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87-457: The history of Persian Egypt is divided into two eras following the first Achaemenid conquest of Egypt punctuated by an interval of independence: In the 6th century BCE, Persian rulers, particularly Cyrus the Great , sought to expand their imperialist agenda to include Egypt. Expansionism was a key strategy for empires of the ancient world to establish military and economic dominance, and Egypt

174-443: A Persian, is the equivalent of slavery." At the age of 16 or 17, they began their mandatory 10 years of national service, which included practicing archery and javelin, competing for prizes, and hunting. Afterwards, they served in the military for around 25 years, after which they were elevated to the status of elders and advisers to the king. Families in this time, including Xerxes', would intermarry. This account of education among

261-510: A confrontation with Persia. According to Herodotus, Amasis was asked by Cyrus the Great or Cambyses II for an Egyptian ophthalmologist on good terms. Amasis seems to have complied by forcing an Egyptian physician into mandatory labor, causing him to leave his family behind in Egypt and move to Persia in forced exile. In an attempt to exact revenge for this, the physician grew very close to Cambyses and suggested that Cambyses should ask Amasis for

348-654: A daughter in marriage in order to solidify his bonds with the Egyptians. Cambyses accepted and requested a daughter of Amasis for marriage. Amasis, worrying that his daughter would be a concubine to the Persian king, refused to give up his offspring; Amasis also was not willing to take on the Persian empire, so he concocted a deception in which he forced the daughter of the ex-pharaoh Apries , whom Herodotus explicitly confirms to have been killed by Amasis, to go to Persia instead of his own offspring. This daughter of Apries

435-670: A large, multi-ethnic empire upon his father's death. He consolidated his power by crushing revolts in Egypt and Babylon , and renewed his father's campaign to subjugate Greece and punish Athens and its allies for their interference in the Ionian Revolt . In 480 BC, Xerxes personally led a large army and crossed the Hellespont into Europe. He achieved victories at Thermopylae and Artemisium before capturing and razing Athens . His forces gained control of mainland Greece north of

522-578: A military campaign). Xerxes suppressed the revolt in January 484 BC and appointed his full-brother Achaemenes as satrap of Egypt, replacing the previous satrap Pherendates , who was reportedly killed during the revolt. The suppression of the Egyptian revolt expended the army, which had been mobilized by Darius over the previous three years. Xerxes, therefore, had to raise another army for his expedition into Greece, which took another four years. There

609-532: A military man named Penptah and may have been desecrated, whereas the unfinished, not yet dedicated, sarcophagus of Eshmunazar may have been obtained from a Memphis workshop. These sarcophagi (a third one probably belonged to the Queen Amoashtart), are the only Egyptian sarcophagi that have ever been found outside of Egypt proper. The Egyptian statue of Darius I is a statue of Achaemenid ruler Darius I with Egyptian iconography and inscriptions. This

696-430: A number of revolts against Persian occupation, though none of these attempts at the re-establishment of sovereign Egyptian rule were successful. Xerxes I Xerxes I ruled from 486 to 465 BCE. His reign was mainly characterised by his intent and attempt to expand Persian rule to include Greece a venture in which, ultimately, he was not successful. Xerxes’ reign ended when he and his eldest son were assassinated by members of

783-687: A plan to dethrone the Achaemenids . Greek historians give differing accounts of events. According to Ctesias (in Persica 20), Artabanus then accused the Crown Prince Darius, Xerxes's eldest son, of the murder and persuaded another of Xerxes's sons, Artaxerxes , to avenge the patricide by killing Darius. But according to Aristotle (in Politics 5.1311b), Artabanus killed Darius first and then killed Xerxes. After Artaxerxes discovered

870-497: A revolt against the new Persian rule, demonstrating the displeasure amongst the Egyptian people at the commencement of the Achaemenid Empire. Supposedly, the revolt was overpowered by the Persian forces and Cambyses consequently saw to the destruction of numerous significant temples as a form of punishment and a demonstration of power, though the veracity of this sequence of events is unconfirmed. Following Cambyses’ rule

957-532: A sarcophagus already dedicated on its front with a long Egyptian inscription in the name of an Egyptian general, the sarcophagus used for Eshmunazar II was new and was inscribed with a full-length dedication in Phoenician on a clean surface. According to René Dussaud , the new sarcophagus may have been ordered by his surviving mother, Queen Amoashtart, who arranged for the inscription to be made. The sarcophagi were probably, at least in part, captured as booty by

