Misplaced Pages

#227772

105-718: Austria-Hungary exited the war on 3 November 1918, when it ordered its troops to cease fighting. The Armistice of Villa Giusti , signed with Italy that day, took effect on 4 November, and on 13 November the Armistice of Belgrade was signed with Italy's allies on the Balkan front. Italy began immediately to occupy territories ceded to it by the treaty of 1915, while simultaneously the South Slavs formed local governments in opposition to both Italian expansion and Austro-Hungarian authority. A National Council of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs

210-519: A Protestant of British origins who spoke the language. Together, they worked primarily to secure the partition of the Habsburg monarchy . At the conference, Italy gained Istria , Trieste , Trentino , and South Tyrol . Most of Dalmatia was given to the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. Fiume remained disputed territory, causing a nationalist outrage. Orlando obtained other results, such as

315-519: A "national council" headed by Antonio Grossich and proclaimed Fiume's union with Italy. The next day the local governor handed over power to the Italians, as did the governor of Trieste. On 4 November an Italian naval detachment under Admiral Guglielmo Rainer aboard the battleship Emanuele Filiberto arrived in the harbour of Fiume. Rainer declared the local government dissolved and, on 14 November Italian Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando , acting on

420-480: A budget deficit of 12,000,000,000 Italian lire during the war made both the government and people feel entitled to all of those territories and even others not mentioned in the Treaty of London, particularly Fiume, which many Italians believed should be annexed to Italy because of the city's Italian population. Orlando, unable to speak English, conducted negotiations jointly with his Foreign Minister Sidney Sonnino ,

525-519: A buffer state out of a strip of land around Fiume, the future Free State of Fiume . The main American objection at the time was that the buffer state denied its inhabitants the right of self-determination. On 12 September 1919, Gabriele d'Annunzio led a band of disaffected soldiers of the Granatieri di Sardegna in a march on Fiume—the so-called impresa di Fiume ("Fiume enterprise")—defying

630-595: A ceasefire. By 1918, the Austro-Hungarian Empire was tearing itself apart under ethnic lines, and if the Dual Monarchy were to survive, it needed to withdraw from the war. In the final stage of the Battle of Vittorio Veneto , a stalemate was reached, and the troops of Austria-Hungary started a chaotic withdrawal. On 28 October, Austria-Hungary asked Italy for an armistice They hesitated to sign

735-488: A far larger proportion of its men than the 50,000 American men lost, it had at least the right to the representation of a "minor" power. Lloyd George eventually relented and persuaded the reluctant Americans to accept the presence of delegations from Canada, India , Australia, Newfoundland , New Zealand, and South Africa, and that those countries receive their seats in the League of Nations. Canada, despite its huge losses in

840-511: A few months of this the Admiral Bullard supplanted the inter-allied patrol with a patrol composed entirely of Americans to assist the local police in maintaining order for a few hours each day. Several times Italian troops crossed the frontier into the American zone of occupation, but in each case they were turned back, either by a warning or, in one case, by the arrival of American warships and landing of American forces. In several towns

945-558: A hope to establish a more liberal and diplomatic world as stated in the Fourteen Points, in which democracy, sovereignty, liberty and self-determination would be respected. France and Britain, on the other hand, already controlled empires through which they wielded power over their subjects around the world, and aspired to maintain and expand their colonial power rather than relinquish it. Various people, both in Washington and

1050-722: A joint interest in opposing "Anglo-Saxon domination" of the world, and he warned that the "deepening of opposition" between the French and the Germans "would lead to the ruin of both countries, to the advantage of the Anglo-Saxon powers." The Germans rejected Massigli's offers because they believed that the intention was to trick them into accepting the Treaty of Versailles unchanged; also, the German Foreign Minister, Count Ulrich von Brockdorff-Rantzau , thought that

1155-624: A letter of thanks to the American admiral for protecting his people from the Italians. The first effort to bring American naval forces in the Adriatic home took place in December 1919. In February 1920 the Italians requested four Austro-Hungarian ships allocated to Italy by the Allied Military Committee of Versailles and which were being guarded at Split by American forces. The Italian ambition to receive these vessels led to

SECTION 10

#1732773293228

1260-691: A letter to Clemenceau, the conference chairman, was not answered. Britain had been planning to renege on the Government of Ireland Act 1914 and instead to replace it with a new Government of Ireland Bill which would partition Ireland into two Irish Home Rule states (which eventually was passed as the Government of Ireland Act 1920). The planned two states would both be within the United Kingdom and so neither would have dominion status. David Lloyd George commented that he did "not do badly" at

1365-414: A mutual defense treaty with France, but he did not present it to his country's government for ratification and so it never took effect. Another possible French policy was to seek a rapprochement with Germany. In May 1919 the diplomat René Massigli was sent on several secret missions to Berlin . During his visits, he offered, on behalf of his government, to revise the territorial and economic clauses of

