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149-705: The foundation of a new international was first discussed at a conference at Chur in October 1881. Delegates included members of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), Belgian socialists, the Federation of the Socialist Workers of France (FTSF), French and German-speaking Swiss delegations, two Polish delegates, and one delegate each for Russia and Hungary. The conference did not form an international that year, but decided to write

298-468: A Fachhochschule ). The town is home to the Cantonal School of Graubünden . As of  2014 , there were a total of 32,448 people employed in the municipality. Of these, 108 people worked in 26 businesses in the primary economic sector . A majority (68.5%) of the primary sector employees worked in very small businesses (less than ten employees). The remainder worked in 2 small businesses with

447-464: A "torch-bearer of Truth", an emissary of a hidden Spiritual Hierarchy that, according to theosophists, guides the evolution of mankind. This was repeated by Besant as early as 1896; Besant came to believe in the imminent appearance of the "emissary", who was identified by theosophists as the so-called World Teacher . In 1909, soon after Besant's assumption of the presidency, Leadbeater "discovered" fourteen-year-old Jiddu Krishnamurti (1895–1986),

596-543: A British socialist , theosophist , freemason , women's rights and Home Rule activist, educationist and campaigner for Indian nationalism. She was an ardent supporter of both Irish and Indian self-rule . She became the first female president of the Indian National Congress in 1917. For fifteen years, Besant was a public proponent in England of atheism and scientific materialism. Besant's goal

745-483: A South Indian boy who had been living, with his father and brother, on the grounds of the headquarters of the Theosophical Society at Adyar , and declared him the probable "vehicle" for the expected " World Teacher ". The "discovery" and its objective received widespread publicity and attracted a worldwide following, mainly among theosophists. It also started years of upheaval and contributed to splits in

894-735: A book by the American birth-control campaigner Charles Knowlton . It claimed that working-class families could never be happy until they were able to decide how many children they wanted. It also suggested ways to limit the size of their families. The Knowlton book was highly controversial and was vigorously opposed by the Church. Besant and Bradlaugh proclaimed in the National Reformer : We intend to publish nothing we do not think we can morally defend. All that we publish we shall defend. The pair were arrested and put on trial for publishing

1043-415: A book called Occult Chemistry . In 1906 Leadbeater became the centre of controversy when it emerged that he had advised the practice of masturbation to some boys under his care and spiritual instruction. Leadbeater stated he had encouraged the practice to keep the boys celibate, which was considered a prerequisite for advancement on the spiritual path. Because of the controversy, he offered to resign from

1192-407: A canton in 1803, Chur was chosen as its capital. Chur's cemetery is in the centre of town, and in the middle of the cemetery is a 13-tonne (13,000 kg) stone monument that dwarfs the nearby gravestones . The huge monolithic block of granite was erected in 1938 and for decades was largely ignored by passers-by until in 2023 a controversy arose after a Swiss historian discovered that it

1341-518: A civil partnership, 1,948 widows and widowers, 3,423 divorced residents and 2 people who did not answer the question. In 2014 there were 16,970 private households in Chur with an average household size of 2.00 persons. Of the 3,792 inhabited buildings in the municipality in 2000, about 37.8% were single-family homes and 39.7% were multiple-family buildings. About 20.5% of the buildings dated from before 1919 and 8.8% were built between 1991 and 2000. In 2013

1490-712: A close friendship. Besant made an abrupt public change in her political views, at the 1885 New Year's Day meeting of the London Dialectical Society, founded by Joseph Hiam Levy to promote individualist views. It followed a noted public debate at St. James's Hall on 17 April 1884, on Will Socialism Benefit the English People? , in which Bradlaugh had put individualist views, against the Marxist line of Henry Hyndman . On that occasion Besant still supported Bradlaugh. While Bradlaugh may have had

1639-449: A conquered race." She encouraged Indian national consciousness, attacked caste and child marriage, and worked effectively for Indian education. Along with her theosophical activities, Besant continued to actively participate in political matters. She had joined the Indian National Congress . As the name suggested, this was originally a debating body, which met each year to consider resolutions on political issues. Mostly it demanded more of