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1044-551: A shorter and more tumultuous period in which Persian dominance in Egypt was far from certain. Its end came about with Alexander the Great ’s conquering of the Persian Empire, though the strength of the Persian rulers during this time in Egypt was fairly weak regardless, having only just re-established rule and facing consistent difficulties of succession conflicts and disloyalty within the court. Artaxerxes III The first Pharaoh of this second period of Persian rule of Egypt

1131-654: A statue from the city, but that this was the golden statue of a man rather than the statue of the god Marduk . Though mentions of it are lacking considerably compared to earlier periods, contemporary documents suggest that the Babylonian New Year's Festival continued in some form during the Achaemenid period. Because the change in rulership from the Babylonians themselves to the Persians and due to

1218-518: Is identified with the king Ahasuerus in the biblical Book of Esther , which some scholars, including Eduard Schwartz , William Rainey Harper , and Michael V. Fox , consider to be historical romance. There is nothing close to a consensus, however, as to what historical event provided the basis for the story. Xerxes is the protagonist of the opera Serse by the German-English Baroque composer George Frideric Handel . It

1305-532: Is largely negative and this set the tone for most subsequent depictions of him within the western tradition. Xerxes is a central character of Aeschylus ' play The Persians , first performed in Athens in 472 BC, only seven years after his invasion of Greece. The play presents him as an effeminate figure and his hubristic effort to bring both Asia and Europe under his control leads to the ruin of both himself and his kingdom. Herodotus 's Histories , written later in

1392-407: Is often assumed that Xerxes enacted a brutal vengeance on Babylon following the two revolts. According to ancient writers, Xerxes destroyed Babylon's fortifications and damaged the temples in the city. The Esagila was allegedly subject to great damage, and Xerxes allegedly carried the statue of Marduk away from the city, possibly bringing it to Iran and melting it down (classical authors hold that

1479-669: Is represented as a giant man with androgynous qualities, who claims to be a god-king. This portrayal attracted controversy, especially in Iran . Ken Davitian plays Xerxes in Meet the Spartans , a parody of the first 300 movie replete with sophomoric humour and deliberate anachronisms . Similarly, a highly satirized depiction of Xerxes based on his portrayal in 300 appears in the South Park episode " D-Yikes! " Other works dealing with

1566-458: Is skeptical. Many smaller Greek states, moreover, took the side of the Persians, especially Thessaly , Thebes and Argos . Xerxes was victorious during the initial battles. Xerxes set out in the spring of 480 BC from Sardis with a fleet and army which Herodotus estimated was roughly one million strong along with 10,000 elite warriors named the Immortals . More recent estimates place

1653-635: Is the Greek and Latin ( Xerxes , Xerses ) transliteration of the Old Iranian Xšaya-ṛšā ("ruling over heroes"), which can be seen by the first part xšaya , meaning "ruling", and the second ṛšā , meaning "hero, man". The name of Xerxes was known in Akkadian as Ḫi-ši-ʾ-ar-šá and in Aramaic as ḥšyʾrš . Xerxes would become a popular name among the rulers of the Achaemenid Empire. Xerxes' father

1740-463: Is the best known example of in-the-round statuary that has remained from the Achaemenid period . The statue was made in Egypt from grey granite, but was then transported to Susa, possibly by Xerxes I . "Egypt" under the traditional name of Ḳemet ( 𓈎𓅓𓏏𓊖 , "Black Land" ), appears among the subject countries of the Achaemenid Empire, at the bottom of the statue. The Achaemenid conquest

1827-577: The Assyrians , Phoenicians , Babylonians , Egyptians , Jews , Macedonians , European Thracians , Paeonians , Achaean Greeks , Ionians , Aegean islanders , Aeolians , Greeks from Pontus , Colchians , Sindhis and many more. According to the Greek historian Herodotus , Xerxes's first attempt to bridge the Hellespont ended in failure when a storm destroyed the flax and papyrus cables of

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1914-705: The Isthmus of Corinth until their defeat at the Battle of Salamis . Fearing that the Greeks might trap him in Europe, Xerxes retreated with the greater part of his army back to Asia, leaving behind Mardonius to continue his campaign. Mardonius was defeated at Plataea the following year, effectively ending the Persian invasion. After returning to Persia, Xerxes dedicated himself to large-scale construction projects, many of which had been left unfinished by his father. He oversaw