1470-466: A note offering to disavow the January compromise and suggesting that the memorandum of December be similarly sidelined. They expressed their wish to see Yugoslavia and Italy negotiate directly, and, contrary to Wilson's desire, stood by their intention to enforce the Treaty of London if all else failed. It was suggested by some at the time that Lloyd George had personally frustrated the efforts of Wilson by

1575-645: A private agreement with Nitti whereby the latter would support Britain against France on the Eastern (i.e., Russian and Turkish) Question . On 12 September 1919, D'Annunzio occupied the city of Rijeka (Fiume) and proclaimed the Italian Regency of Carnaro , but the approval of the Treaty of Rapallo on 12 November 1920 turned the territory into an independent state, the Free State of Fiume . Other parts of

1680-525: Is often sometimes considered by historians to be one of the direct causes of Nazi Party 's electoral successes and one of the indirect causes of World War II . The League of Nations proved controversial in the United States since critics said it subverted the powers of the US Congress to declare war. The US Senate did not ratify any of the peace treaties and so the United States never joined

1785-739: The Austrian Littoral ), an American in the middle (mainly Dalmatia ) and a French in the south (mainly Albania ). This arrangement eventually received political ratification in Paris. Josephus Daniels , United States Secretary of the Navy, wrote to his Chief of Naval Operations, William S. Benson , also American naval advisor to the Paris Peace Commission, that "due to possible Adriatic developments and [American] desire to show sympathy with [the] Slavonic government being formed in

1890-649: The British dominions , with Australia taking particular exception, became a major point of contention within the delegation. Ultimately, the British delegation did not treat that proposal as a fundamental aim of the conference; they were willing to sacrifice the Racial Equality Proposal to placate the Australian delegation and thus help to satisfy their overarching aim of preserving the unity of

1995-636: The Congress of Oppressed Nationalities of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in Rome (8–10 April 1918), Italy lent official support to the Declaration of Corfu (20 July 1917), a Yugoslavist document supported by Britain and France that expressed the need to unite the South Slavs politically. The Italians argued that the natural geographic boundary of Italy included the Julian and Dinaric Alps , and that therefore

2100-710: The Ottoman Empire was not a topic in the 1918 general election . There was an indecision among British decision makers over defanging and demobilizing the Ottoman army, the fate to be assigned to leading Committee of Union and Progress members, and the future of the Turkish straits. Per Taner Akçam , the considerations of British envoys to Versailles were: A strong Greece, Armenia, and fortified Palestine were all reflections of this sentiment. The dominion governments were not originally given separate invitations to

2205-638: The Pacific Islands south of the Equator . Despite a generally pro-Chinese view by the American delegation, Article 156 of the Treaty of Versailles transferred German concessions in the Jiaozhou Bay , China, to Japan rather than returning sovereign authority to China. The leader of the Chinese delegation, Lu Zhengxiang , demanded a reservation be inserted, before he would sign the treaty. After

SECTION 20

#1732773293228

2310-638: The Supreme Council of the Paris Peace Conference . Although Rainer agreed, he was countermanded by his superior, on the grounds that he had acted without instruction, and an Italian troops force eighty strong entered the city that afternoon. They ordered Lenac's government out of the palace and removed all Serbian flags on public display. On 18 November the National Council of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs officially protested to

2415-648: The Tyrol as far as Brenner , Trieste , Istria , most of the Dalmatian Coast (except Fiume ), Valona , a protectorate over Albania , Antalya (in Turkey), and possibly colonies in Africa. Italian Prime Minister Vittorio Emanuele Orlando tried to obtain full implementation of the Treaty of London, as agreed by France and Britain before the war. He had popular support because of the loss of 700,000 soldiers and

2520-637: The United States , controlled the Conference. The " Big Four " leaders were French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau , British Prime Minister David Lloyd George , US President Woodrow Wilson , and Italian Prime Minister Vittorio Emanuele Orlando . Together with teams of diplomats and jurists , they met informally 145 times and agreed upon all major decisions before they were ratified. The conference began on 18 January 1919. With respect to its end, Professor Michael Neiberg noted, "Although

2625-595: The United States War Department to order them withdrawn, President Woodrow Wilson countermanded the order to prevent a breakdown in negotiations over the Adriatic question in Paris. Thereafter, as a result, the international control for the Adriatic was a naval responsibility. On 16 November 1918 representatives of the Allied navies—American, British, French and Italian—met in Venice to establish

2730-510: The peace negotiations in order to end World War I . The results of this research were summarized in the so called Fourteen Points document that became the basis for the terms of the German surrender during the conference, as it had earlier been the basis of the German government's negotiations in the Armistice of 11 November 1918 . The main result of the conference was the Treaty of Versailles with Germany; Article 231 of that treaty placed