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1788-593: A degree course at London University. Then, 1879 to 1882, she was a student of physical sciences at Birkbeck Literary and Scientific Institution . Embarrassed by her activist reputation, the Institution omitted her name from the published list of graduands, and mailed her certificates to her. When Aveling in a speech in 1884 announced he had become a socialist after five years close study, Besant argued that his politics over that whole period had been aligned with Bradlaugh's and her own. Aveling and Eleanor Marx joined

1937-557: A degree, the international continued to be plagued by major factional disputes at each congress. By the time of the 1896 congress in London , considered "the most agitated, the most tumultuous, and the most chaotic of all the congresses of the Second International", a more concrete rift had developed between reformist and revolutionary approaches to socialist power, which resulted in many factions along national lines. Among

2086-553: A department. In the mandate period 2021–2024 ( Legislatur ) the City Council is presided by Stadtpräsident Urs Marti . Departmental tasks, coordination measures and implementation of laws decreed by the Municipal Council (parliament) are carried by the City Council. The regular election of the City Council by any inhabitant valid to vote is held every four years. Any resident of Chur allowed to vote can be elected as

2235-483: A half International or Two-and-a-half International), heavily influenced by Austromarxism . In 1923, IWUSP and the Second International merged to form the social democratic Labour and Socialist International which continued to exist until 1940. After World War II , a new Socialist International was formed to continue the policies of the Labour and Socialist International, which continues to this day. Another successor

2384-492: A legal battle to regain guardianship, against the will of the boys. Early in their relationship, Krishnamurti and Besant had developed a very close bond and he considered her a surrogate mother – a role she happily accepted. (His biological mother had died when he was ten years old.) In 1929, twenty years after his "discovery", Krishnamurti, who had grown disenchanted with the World Teacher Project , repudiated

2533-527: A major instance of antisemitism within the international, as although all of the delegates were ostensibly opposed to antisemitism, the resolution indicates that many delegates believed in the antisemitic canard that Jews controlled the banking system , or that financial capital was somehow intrinsically tied to Jews. In addition to antisemitism against Jewish bankers and capitalists, the British socialist newspaper Justice reported that "[t]here appears to be

2682-699: A member of the Theosophical Society and a prominent lecturer on the subject. As part of her theosophy-related work, she travelled to India. In 1898 she helped establish the Central Hindu School , and in 1922 she helped establish the Hyderabad (Sind) National Collegiate Board in Bombay (today's Mumbai ), India. The Theosophical Society Auditorium in Hyderabad, Sindh ( Sindh ) is called Besant Hall in her honor. In 1902, she established

2831-470: A member of the City Council. The current mandate period is from 1 January 2021 to 31 December 2024. The delegates are elected by means of a system of Proporz . The mayor is elected as such by public election by means of a system of Majorz , while the heads of the other departments are assigned by the collegiate. As of 2020 , Chur's City Council is made up of one representative of the FDP ( FDP.The Liberals , who

2980-444: A more reformist approach, arguing that socialists should pursue whichever reforms are "possible" at any given time, while still taking advantage of revolutionary opportunities. A Marxist faction led by Jules Guesde and Paul Lafargue , and supported by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels , denounced the possibilist faction as opportunists, founding the rival French Workers' Party in 1882. Confusingly, both parties would call themselves

3129-621: A much greater schism between the reformist and revolutionary wings of the international, which would eventually result in the Third International . In July 1920 at Geneva, the last congress of the Second International was held, following its functional collapse during the war. However, some European socialist parties refused to join the reorganised International and decided instead to form the International Working Union of Socialist Parties (IWUSP) (Second and

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3278-619: A new socialist manifesto to be approved at a subsequent meeting. According to Yuri Steklov , the conference was exceedingly poorly organized, and thus didn't engender confidence that a new international could be founded. Efforts to found a new international were greatly complicated by a factional divide within the FTSF between the Marxists and Possibilists . From its founding in 1879, a faction inspired (though not always endorsed) by Paul Brousse had moved away from revolutionary socialism towards

3427-631: A proposal by the Dutch delegate Henri van Kol that the international drop its anticolonial position, which was defeated 128 votes to 108. Part of this was due to a concerted effort by non-socialist parties and the media to question the patriotism of anti-colonial parties, for example the SPD and Catholic Centre Party of Germany initially opposed the Herero and Namaqua genocide before giving in to extreme political pressure. The Dutch Social Democratic Workers' Party