2001-547: The Peloponnesus and awaiting the dissolution of the Greek armies. The Battle of Salamis (September, 480 BC) was won by the Greek fleet, after which Xerxes set up a winter camp in Thessaly . According to Herodotus, fearing that the Greeks might attack the bridges across the Hellespont and trap his army in Europe, Xerxes decided to retreat back to Asia, taking the greater part of the army with him. Another cause of

2088-579: The Sinai desert with the aid of the Arabians , a bitter battle was fought near Pelusium , a city on Egypt's eastern frontier, in the spring of 525 BCE. The Egyptians were defeated at Pelusium and Psamtik was betrayed by one of his allies, Phanes of Halicarnassus . Consequently, Psamtik and his army were compelled to withdraw to Memphis . The Persians captured the city after a long siege, and captured Psamtik after its fall. Shortly thereafter, Cambyses ordered

2175-432: The battle of Pelusium in 525 BCE. Amasis II died in 526 BCE, before the Achaemenid invasion, and was succeeded by Psamtik III , who only ruled for six months. A few days after his coronation, rain fell at Thebes, which was a rare event that frightened some Egyptians, who interpreted this as a bad omen. The young and inexperienced pharaoh was no match for the invading Persians. After the Persians under Cambyses had crossed

2262-836: The Elder Siamun Psusennes II Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef ( Sargonid dynasty ) Tiglath-Pileser Shalmaneser Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon Sennacherib Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II Xerxes I Xerxes I ( / ˈ z ɜː r k ˌ s iː z / ZURK -seez c.  518 – August 465 BC), commonly known as Xerxes

2349-567: The Great and Darius I . In the Age of Empires , Xerxes featured as a short swordsman. Gore Vidal , in his historical fiction novel Creation (1981), describes at length the rise of the Achaemenids, especially Darius I, and presents the life and death circumstances of Xerxes. Vidal's version of the Persian Wars, which diverges from the orthodoxy of the Greek histories, is told through

2436-511: The Great , was a Persian ruler who served as the fourth King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire , reigning from 486 BC until his assassination in 465 BC. He was the son of Darius the Great and Atossa , a daughter of Cyrus the Great . In Western history, Xerxes is best known for his invasion of Greece in 480 BC, which ended in Persian defeat. Xerxes was designated successor by Darius over his elder brother Artobazan and inherited

2523-463: The Great led the Macedonian army to victory in conquering the Persian Empire, as such, this ended Darius III's reign. Given that the Persian empire had been officially conquered, there was no Persian leader to become Darius III's successor, and thus ended the Achaemenid period of Egypt. First Achaemenid conquest of Egypt Herodotus describes how Pharaoh Amasis II would eventually cause

2610-593: The Greek side and so the battle stopped prematurely as the Greeks received news of the defeat at Thermopylae and retreated. After Thermopylae, Athens was captured. Most of the Athenians had abandoned the city and fled to the island of Salamis before Xerxes arrived. A small group attempted to defend the Athenian Acropolis , but they were defeated. Xerxes ordered the Destruction of Athens and burnt

2697-547: The Persian Empire or the Biblical story of Esther have also featured or alluded to Xerxes, such as the video game Assassin's Creed Odyssey and the film One Night with the King (2006), in which Ahasuerus (Xerxes) was portrayed by British actor Luke Goss . He is the leader of the Persian Empire in the video game Civilization II and III (along with Scheherazade ), although Civilization IV replaces him with Cyrus

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2784-475: The Persian Empire. The Persian, or Achaemenid, Empire existed between 525 and 330 BCE, though Persian rule was not consistent for the entirety of that period, as there were periods of restoration of Egyptian independence, in particular, in between the first and second Egyptian Satrapies. Cambyses II became the Pharaoh of Egypt after his successful conquest of Egypt into the Persian Empire. In doing so, Cambyses II

2871-481: The Persian elite is supported by Xenophon 's description of the 5th-century BC Achaemenid prince Cyrus the Younger , with whom he was well-acquainted. Stoneman suggests that this was the type of upbringing and education that Xerxes experienced. It is unknown if Xerxes ever learned to read or write, with the Persians favoring oral history over written literature. Stoneman suggests that Xerxes' upbringing and education