2835-677: The Allies and Associated Powers. The armistice protocol, together with a supplementary protocol, was signed on 3 November 1918 in the Villa Giusti , outside Padua in the Veneto , Northern Italy , and took effect 24 hours later. This armistice applied only to Austria because Hungary later signed the separate Belgrade armistice . By the end of October 1918, the Austro-Hungarian Army was so fatigued that its commanders sought

2940-594: The Allies were to have the unrestricted use of Austria-Hungary's internal communications. Austria-Hungary was also to allow the transit of the Triple Entente armies to reach Germany from the South. In November 1918, the Italian Army, with 20,000 to 22,000 soldiers, began to occupy Innsbruck and all North Tyrol . After the war, Italy annexed Southern Tyrol (now Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol ), according to

3045-530: The Americans posted notice that they would protect the lives and property of Dalmatians against any Italian injustice. This latter sort of propaganda was the most effective means of keeping the peace, since the American admiral had to rely on Serbian troops for garrisoning the interior. His own garrison was minuscule, and reinforcements were only landed in emergencies. One Yugoslav mayor from the Italian zone sent

3150-770: The Austrian Navy League and Captain Georg Zwierkowski of the Danube Flotilla . The treaty promised the Italians a share of the Austro-Hungarian fleet (although this had in fact ceased to exist some days before): Shortly before the armistice came into effect at 3:00 p.m. on 4 November, the Italian navy occupied Vis (Lissa). This was done "to exorcise the old demons of 1866 [i.e., the Austro-Prussian War ] and restore

3255-573: The Austro-Hungarian High Command unilaterally ordered its forces to stop fighting on 3 November. The armistice required Austria-Hungary's forces to evacuate not only all territory occupied since August 1914 but also South Tirol, Tarvisio , the Isonzo Valley, Gorizia , Trieste, Istria , western Carniola , and part of Dalmatia . All German forces would be expelled from Austria-Hungary within 15 days or interned, and

Adriatic question - Misplaced Pages Continue

3360-513: The Austro-Hungarian littoral lay within geographic Italy. The strategic importance of the geography of the eastern coast of the Adriatic has been generally accepted. The Chief of the Division of Boundary Geography with the American delegation to the Paris Peace Conference, Douglas Wilson Johnson , wrote at the time, "Any naval power on the [Adriatic] eastern coast must find itself possessing immense advantages over Italy." Johnson went on to note that

3465-577: The Big Four, Paris was effectively the center of a world government during the conference, which deliberated over and implemented the sweeping changes to the political geography of Europe . Most famously, the Treaty of Versailles itself weakened the German military and placed full blame for the war and costly reparations on Germany's shoulders, and the later humiliation and resentment in Germany

3570-515: The Big Four. The conference came to an end on 21 January 1920, with the inaugural General Assembly of the League of Nations . Five major peace treaties were prepared at the Paris Peace Conference, with, in parentheses, the affected countries: The major decisions were the establishment of the League of Nations ; the five peace treaties with defeated enemies; the awarding of German and Ottoman overseas possessions as "mandates" , chiefly to members of

3675-502: The British Empire and to France; reparations imposed on Germany; and the drawing of new national boundaries, sometimes with plebiscites, to better reflect the forces of nationalism. The main result was the Treaty of Versailles , with Germany, which in section 231 laid the guilt for the war on "the aggression of Germany and her allies". This provision proved humiliating for Germany and set the stage for very high reparations Germany

3780-410: The British Empire. Britain had reluctantly consented to the attendance of separate delegations from British dominions, but the British managed to rebuff attempts by the envoys of the newly proclaimed Irish Republic to put a case to the conference for Irish self-determination , diplomatic recognition, and membership in the proposed League of Nations. The Irish envoys' final "Demand for Recognition" in

3885-657: The British, led by David Lloyd George , in their treatment of Germany and its allies in Europe and the former Ottoman Empire in the Middle East . Wilson's attempts to gain acceptance of his Fourteen Points ultimately failed; France and Britain each refused to adopt specific points as well as certain core principles. Several of the Fourteen Points conflicted with the desires of European powers. The United States did not consider it fair or warranted that Article 231 of

3990-455: The Chinese patriotic student group. In 1914, at the outset of the war, Japan seized the territory that had been granted to Germany in 1897 and seized the German islands in the Pacific north of the equator . In 1917, Japan made secret agreements with Britain, France, and Italy to guarantee their annexation of these territories. With Britain, there was an agreement to support British annexation of

4095-678: The Italian Foreign Minister, who divided and conquered his allies, forcing Britain and France to acquiesce in the Treaty of London and endeavouring to negotiate directly with America from a position of strength. At the same time he whipped up the Italian people with nationalistic propaganda. When the government of Orlando was replaced by that of Francesco Saverio Nitti on 23 June, Sonnino was replaced by Tommaso Tittoni . The nationalist fervour he had stoked, however, broke into open violence in Fiume, where, on 6 July 1919, an element of