3576-490: A say for middle-class Indians in British Indian government. It had not yet developed into a permanent mass movement with a local organisation. About this time her co-worker Leadbeater moved to Sydney. In 1914, World War I broke out, and Britain asked for the support of its Empire in the fight against Germany . Echoing an Irish nationalist slogan, Besant declared, "England's need is India's opportunity". As editor of

3725-608: A sense of duty to society, and under the influence of the Tractarians . As a young woman, she was also able to travel in Europe. In summer 1867, Wood and her mother stayed at Pendleton near Manchester with the radical solicitor William Prowting Roberts , who questioned Wood's political assumptions. In December of that year, at age 20, Annie married the cleric Frank Besant (1840–1917), younger brother of Walter Besant , an evangelical, serious Anglican . The Rev. Frank Besant

3874-534: A small allowance from her husband. In 1878 Frank Besant successfully argued her unfitness, after Annie Besant's public campaigning on contraception , and had custody from then of both children. Later, Annie Besant was reconciled with her son and daughter. Her son Arthur Digby Besant (1869–1960) was President of the Institute of Actuaries, 1924–26, and wrote The Besant Pedigree (1930). Initially in London, Besant attempted to support her daughter, her mother (who died

4023-693: A strong feeling against the Jews in the Congress." The "Jewish question" was not revisited after the 1891 congress; however, after the establishment of the ISB there appears to have been some attempt to rectify the imbalance against Jewish organizations within the international by granting them additional consultative votes on relevant issues. Such votes were granted to the Jewish Socialist Workers Party and Zionist Socialist Workers Party at

4172-623: A total of 34 employees. The secondary sector employed 3,645 workers in 345 separate businesses. A minority (21.2%) of the secondary sector employees worked in very small businesses. There were 75 small businesses with a total of 1,731 employees and 12 mid sized businesses with a total of 1,141 employees. Finally, the tertiary sector provided 28,695 jobs in 3,375 businesses. In 2014 a total of 16,854 employees worked in 3,306 small companies (less than 50 employees). There were 65 mid-sized businesses with 9,093 employees and 4 large businesses which employed 2,748 people (for an average size of 687). In 2014

4321-512: A total of 7.7% of the population received social assistance. In 2015 local hotels had a total of 152,629 overnight stays, of which 47.8% were international visitors. There were two cinemas in the municipality in 2015, with a total of 4 screens and 736 seats. In 2014 the crime rate, of the over 200 crimes listed in the Swiss Criminal Code (running from murder, robbery and assault to accepting bribes and election fraud), in Chur

4470-717: A tribunal of its own but never had the title of Free Imperial City . In 1497–98, concerned about Habsburg expansion and with the Bishop of Chur quarrelling with Austria, the Three Leagues formed an alliance with the Swiss Confederation. In 1499 the Swabian War broke out between the Three Leagues and Austria and quickly expanded to include the Confederation. During the war troops from Chur fought under

4619-578: Is also the mayor), one of the SP ( Social Democratic Party ), and one new member of The Centre (former CVP/PDC and BDP/PBD) , giving the right parties a new majority of two out of three seats. The last regular election was held on 27 September 2020. The Gemeinderat of Chur for the mandate period of 2021–2024 The Municipal Council ( Gemeinderat ) holds legislative power . It is made up of only 21 members, with elections held every four years. The Municipal Council decrees regulations and by-laws that are executed by

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4768-609: Is famous in India because Indian monk Swami Vivekananda addressed the same event. In 1895, together with the founder-president of the Theosophical Society, Henry Steel Olcott , as well as Marie Musaeus Higgins and Peter De Abrew , she was instrumental in developing the Buddhist school, Musaeus College , in Colombo on the island of Sri Lanka. Besant saw freemasonry, in particular Co-Freemasonry , as an extension of her interest in

4917-514: Is linked by a motorway—the A13 . Chur is home to many buildings or other sites that are listed as Swiss heritage sites of national significance . There are two archeological sites in Chur, the old city which is a medieval city and Welschdörfli a prehistoric settlement and Roman Vicus . There are four archives or libraries; the bishop's palace (library and archive), the Cantonal Library,