2958-514: The Persian force at around 60,000 combatants. At the Battle of Thermopylae , a small force of Greek warriors led by King Leonidas of Sparta resisted the much larger Persian forces, but were ultimately defeated. According to Herodotus, the Persians broke the Spartan phalanx after a Greek man called Ephialtes betrayed his country by telling the Persians of another pass around the mountains. At Artemisium , large storms had destroyed ships from

3045-560: The Persian offensive on Greece for good. After his military blunders in Greece, Xerxes returned to Persia and oversaw the completion of the many construction projects left unfinished by his father at Susa and Persepolis . He oversaw the building of the Gate of All Nations and the Hall of a Hundred Columns at Persepolis, which are the largest and most imposing structures of the palace. He oversaw

3132-464: The Persian pharaohs were as follows: Darius Darius ruled from the year 522 to 486 BCE. The main legacy of this ruler can be seen in the building projects he commissioned (or, in some cases, the unfinished building projects that were completed under his leadership). In these architectural pursuits Persian influence can be seen, for example, through the introduction of Persian water systems. The water systems were superior to those that were used in Egypt at

3219-421: The Persian wars from the perspective of Xerxes. Though the account is fictionalised, Couperus nevertheless based himself on an extensive study of Herodotus. The English translation Arrogance: The Conquests of Xerxes by Frederick H. Martens appeared in 1930. Later generations' fascination with ancient Sparta, particularly the Battle of Thermopylae , has led to Xerxes' portrayal in works of popular culture . He

3306-478: The Persians at Marathon . From 483 BC, Xerxes prepared his expedition: The Xerxes Canal was dug through the isthmus of the peninsula of Mount Athos , provisions were stored in the stations on the road through Thrace , and two pontoon bridges later known as Xerxes' Pontoon Bridges were built across the Hellespont . Soldiers of many nationalities served in the armies of Xerxes from all over his multi-ethnic massive Eurasian-sized empire and beyond, including

3393-469: The Sidonian Kings. Herodotus does recount an event in which Cambyses II "ransacked a burial ground at Memphis, where coffins were opened up and the dead bodies they contained were examined", quite possibly providing the occasion on which the sarcophagi were removed and reappropriated by his Sidonian subjects. This is especially the case of the sarcophagus of Tabnit, which was already dedicated to

3480-649: The Susa Gate and built a palace in Susa . In August 465 BC, Artabanus , the commander of the royal bodyguard and the most powerful official in the Persian court, assassinated Xerxes with the help of a eunuch , Aspamitres. Although the Hyrcanian Artabanus bore the same name as the famed uncle of Xerxes , his rise to prominence was due to his popularity in religious quarters of the court and harem intrigues. He put his seven sons in key positions and had

3567-525: The age of 64. Artobazan claimed that he should take the crown as the eldest of all Darius' children, while Xerxes argued for his own claim on the grounds that he was the son of Atossa, the daughter of Cyrus, and that Cyrus had won the Persians their freedom. Xerxes' claim was supported by a Spartan king in exile who was present in Persia at the time, the Eurypontid king Demaratus , who also argued that

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3654-471: The age of seven, they learned how to ride and hunt; after reaching the age of fourteen, they were each taught by four teachers from aristocratic backgrounds, who taught them how to be "wise, just, prudent, and brave." Persian princes also learned the basics of the Zoroastrian religion, and were taught to be truthful, to be courageous, and to have self-restraint. The dialogue further added that "fear, for

3741-408: The bridges. In retaliation, Xerxes ordered the Hellespont (the strait itself) whipped three hundred times, and had fetters thrown into the water. Xerxes's second attempt to bridge the Hellespont was successful. The Carthaginian invasion of Sicily deprived Greece of the support of the powerful monarchs of Syracuse and Agrigentum ; ancient sources assume Xerxes was responsible, modern scholarship

3828-582: The burial of Sidonian kings. The manufacture of this style of sarcophagi in Egypt ceased around 525 BCE with the fall of the 26th dynasty , therefore Elayi posits that the sarcophagi were seized and brought to Sidon by the Sidonians during their participation in Cambyses II 's Achaemenid conquest of Egypt in 525 BCE. Whereas the Tabnit sarcophagus , belonging to the father of Eshmunazar II, reemployed