4200-436: The Italian diplomat Ugo Conz retorted to his British colleagues, "There can be no fleet where there is no state. There can be no Yugoslav fleet as long as such a state has not yet been founded or as long as peace has not been definitively concluded." In Dalmatia, the American occupation zone, the citizens had elected a provisional assembly and a governor, and both supported the nascent State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs. Order

4305-528: The Italian flag was raised on all remaining vessels in Pula. That day, cruisers of the British, French and Italian navies sailed into the Bay of Kotor (Bocche di Cattaro) and the last unoccupied Austro-Hungarian port. The sailors there cut up their Austro-Hungarian ensigns—to prevent them from being taken by the Italians as trophies—and distributed them as souvenirs. That same day, at an inter-Allied conference on Corfu ,

Adriatic question - Misplaced Pages Continue

4410-526: The Italian population massacred some of the occupying French soldiers. On 15 April President Wilson issued a memorandum proposing a line, the so-called "Wilson Line", dividing the Istrian peninsula between Italy and Yugoslavia. Trieste and Pula, with the railway connecting them, lay on the Italian side; Fiume and Ljubljana (Laibach), with the railway connecting them, on the Yugoslav. Učka (Monte Maggiore)

4515-467: The Italian representative, Admiral Vittorio Mola , resigned in protest. At the demands of the American, British and French admirals, Italy appointed Rear Admiral Ugo Rombo to replace him on 1 February 1919. At a meeting in Venice on 8 February Rombo told Admiral Albert Parker Niblack that the Americans did not understand the Adriatic problem, leading to a breakdown in negotiations between the Italians and

4620-544: The Italians sank the battleship SMS  Viribus Unitis at Pula, whether yet aware it was a Yugoslav ship or not. Admiral William Sims , commander of the United States Navy in Europe, ordered Admiral Bullard to go to Pula aboard the USS ; Birmingham and escort the former Austro-Hungarian ships that had been taken over by Yugoslavia to Corfu under white flags. By the end of the day, 1 November, Chief of

4725-435: The League to administer all German colonies until they were ready for independence. Lloyd George realized he needed to support his dominions and so he proposed a compromise: there be three types of mandates. Mandates for the Turkish provinces were one category and would be divided up between Britain and France. The second category, of New Guinea, Samoa, and South West Africa, were located so close to responsible supervisors that

4830-483: The League's Covenant and Japanese territorial claims with respect to former German colonies: Shantung (including Kiaochow ) and the Pacific islands north of the Equator, the Marshall Islands , Micronesia , the Mariana Islands , and the Carolines . The former Foreign Minister Baron Makino Nobuaki was de facto chief. Saionji's role was symbolic and limited because of his history of ill-health. The Japanese delegation became unhappy after it had received only half of

4935-423: The League, equal and just treatment in every respect making no distinction, either in law or in fact, on account of their race or nationality. The clause quickly proved problematic to both the American and British delegations. Though the proposal itself was compatible with Britain's stance of nominal equality for all British subjects as a principle for maintaining imperial unity, there were significant deviations in

5040-457: The League. Instead, the 1921–1923 Harding administration concluded new treaties with Germany , Austria , and Hungary . The German Weimar Republic was not invited to attend the conference at Versailles. Representatives of White Russia but not Communist Russia were at the conference. Numerous other nations sent delegations to appeal for various unsuccessful additions to the treaties, and parties lobbied for causes ranging from independence for

5145-414: The National Council in Zagreb, the Reichsrat , one of the two parliaments of Austria-Hungary, freed 348 of the 379 sailors still in custody after the mutiny of 1–3 February in Kotor (Cattaro). On 22–24 October officers conducted talks with sailors in their native languages on all ships explaining Emperor Charles I 's plan to federalise Cisleithania , but it was too late to restore morale or loyalty to

5250-427: The Naval Commission (or Committee) for the Adriatic. At several sessions held in Rome from 26 November, the commission decided the fate of the Austro-Hungarian fleet and of its coastline. The fleet was divided in control between the Americans, French and Italians pending a final political decision regarding its fate, while the coast was divided into three zones of control, an Italian in the north (mainly corresponding to

5355-427: The Naval Staff Paolo Emilio Thaon di Revel had informed the government that "the entire Austrian fleet or at least a great part of it has pulled down the Austrian flag and raised the Yugoslav. The fleet or a good part of it is already in the hands of the Yugoslav National Committee." This did not affect negotiations at Villa Giusti, and the armistice was signed on behalf of the navy by Prince Johann of Liechtenstein of

SECTION 50

#1732773293228

5460-456: The Quai d'Orsay in Paris. This date was symbolic, as it was the anniversary of the proclamation of William I as German Emperor in 1871, in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles , shortly before the end of the Siege of Paris – a day itself imbued with significance in Germany, as the anniversary of the establishment of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1701. The Delegates from 27 nations (delegates representing 5 nationalities were for

