technology and quality of life." After the Russian Revolution , sociology was gradually "politicized, Bolshevisized and eventually, Stalinized". In 1920s
21235-501: The suspension, Ernest Renan was also removed from the "body of College de France", with an "accusation" of not "abiding" the rule of not to include any "personal opinion" against the "fundamentals of the Christian Religion ". The second one is due to the interference of "civil services at national level (The Ministry of Higher Education)". Along with the "classical threats" mentioned above, Beaud (2022) also points out to
21390-438: The teachers won't be only fearing from the authorities higher to them in the hierarchy of control, but also need to fear from "students" and "activist groups", as they would decide if something taught by the teacher is offensive or not. This relates to the case of "Islamo-leftism" as mentioned before. Barylo (2021, para.9–10), states that, "part of this problem is the historical disconnect between policies and research in France"
21545-509: The university and its staff to regulate the subject matter of courses taught at the university; d) The freedom of the university and its staff to teach and assess students in the manner they consider best promotes learning; and e) The freedom of the university through its council and vice-chancellor to appoint its own staff. The 1987 Philippine Constitution states that, "Academic Freedom shall be enjoyed in all institutions of higher learning." Philippine jurisprudence and courts of law, including
21700-431: The use of the term for these institutions. Gradually academies began to specialize on particular topics (arts, language, sciences) and began to be founded and funded by the kings and other sovereigns (few republics had an academy). And, mainly, since 17th century academies spread throughout Europe. In the 17th century the tradition of literary-philosophical academies, as circles of friends gathering around learned patrons,
21855-588: The work of Leonid Mandelstam . Initially Sergey Vavilov , President of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union, managed to defend Mandelstam, but in 1952 the political attacks on "reactionary Einsteinianism" intensified further. This pseudoscientific campaign sizzled after the death of Stalin. Although initially planned, the process of "ideological cleansing" in physics did not go as far as defining an "ideologically correct" version of physics and purging those scientists who refused to conform to it, because this
22010-419: The young Marsilio Ficino . Cosimo had been inspired by the arrival at the otherwise ineffective Council of Florence of Gemistos Plethon , who seemed a dazzling figure to the Florentine intellectuals. In 1462 Cosimo gave Ficino a villa at Careggi for the academy's use, situated where Cosimo could see it from his own villa, and drop by for visits. The academy remained a wholly informal group, but one which had
22165-414: Was a science, it was a science in service of a specific political and ideological agenda, commonly employing historical negationist methods. In the 1930s, historic archives were closed and original research was severely restricted. Historians were required to pepper their works with references – appropriate or not – to Stalin and other "Marxist-Leninist classics", and to pass judgment – as prescribed by
22320-517: Was a worshipper not merely of the literary and artistic form, but also of the ideas and spirit of classic paganism, which made him appear a condemner of Christianity and an enemy of the Church. In his academy every member assumed a classical name. Its principal members were humanists, like Bessarion's protégé Giovanni Antonio Campani (Campanus), Bartolomeo Platina , the papal librarian, and Filippo Buonaccorsi , and young visitors who received polish in
22475-445: Was an early centre of learning, near present-day Islamabad in the city of Taxila . It is considered one of the ancient universities of the world. According to scattered references which were only fixed a millennium later it may have dated back to at least the 5th century BC. Some scholars date Takshashila's existence back to the 6th century BC. The school consisted of several monasteries without large dormitories or lecture halls where
22630-540: Was at the center of the storm was whether an academic faculty member (hereafter referred to as a professor) is protected by the principle of freedom of speech, or is it forbidden, when he wears the guise of a professor, to express a political position that might identify the position with the institution he allegedly represents. All the more, is it permissible for the professor to express a political position during his teaching, and even to invite representatives of political bodies to lecture in his classes, and without maintaining
22785-541: Was banned, and the researchers used the obfuscated term "secondary modeling systems" ( Russian : Вторичные моделирующие системы ) coined by Juri Lotman and Vladimir Uspensky in 1964; see Tartu–Moscow Semiotic School . Pedology was a popular area of research on the basis of numerous orphanages created after the Russian Civil War . Soviet pedology was a combination of pedagogy and psychology of human development, that heavily relied on various tests. It
22940-581: Was condemned and translated only in 1958. A 1954 edition of the Brief Philosophical Dictionary condemned cybernetics for "mechanistically equating processes in live nature, society and in technical systems, and thus standing against materialistic dialectics and modern scientific physiology developed by Ivan Pavlov ". (However this article was removed from the 1955 reprint of the dictionary.) After an initial period of doubts, Soviet cybernetics took root, but this early attitude hampered
23095-475: Was continued in Italy; the " Umoristi " (1611), the " Fantastici (1625), and the " Ordinati ", founded by Cardinal Dati and Giulio Strozzi . About 1700 were founded the academies of the " Infecondi ", the " Occulti ", the " Deboli ", the " Aborigini ", the " Immobili ", the " Accademia Esquilina ", and others. During the 18th century many Italian cities established similar philosophical and scientific academies. In
23250-599: Was established in the 5th century AD in Bihar , India. It was founded in 427 in northeastern India, not far from what is today the southern border of Nepal. It survived until 1197 when it was set upon, destroyed and burnt by the marauding forces of Ikhtiyar Uddin Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khilji . It was devoted to Buddhist studies, but it also trained students in fine arts, medicine, mathematics, astronomy, politics and
23405-689: Was founded the Academia Naturae Curiosorum by four physicians. In 1677, Leopold I , emperor of the Holy Roman Empire , recognised the society and in 1687 he gave it the epithet Leopoldina , with which is internationally famous. So, it became the academy of sciences for the whole Holy Roman Empire . On 28 November 1660, a group of scientists from and influenced by the Invisible College (gathering approximately since 1645) met at Gresham College and announced
23560-471: Was murdered by Abdoullakh Abouyezidovich Anzorov, an eighteen year old Russian Muslim refugee who had been living in France since he was six years old. Paty had created a lesson for his class to teach his students the freedom of expression, in which he used the Charlie Hebdo satirical magazines that showcased caricatures of Muhammad. This information was posted on Facebook through a video from
23715-601: Was officially banned in 1936 after a special decree of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union "On Pedolodical Perversions in the Narkompros System" on July 4, 1936. In the late 1940s, some areas of physics, were also criticized on grounds of " idealism ". In quantum mechanics Soviet physicists Dmitry Blokhintsev , Yaakov Terletsky and K. V. Nikolsky developed
23870-627: Was recognized as potentially too harmful to the Soviet nuclear program . During 1949-1951 there was "antiresonance campaign" against the theory of resonance , during which scientists who supported it were accused of "cosmopolitan" sympathies and repressed. As Anna Krylov writes on the perils of ideological intrusion into science, " Stalin rolled back the planned campaign against physics and instructed Beria to give physicists some space; this led to significant advances and accomplishments by Soviet scientists in several domains. However, neither Stalin nor
24025-580: Was sacred to Athena and other immortals. Plato's immediate successors as "scholarch" of Akademia were Speusippus (347–339 BC), Xenocrates (339–314 BC), Polemon (314–269 BC), Crates ( c. 269 –266 BC), and Arcesilaus ( c. 266 –240 BC). Later scholarchs include Lacydes of Cyrene , Carneades , Clitomachus , and Philo of Larissa ("the last undisputed head of the Academy"). Other notable members of Akademia include Aristotle , Heraclides Ponticus , Eudoxus of Cnidus , Philip of Opus , Crantor , and Antiochus of Ascalon . After
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