3915-470: The city, leaving an archaeologically attested destruction layer , known as the Perserschutt . The Persians thus gained control of all of mainland Greece to the north of the Isthmus of Corinth . Xerxes was induced, by the message of Themistocles (against the advice of Artemisia of Halicarnassus ), to attack the Greek fleet under unfavourable conditions, rather than sending a part of his ships to

4002-652: The completion of the Apadana , the Tachara (Palace of Darius) and the Treasury, all started by Darius, as well as having his own palace built which was twice the size of his father's. His taste in architecture was similar to that of Darius, though on an even more gigantic scale. He had colorful enameled brick laid on the exterior face of the Apadana . He also maintained the Royal Road built by his father and completed

4089-481: The completion of the Gate of All Nations , the Apadana and the Tachara at Persepolis , and continued the construction of the Palace of Darius at Susa . He also maintained the Royal Road built by his father. In 465 BC, Xerxes and his heir Darius were assassinated by Artabanus , the commander of the royal bodyguard. He was succeeded by his third son, who took the throne as Artaxerxes I . Xérxēs ( Ξέρξης )

4176-638: The court. Artaxerxes I Artaxerxes was another of Xerxes’ sons whom the succession fell to after the deaths of his father and older brothers. Artaxerxes ruled, following the death of his father from 465 to 424 BCE. Artaxerxes I's reign saw the beginning of the decline of the 27th dynasty, due to rising tensions and threats to total Persian control. The most significant threat being the successful uprising orchestrated by an Egyptian rival ruler, Inaros , who consequently took control of part of Egypt. However, Persian rule remained in place in Memphis, meaning that Egypt

4263-398: The eldest son did not universally have the best claim to the crown, citing Spartan law, which stated that the first son born while the father is king was the heir to the kingship. Some modern scholars also view the unusual decision of Darius to give the throne to Xerxes as a result of his consideration of the particular prestige that Cyrus the Great and his daughter Atossa enjoyed. Artobazan

4350-539: The end, he was unsuccessful. Thus, there is debate over which Pharaoh, Darius II or Artaxerxes II, was the final ruler of the first period of Persian Egyptian rule. However, it was the ending of the reigns of those two rulers that marked the end of the first period of Persian Egypt. Persian rule of Egypt was reestablished within a century, beginning the Second Egyptian Satrapy. The second period of Persian occupation, between 358 and 330 BCE, was, overall,

4437-502: The fifth century BC, centre on the Persian Wars, with Xerxes as a major figure. Some of Herodotus' information is spurious. Pierre Briant has accused him of presenting a stereotyped and biased portrayal of the Persians. Richard Stoneman regards his portrayal of Xerxes as nuanced and tragic, compared to the vilification that he suffered at the hands of the Macedonian king Alexander the Great ( r.  336–323 BC ). Xerxes

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4524-479: The great authority of Atossa and his accession to royal power was not challenged by any person at court or in the Achaemenian family, or by any subject nation. At the time of Xerxes' accession, trouble was brewing in some of his domains. A revolt occurred in Egypt , which seems dangerous enough for Xerxes to personally lead the army to restore order (which also gave him the opportunity to begin his reign with

4611-409: The influence of Persian occupation on architecture. Additionally, the architectural evidence can also provide insight into attempts at the preservation of Egyptian culture, as these Temples honoured Egyptian gods. Neither Darius, nor the other Persian Pharaohs, desired to completely erase the culture of the nations they conquered, they just implemented Persian customs alongside them. Darius’ rule also saw

4698-405: The invented character of Cyrus Spitama, a half-Greek, half-Persian, and grandson of the prophet Zoroaster . Thanks to his family connection, Cyrus is brought up in the Persian court after the murder of Zoroaster, becoming the boyhood friend of Xerxes, and later a diplomat who is sent to India, and later to Greece, and who is thereby able to gain privileged access to many leading historical figures of

4785-400: The murder of the Persian ambassador and the two hundred crew of his boat. An "old man who had once been the king's friend" was reduced to beggary. All these people were brought before Psamtik to test his reaction, and he only became upset after seeing the state of the beggar. Psamtik's compassion for the beggar caused him to be spared, but his son had already been executed. The deposed pharaoh