5565-430: The Treaty of London. This last compromise aroused the anger of President Wilson, who, in a statement issued 10 February, denounced it as "a positive denial of the principles for which America entered the war". He threatened to withdraw the United States from the Treaty of Versailles and from the Franco-American agreement of the past June. On 26 February, Clemenceau and British Prime Minister David Lloyd George published

5670-439: The Treaty of Rapallo had been signed. The negotiations attending the Adriatic question at the Paris Peace Conference may be divided into three periods based on the dominant Italian personality of the time: January–June 1919, the Baron Sonnino period; June–September 1919, the Tittoni period; and 12 September – 9 December 1919, the d'Annunzio period. From January until June 1919 negotiations were dominated by Baron Sidney Sonnino ,

5775-552: The Treaty of Rapallo were supposed to solve the dispute between the Kingdom of Italy and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (renamed Yugoslavia in 1929). It included Italian annexation of parts of Carniola , several Adriatic islands, and the city of Zadar (Zara). Armistice of Villa Giusti The Armistice of Villa Giusti or Padua Armistice was an armistice convention with Austria-Hungary which de facto ended warfare between Allies and Associated Powers and Austria-Hungary during World War I . Italy represented

5880-417: The Treaty of Versailles declared Germany solely responsible for the war. (The United States did not sign peace treaties with the Central Powers until 1921 under President Warren Harding , when separate documents were signed with Germany, Austria, and Hungary respectively.) In the Middle East, negotiations were complicated by competing aims and claims, and the new mandate system. The United States expressed

5985-399: The U.S., and Japan, controlled the Conference. Amongst the "Big Five", in practice Japan only sent a former prime minister and played a small role; and the " Big Four " leaders dominated the conference. The four met together informally 145 times and made all the major decisions, which were then ratified by other attendees. The open meetings of all the delegations approved the decisions made by

6090-401: The United States was more likely to reduce the severity of the penalties than France was. (Lloyd George was the one who eventually pushed for better terms for Germany.) In 1914, Italy remained neutral despite the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary. In 1915, it joined the Allies to gain the territories promised by the Triple Entente in the secret Treaty of London : Trentino ,

6195-400: The Wilson line did not give sufficient protection to the Trieste–Pula railway. Tittoni altered the course of negotiations by abandoning the Treaty of London and strengthening the Franco-Italian alliance, but he did not accept President Wilson's proposed "line". The French diplomat André Tardieu worked as an intermediary between Tittoni and the Americans, and he first suggested the creation of

6300-399: The advice of Chief of Staff Armando Diaz , ordered Rainer to land a troop of marines. The next day (15 November) Diaz requested that Allied troops take part in the occupation of Fiume. The commander of British forces on the Italian Front, the Earl of Cavan , was ordered to send a company "to show that the occupation is allied, and to keep order". That same day 2,000 Serbian soldiers arrived on

6405-416: The allied commanders. The arrival of an American battalion on 19 November prevented any outbreak of violence, but the Italians eventually posted 12,000 troops in the city—"an Italian military occupation in overwhelming force, for political reasons" wrote Admiral Edward Kiddle , and Commodore Howard Kelly , commanding the British Adriatic Force , could remark on 22 November that "the Italian occupation has all

SECTION 60

#1732773293228

6510-420: The appearance of an annexation to the Italian Crown." When Italy first began occupying land east of the Tagliamento , the former boundary between Italy and Austria-Hungary, it employed troops of the 332nd Infantry Regiment of the United States (which were under Italian command on the Italian Front ), with the goal of appearing to be an international occupation force. Although this misuse of American troops led

6615-412: The colonies that they wanted. Japan obtained mandates over German possessions north of the Equator . Wilson wanted no mandates for the United States, but his main advisor, Colonel House , was deeply involved in awarding the others. Wilson was especially offended by Australian demands and had some memorable clashes with Hughes (the Australian Prime Minister), this the most famous: The maintenance of

6720-480: The conference and had been expected to send representatives as part of the British delegation. Convinced that Canada had become a nation on the battlefields of Europe, Prime Minister Sir Robert Borden demanded that it have a separate seat at the conference. That was initially opposed not only by Britain but also by the United States, which saw any Dominion delegation as an extra British vote. Borden responded by pointing out that since Canada had lost nearly 60,000 men,

6825-494: The countries of the South Caucasus to Japan's unsuccessful proposal for racial equality to the other great powers . A central issue of the conference was the disposition of the overseas colonies of Germany (Austria-Hungary did not have major colonies, and the Ottoman Empire was a separate issue). The British dominions wanted their reward for their sacrifice. Australia wanted New Guinea , New Zealand wanted Samoa , and South Africa wanted South West Africa . Wilson wanted

6930-510: The crown. On 26 October the forbidden call to mutiny, Hurra-Rufe , was heard on the SMS  Erzherzog Friedrich in Kotor, and two days later on the battleships in Pula. The sailors organised councils but did not openly rebel or riot. On 31 October 1918 the Austro-Hungarian Navy, with all its ships and other craft, supplies, stores and facilities (ports, arsenals, etc.) was handed over to the National Council of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs by Admiral Miklós Horthy , acting under orders received from

7035-410: The decision to retain American ships in the Adriatic longer. The American occupation ended only after the Italian forces had evacuated their zone and the International Committee for the Destruction of Enemy Warships had allocated all the formerly Austro-Hungarian vessels under its command to the Italian Navy . The last American troops left aboard the USS  Reuben James on 29 September 1921, after

7140-400: The emperor the previous day. All non-Yugoslav sailors were furloughed and all officers were given the option to continue in service to the new nation. The emperor's order contained a proviso that in the future all the "nations" of Austria-Hungary should have a right to claim compensation for their share of the value of the fleet. The formal handover at Kotor took place on 1 November, the same day

7245-399: The great historic and contemporary states. This is, for me, our main and principal expansion." Japan sent a large delegation, headed by the former Prime Minister, Marquis Saionji Kinmochi . It was originally one of the "big five" but relinquished that role because of its slight interest in European affairs. Instead, it focused on two demands: the inclusion of its Racial Equality Proposal in

7350-440: The great watersheds of 20th-century geopolitical history. The conference involved diplomats from 32 countries and nationalities . Its major decisions were the creation of the League of Nations and the five peace treaties with the defeated states. Main arrangements agreed upon in the treaties were, among others, the transition of German and Ottoman overseas possessions as " mandates " from the hands of these countries chiefly into

7455-412: The hands of Britain and France; the imposition of reparations upon Germany ; and the drawing of new national boundaries, sometimes involving plebiscites , to reflect ethnic boundaries more closely. US President Woodrow Wilson in 1917 commissioned a group of about 150 academics to research topics likely to arise in diplomatic talks on the European stage, and to develop a set of principles to be used for

7560-458: The honour of the Italian navy while the war at least technically was still underway." Before the end of the day Fiume, Trieste and Pula had been occupied, and on 5 November Šibenik (Sebenico) followed. The Yugoslavs abandoned all the vessels they could not man to the Italians, and on 7 November the SMS ; Radetzky sailed out of Pula for the unoccupied port of Bakar (Buccari). On 9 November

7665-476: The international commission and the governments of Italy and Yugoslavia. Tittoni petitioned the international community, represented by French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau after the American and British heads of government had both gone home, and the Yugoslav government for time to allow Italy to rein in d'Annunzio. In October he proposed that Fiume itself and a coastal strip leading to it should be conceded to Italy, that besides Lošinj and Vis she should possess

7770-633: The islands of Cres (Cherso) and Lastovo (Lagosta) and that the city of Zadar (Zara) should be a free city under Italian protection. After the departure of the president, Frank Polk headed up the American Commission to Negotiate Peace in Paris. He was the driving force behind the memorandum of 9 December, signed by American, British and French delegates. This statement denied the Italians Fiume and most Yugoslav islands and even restricted their mandate over Albania. This memorandum

7875-564: The late Austro-Hungarian Empire, consider it desirable to send flag officer ... immediately into the Adriatic." Benson later wrote to Admiral William H. G. Bullard , commanding American naval forces in their zone, that "the general principles laid down by the President", i.e. the Fourteen Points , which stressed national self-determination , should be furthered, implying active American support for Yugoslav nationhood. The Naval Commission began its work in Fiume in early December, but in January

7980-531: The leaders of Britain, France, the United States and Italy, the conference resulted in five treaties that rearranged the maps of Europe and parts of Asia, Africa and the Pacific Islands, and also imposed financial penalties. Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and the other losing nations were not given a voice in the deliberations; this later gave rise to political resentments that lasted for decades. The arrangements made by this conference are considered one of

8085-499: The mandates could hardly be given to anyone except Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. Finally, the African colonies would need the careful supervision as "Class B" mandates, which could be provided only by experienced colonial powers: Britain, France, and Belgium although Italy and Portugal received small amounts of territory. Wilson and the others finally went along with the solution. The dominions received " Class C Mandates " to

8190-468: The most part ignored) were assigned to 52 commissions, which held 1,646 sessions to prepare reports, with the help of many experts, on topics ranging from prisoners of war to undersea cables, to international aviation, to responsibility for the war. Key recommendations were folded into the Treaty of Versailles with Germany, which had 15 chapters and 440 clauses, as well as treaties for the other defeated nations. The five major powers, France, Britain, Italy,