4872-504: The murder, he killed Artabanus and his sons. Participating in these intrigues was the general Megabyzus , whose decision to switch sides probably saved the Achaemenids from losing their control of the Persian throne. While there is no general consensus in scholarship as to whether Xerxes and his predecessors had been influenced by Zoroastrianism , it is well established that Xerxes was a firm believer in Ahura Mazda , whom he saw as

4959-493: The palace of Amasis that he gave orders for his [Amasis's] body to be taken from the tomb where it lay. This done, he proceeded to have it treated with every possible indignity, such as beating it with whips, sticking it with goads, and plucking its hairs. [... A]s the body had been embalmed and would not fall to pieces under the blows, Cambyses had it burned. The Egyptian anthropoid sarcophagi of Sidonian kings Eshmunazar II and that of his father Tabnit were manufactured around

5046-478: The public execution of two thousand of the principal citizens, including (it is said) a son of the fallen king. Psamtik's captivity and subsequent execution are described in The Histories by Herodotus, Book III, sections 14 and 15. Psamtik's daughter and the daughters of all the Egyptian noblemen were enslaved. Psamtik's son and two thousand other sons of noblemen were sentenced to death, in retaliation for

5133-497: The replacement of the city's elite families by Xerxes following its revolt, it is possible that the festival's traditional rituals and events had changed considerably. Darius died while in the process of preparing a second army to invade the Greek mainland, leaving to his son the task of punishing the Athenians , Naxians , and Eretrians for their interference in the Ionian Revolt , the burning of Sardis , and their victory over

5220-459: The retreat might have been that the continued unrest in Babylon , a key province of the empire , required the king's personal attention. He left behind a contingent in Greece to finish the campaign under Mardonius , who according to Herodotus had suggested the retreat in the first place. This force was defeated the following year at Plataea by the combined forces of the Greek city states, ending

5307-543: The same aforementioned sources that suggest Bagoas killed Artaxerxes III say that Arses was also assassinated by him. Darius III Finally, Arses was succeeded by Darius III, a second cousin of Arses, who ruled from 336 to 330 BCE. The succession difficulties that marked this period of Persian rule of Egypt ultimately weakened the Empire, and potentially contributed to the failure of the rulers to prevent external forces from imposing upon them. During Darius III's reign, Alexander

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5394-402: The statue was made entirely of gold, which would have made melting it down possible). Modern historian Amélie Kuhrt considers it unlikely that Xerxes destroyed the temples, but believes that the story of him doing so may derive from an anti-Persian sentiment among the Babylonians. It is doubtful if the statue was removed from Babylon at all and some have even suggested that Xerxes did remove

5481-478: The strength and prosperity of the dynasty. In 338 BCE Artaxerxes died, ending his reign, however, the circumstances surrounding his death remain unclear, with some sources citing it as natural causes and others detailing an assassination plot by a military official, Bagoas, who then elevated Artaxerxes’ youngest son, Arses, to the throne. Arses Arses ruled for only 3 years, from 338 to 336 BCE. The circumstances of his death, once again, are not entirely clear, though

5568-519: The summer of 482 BC, Shamash-eriba seized Babylon itself and other nearby cities, such as Borsippa and Dilbat , and was only defeated in March 481 BC after a lengthy siege of Babylon. The precise cause of the unrest in Babylon is uncertain. It may have been due to tax increases. Prior to these revolts, Babylon had occupied a special position within the Achaemenid Empire ; the Achaemenid kings had held

5655-515: The support of Egyptian priests. Throughout Egyptian history, the temples, and by extension, the priests, were given immense support and a celebrated status. Therefore, by posing a threat to the economic support structure of the religious aspect of Egyptian life, Cambyses fundamentally altered a core aspect of Egyptian culture and life. Additionally, the conquered Egyptian people were considered secondary, which further disenchanted Cambyses to his newly conquered people. In 523 BCE, Psammetichus III organized

5742-465: The supreme deity. However, Ahura Mazda was also worshipped by adherents of the (Indo-)Iranian religious tradition. On his treatment of other religions, Xerxes followed the same policy as his predecessors: he appealed to local religious scholars, made sacrifices to local deities, and destroyed temples in cities and countries that caused disorder. By queen Amestris : By unknown wives or mistresses : Xerxes' presentation in Greek and Roman sources