8295-544: The offer of Pula (Pola), Vlorë (Valona) and a central Dalmatian island group to the Italians effectively settled the strategic problem and balanced the two Adriatic powers. On 29 October 1918 the Austro-Hungarians evacuated Fiume, and the new Croatian mayor, Rikard Lenac , proclaimed the town's adherence to the National Council of the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs. On 30 October the Italian community set up

8400-565: The outskirts of Fiume. France and the United States also sent naval contingents to Fiume, and on 17 November some American, British and French naval officers met with Mayor Lenac and Ivan Lorković , a delegate from the Slovene–Croat–Serb state, in the abandoned governor's palace. It was agreed that the Serb troops should evacuate the area that afternoon and that the Italian marines should not be landed for another three days, pending orders from

8505-406: The peace conference "considering I was seated between Jesus Christ and Napoleon ." This was a reference to the great idealism of Wilson, who desired merely to punish Germany, and the stark realism of Clemenceau, who was determined to see Germany effectively destroyed. Like the other main Allied powers, the British public was more inclined to punish Germany and Austria. Britain's relationship with

8610-485: The permanent membership of Italy in the League of Nations and the promise by the Allies to transfer British Jubaland and the French Aozou strip to Italian colonies. Protectorates over Albania and Antalya were also recognized, but nationalists considered the war to be a mutilated victory , and Orlando was ultimately forced to abandon the conference and to resign. Francesco Saverio Nitti took his place and signed

8715-401: The postwar era. In doing so, Wilson ultimately began to lead the foreign policy of the United States towards interventionism , a move that has been strongly resisted in some United States circles ever since. Once Wilson arrived, however, he found "rivalries, and conflicting claims previously submerged." He worked mostly at trying to influence both the French, led by Georges Clemenceau , and

8820-539: The reservation was denied, the treaty was signed by all the delegations except that of China. Chinese outrage over that provision led to demonstrations known as the May Fourth Movement . The Pacific Islands north of the equator became a class C mandate, administered by Japan. Until Wilson's arrival in Europe in December 1918, no sitting American president had ever visited the continent. Wilson's 1918 Fourteen Points had helped win many hearts and minds as

8925-534: The rest. In the end the Commission's report was not publicised. When the Commission moved to Split, the admirals tasked the Yugoslavs with maintaining order, but on 24 February some Yugoslav (mostly Croat) citizens attacked some Italian officers meeting with local Italianophiles. Rombo demanded the Allies patrol the city, but Niblack and Benson vetoed it. On 8 October 1918, in response to the recent opening of

9030-668: The rights of Germany, and it then walked out of the conference. During the negotiations, the leader of the Japanese delegation, Saionji Kinmochi, proposed the inclusion of a " racial equality clause " in the Covenant of the League of Nations on 13 February as an amendment to Article 21: The equality of nations being a basic principle of the League of Nations, the High Contracting Parties agree to accord as soon as possible to all alien nationals of states, members of

9135-530: The secret Treaty of London , as well as Trieste, Austrian Littoral and part of Dalmatia ( Zadar , Lastovo , Palagruža ). Supreme Council of the Paris Peace Conference The Paris Peace Conference was a set of formal and informal diplomatic meetings in 1919 and 1920 after the end of World War I , in which the victorious Allies set the peace terms for the defeated Central Powers . Dominated by

9240-551: The senior statesmen stopped working personally on the conference in June 1919, the formal peace process did not really end until July 1923, when the Treaty of Lausanne was signed." The entire process is often referred to as the "Versailles Conference", although only the signing of the first treaty took place in the historic palace; the negotiations occurred at the Quai d'Orsay in Paris. The Conference formally opened on 18 January 1919 at

9345-400: The stated interests of its dominions , notably Australia and South Africa . Though both dominions could not vote on the decision individually, they were strongly opposed to the clause and pressured Britain to do likewise. Ultimately, the British delegation succumbed to imperial pressure and abstained from voting for the clause. Meanwhile, though Wilson was indifferent to the clause, there

9450-476: The text of the armistice. Italy demanded Austria to accept it until 3 November at 00:00 o'clock, and they did so. It entered into force the next day. In the meantime, the Italians reached Trento and Udine , landed in Trieste , and aimed at making as many POWs as possible. They got about 380.000 k.u.k. POWs. 30.000 of them died during their war captivity. The ceasefire was to start at 15:00 on 4 November, but

9555-464: The treaties. There was a general disappointment in Italy, which the nationalists and fascists used to build the idea that Italy was betrayed by the Allies and refused what had been promised. That was a cause for the general rise of Italian fascism. Orlando refused to see the war as a mutilated victory and replied to nationalists calling for a greater expansion, "Italy today is a great state... on par with

9660-409: The unity, territories, and interests of the British Empire was an overarching concern for the British delegates to the conference. Still, they entered the conference with more specific goals with this order of priority: The Racial Equality Proposal put forth by the Japanese did not directly conflict with any core British interest, but as the conference progressed, its full implications on immigration to