5829-600: The time of the Achaemenid conquest of Egypt. Similar Egyptian sarcophagi , with characteristic plump and squarish broad faces, and smooth unarticulated bodies, are known to have been produced in the area of Memphis , during the reigns of Psamtik II (ca. 595–589 BCE) through the reign of Amasis II (570-526 BCE). The sarcophagi found in Sidon were originally made in Egypt for members of the Ancient Egyptian elite, but were then transported to Sidon and repurposed for

5916-402: The time, as the Persian empire was well known for their technological developments. Architecture is one of the most significant sources for providing understanding about ancient societies and their changing dynamics and periods, particularly those, like Egyptian society, for which there are minimal written sources to be studied. In this case, the archeological evidence provides greater insight into

6003-602: The titles of " King of Babylon " and " King of the Lands ," implying that they perceived Babylonia as a somewhat separate entity within their empire, united with their own kingdom in a personal union . After the revolts, however, Xerxes dropped "King of Babylon" from his titulature and divided the previously large Babylonian satrapy (accounting for most of the Neo-Babylonian Empire 's territory) into smaller sub-units. Based on texts written by classical authors, it

6090-487: Was Darius the Great ( r.  522–486 BC ), the incumbent monarch of the Achaemenid Empire, albeit himself not a member of the family of Cyrus the Great , the founder of the empire. Xerxes' mother was Atossa , a daughter of Cyrus. Darius and Atossa married in 522 BC, and Xerxes was born around 518 BC. According to the Greek dialogue First Alcibiades , which describes typical upbringing and education of Persian princes, they were raised by eunuchs . Starting at

6177-409: Was Phanes of Halicarnassus , who would later leave Amasis, for reasons that Herodotus does not clearly know, but suspects were personal between the two figures. Amasis sent one of his eunuchs to capture Phanes, but the eunuch was bested by the wise councilman and Phanes fled to Persia, meeting up with Cambyses and providing advice for his invasion of Egypt. Egypt was finally lost to the Persians during

6264-582: Was Artaxerxes III who ruled from 358 to 338 BCE. Artaxerxes III subjugated Egypt during his reign as Persian ruler, going to war with the Egyptian Pharaoh Nectanebo II , and in doing so caused significant destruction in Egypt. Artaxerxes III's reign also saw a lot of building activity as well as military success. Military and architectural achievements were the two main contributing factors to the legacies of Egyptian rulers, as they were both, in their own ways, considered demonstrations of

6351-458: Was a priority of Cyrus the Great's, in large part due to the desirability of the Nile river and valley as economic assets. The contemporaneous Egyptian pharaoh, Amasis , attempted to ward off the occupation by forming alliances with neighbouring rulers, in particular Polycrates of Samos , as those rulers also had a vested interest in preventing more significant Persian expansion in their region. This

6438-459: Was also unrest in Babylon, which revolted at least twice against Xerxes during his reign. The first revolt broke out in June or July of 484 BC and was led by a rebel of the name Bel-shimanni . Bel-shimmani's revolt was short-lived; Babylonian documents written during his reign only account for a period of two weeks. Two years later, Babylon produced another rebel leader, Shamash-eriba . Beginning in

6525-488: Was born to "Darius the subject", while Xerxes was the eldest son " born in the purple " after Darius' rise to the throne. Furthermore, while Artobazan's mother was a commoner, Xerxes' mother was the daughter of the founder of the Achaemenid Empire. Xerxes was crowned and succeeded his father in October–December 486 BC when he was about 32 years old. The transition of power to Xerxes was smooth, due again in part to

6612-737: Was first performed in the King's Theatre London on 15 April 1738. The famous aria " Ombra mai fù " opens the opera. The murder of Xerxes by Artabanus ( Artabano ), execution of crown prince Darius ( Dario ), revolt by Megabyzus ( Megabise ), and subsequent succession of Artaxerxes I is romanticised by the Italian poet Metastasio in his opera libretto Artaserse (1730), which was first set to music by Leonardo Vinci , and subsequently by other composers such as Johann Adolf Hasse and Johann Christian Bach . The historical novel Xerxes of de Hoogmoed (1919) by Dutch writer Louis Couperus describes

6699-454: Was given the Pharaoh name of Mesuti Ra, beginning the 27th dynasty (the first Egyptian Satrapy) which lasted from 525 to 404 BCE. A Pharaoh name was a significant tradition for Egyptian royalty as it highlighted the perception of the pharaoh as being a vessel for the gods, and therefore, a divine being in their own right. Though, following the conquest, Cambyses did try to maintain respect for Egyptian culture and traditions, sources suggest that he

6786-510: Was none other than Nitetis , who was, as per Herodotus's account, "tall and beautiful." Nitetis naturally betrayed Amasis and upon being greeted by the Persian king explained Amasis's trickery and her true origins. This infuriated Cambyses and he vowed to take revenge for it. Amasis died before Cambyses reached him, but his heir and son Psamtik III was defeated by the Persians. Herodotus also describes how, just like his predecessor, Amasis relied on Greek mercenaries and councilmen. One such figure

6873-563: Was played by David Farrar in the film The 300 Spartans (1962), where he is portrayed as a cruel, power-crazed despot and an inept commander. He also features prominently in the graphic novels 300 and Xerxes: The Fall of the House of Darius and the Rise of Alexander by Frank Miller , as well as the film adaptation 300 (2007) and its sequel 300: Rise of an Empire (2014), as portrayed by Brazilian actor Rodrigo Santoro , in which he

6960-497: Was possibly not much different from that of the later Iranian kings, such as Abbas the Great , king of the Safavid Empire in the 17th-century AD. Starting from 498 BC, Xerxes resided in the royal palace of Babylon . While Darius was preparing for another war against Greece, a revolt began in Egypt in 486 BC due to heavy taxes and the deportation of craftsmen to build the royal palaces at Susa and Persepolis. The king

7047-475: Was required by Persian law to choose a successor before setting out on dangerous expeditions; when Darius decided to leave for Egypt (487–486 BC), he prepared his tomb at Naqsh-e Rustam (five kilometers from his royal palace at Persepolis) and appointed Xerxes, his eldest son by Atossa , as his successor. However, Darius could not lead the campaign due to his failing health; he died in October 486 BC at

7134-488: Was successful for a time, and as such Persian occupation of Egypt was not achieved under Cyrus the Great. However, it would later be achieved under his son, Cambyses II. Thus, Persian rule in Egypt, also referred to as the Achaemenid Empire, was initiated under the rule of Cambyses II , who ousted the last of the Dynasty XXVI pharaohs, Amasis’ son, Psammetichus III . Egypt became an important and prosperous resource for

7221-461: Was temporarily divided. However, the Egyptians were ultimately defeated and full reign was granted back to the Persian leadership. Xerxes II Artaxerxes I was followed by Xerxes II who ruled for only one year between 424 and 423 BCE. However, there is insufficient information on his reign as pharaoh, likely because it was too short for him to establish a significant legacy or enact meaningful change. Darius II Darius II ruled from 423 to 404 BCE and

7308-511: Was the last Pharaoh of the 27th dynasty. His reign included him initiating conflict with Athens, and subsequently entering into an alliance with Sparta to support them in the war. This endeavour led to the Persian conquest of part of Ionia. Darius II's reign in Egypt ended when a rebellion led by Egyptian Amyrtaeous, expelled him from Egypt and reinstated Egyptian rule. Though his successor, Artaxerxes II , did make attempts to restore Persian occupation, he faced numerous rebellions and uprisings and in

7395-1758: Was the subject of a late antique Coptic prose fiction, the Cambyses Romance . The text is incomplete, but appears to be based in part on indigenous traditions. ( Shamshi-Adad dynasty 1808–1736 BCE) (Amorites) Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi (Non-dynastic usurpers 1735–1701 BCE) Puzur-Sin Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi ( Adaside dynasty 1700–722 BCE) Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II Second Intermediate Period Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon

7482-523: Was then raised up to live in the entourage of the Persian King. After a while, however, Psamtik attempted to raise a rebellion among the Egyptians. When Cambyses learned of this, Psamtik is reported by Herodotus to have drunk bull's blood and immediately died. Herodotus also relates the desecration of Ahmose II/Amasis' mummy when the Persian king Cambyses conquered Egypt and thus ended the 26th (Saite) Dynasty: [N]o sooner did [... Cambyses] enter

7569-503: Was unpopular, particularly amongst Egyptian priests, as the subsumption of Egypt into the Persian empire meant the erasure of Egyptian culture as the mainstream. This tension manifested itself by way of the introduction of Persian traditions and norms into Egyptian life and law. One of these norms was that Cambyses did not believe that citizens should be taxed to support the temples, as was Egyptian tradition, which further alienated him from

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