9765-469: The upcoming peace treaty. Massigli spoke of the desirability of "practical, verbal discussions" between French and German officials that would lead to a "Franco-German collaboration." Massigli told the Germans that the French thought of the "Anglo-Saxon powers" (the United States and the British Empire) as the major threat to France in the post-war world. He argued that both France and Germany had

9870-557: The war ended, not only in America but all over Europe, including Germany, as well as its allies in and the former subjects of the Ottoman Empire . Wilson's diplomacy and his Fourteen Points had essentially established the conditions for the armistices that had brought an end to World War I. Wilson felt it to be his duty and obligation to the people of the world to be a prominent figure at the peace negotiations. High hopes and expectations were placed on him to deliver what he had promised for

9975-412: The war, did not ask for either reparations or mandates. The Australian delegation, led by Australian Prime Minister Billy Hughes fought greatly for its demands: reparations, the annexation of German New Guinea , and the rejection of the Racial Equality Proposal. He said that he had no objection to the proposal if it was stated in unambiguous terms that it did not confer any right to enter Australia. He

10080-404: The whole guilt for the war on "the aggression of Germany and her allies". That provision proved very humiliating for German leaders, armies and citizens alike, and set the stage for the expensive reparations that Germany was intended to pay, only a small portion of which had been delivered when it stopped paying after 1931. The five great powers at that time, France , Britain , Italy , Japan and

10185-538: Was concerned by the increasing power of Japan. Within months of the declaration of war in 1914, Japan, Australia, and New Zealand had seized all of Germany's possessions in the Far East and the Pacific Ocean . The British had given their blessing for Japan to occupy German possessions, but Hughes was alarmed by that policy. French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau controlled his delegation, and his chief goal

10290-533: Was fierce resistance to it from the American public, and he ruled as Conference chairman that a unanimous vote was required for the Japanese proposal to pass. Ultimately, on the day of the vote, only 11 of the 17 delegates voted in favor of the proposal. The defeat of the proposal influenced Japan's turn from co-operation with the Western world , into more nationalist and militarist policies and approaches. The Japanese claim to Shantung faced strong challenges from

10395-408: Was kept by the local militia, which was often unreliable, and by Serbian troops which had begun to garrison the area in small numbers. This arrangement was supported by the Americans, but "[b]y early 1919, disturbed local conditions forced the [Naval] Committee for the Adriatic to circulate four armed inter-allied patrols night and day throughout the area under the command of the American admiral." After

10500-423: Was quickly abandoned by the British and French, whose prime ministers signed a compromise with their Italian counterpart on 14 January 1920 without American participation. Therein it was agreed to concede Fiume and a coastal strip to Italy and in exchange hive off the northern part of Albania and give it to Yugoslavia. To gain the latter's acceptance the signatories of the new compromise threatened to otherwise enforce

10605-656: Was set up in Zagreb on 5–6 October, and the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs was proclaimed there on 29 October and that same day the Sabor , the legitimate parliament of Croatia-Slavonia , declared independence from Austria-Hungary. On 1 December the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later Yugoslavia) was formed in Belgrade by union of this new state with Serbia and Montenegro . The main argument presented by Yugoslavia

10710-401: Was supposed to pay. Germany paid only a small portion, before reparations ended in 1931. According to British historian AJP Taylor, the treaty seemed to Germans "wicked, unfair" and "dictation, a slave treaty" but one which they would repudiate at some stage if it "did not fall to pieces of its own absurdity." As the conference's decisions were enacted unilaterally and largely on the whims of

10815-537: Was that the territories under consideration contained about seven million Slavs, almost the entire population. Of the Dalmatian islands, only Lošinj (Lussin) had an Italian majority. When the hinterland of Fiume was included along with its suburbs the Yugoslav majority increased further. The Italian claim on Gorizia and Gradisca was generally recognised, as was its claim on the Slavic settlements around Friuli . At

10920-467: Was to be Italian, but the Wilson Line ran further west of Fiume than that of the Treaty of London. Italy would have none of the rights in northern Dalmatia granted it by that treaty, but it would receive the islands of Vis (Lissa) and Lošinj (Lussin). The Yugoslav fleet , inherited from Austria-Hungary, was to be reduced, and the area of the frontier demilitarised generally. The Italians alleged that

11025-573: Was to weaken Germany militarily, strategically, and economically. Having personally witnessed two German attacks on French soil in the last 40 years, he was adamant for Germany not to be permitted to attack France again. Particularly, Clemenceau sought an American and British joint guarantee of French security in the event of another German attack. Clemenceau also expressed skepticism and frustration with Wilson's Fourteen Points and complained: "Mr. Wilson bores me with his fourteen points. Why, God Almighty has only ten!" Wilson gained some favour by signing

#227772