5066-613: Is the meeting-point of the routes from Italy over many alpine passes ( Lukmanier Pass , Splugen Pass , and San Bernardino Pass ), as well as from the Engadine ( Albula Pass , Julier Pass ), so that it is the centre of an active trade (particularly in wine from the Valtelline ), though it also has a few local factories. The city's main railway station is where the Swiss Federal Railways system link with that of

5215-749: Is today based in Chennai , India, and is known as the Theosophical Society Adyar . Following the split, Besant devoted much of her energy not only to the society but also to India's freedom and progress. Besant Nagar , a neighbourhood near the Theosophical Society in Chennai, is named in her honour. In 1893, she was a representative of The Theosophical Society at the World Parliament of Religions in Chicago. The World Parliament

5364-607: Is true, the split between the Possibilists and Marxists threatened to create two separate internationals, with subsequent conferences in Brussels and Zürich respectively. However, after the anger aroused during the split congresses had died down, the Marxists ultimately agreed to join the Brussels conference and create a single, unified international. While the factional divide between the Possibilists and Marxists abated to

5513-868: The Alte Kaserne at Zeughaus 3 (the Old Armory), the Confederation Paper Mill, the Main Post Office, the new Town Hall, headquarters of the Rhätische Bahn and several old patrician houses. With the 2021 merger of Haldenstein into Chur, the Ruins of Haldenstein fortress and Haldenstein Castle became part of Chur. The first church on the cathedral site was built in the first half of the 5th century. The Romanesque crypt

5662-582: The Bryant & May match factory. She was drawn further into this battle of the "New Unionism" by a young socialist, Herbert Burrows , who had made contact with workers at the factory, in Bow . They were mainly young women, were very poorly paid, and subject to occupational disease, such as Phossy jaw caused by the chemicals used in match manufacture. Louise Raw in Striking a Light (2011) has, however, contested

5811-595: The Christian Catholic Church of Switzerland , there are 589 individuals (or about 1.79% of the population) who belong to the Eastern Orthodox Church , and there are 532 individuals (or about 1.61% of the population) who belong to another Christian church. There are 13 individuals (or about 0.04% of the population) who are Jewish , and 917 (or about 2.78% of the population) who are Muslim . There are 424 individuals (or about 1.29% of

5960-831: The Conservative Democratic Party (BDP/PBD) lost all their 3 seats due to Dissolution and merged with former CVP. In the 2015 federal election the most popular party was the SVP/UDC with 26.43% of the vote followed almost equally by the SP/PS (25.96%), then the CVP/PDC (13.74%), the FDP/PLR (12.06%), the BDP/PBD (11.97), and the GLP/PVL (9.71). In the federal election, a total of 11,102 votes were cast, and

6109-711: The Empire alone. After the invasion of the Ostrogoths it may have been renamed Theodoricopolis ; in the 6th century it was conquered by the Franks . The city suffered several invasions, by the Magyars in 925–926, when the cathedral was destroyed, and by the Saracens (940 and 954), but afterwards it flourished thanks to its location where the roads from several major Alpine transit routes come together and continue down

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6258-685: The Home Rule League to campaign for democracy in India, and dominion status within the British Empire. This led to her election as president of the Indian National Congress, in late 1917. In the late 1920s, Besant travelled to the United States with her protégé and adopted son Jiddu Krishnamurti , who she claimed was the new Messiah and incarnation of Buddha. Krishnamurti rejected these claims in 1929. After

6407-595: The Irish Home Rulers and supported them in her newspaper columns during what are considered crucial years, when the Irish nationalists were forming an alliance with Liberals and Radicals. Besant met the leaders of the Irish home rule movement. In particular, she got to know Michael Davitt , who wanted to mobilise the Irish peasantry through a Land War, a direct struggle against the landowners. She spoke and wrote in favour of Davitt and his Land League many times over

6556-735: The London matchgirls strike of 1888 . She was a leading speaker for both the Fabian Society and the Marxist Social Democratic Federation (SDF). She was also elected to the London School Board for Tower Hamlets , topping the poll, even though few women were qualified to vote at that time. In 1890 Besant met Helena Blavatsky , and over the next few years her interest in theosophy grew, whilst her interest in secular matters waned. She became

6705-404: The Parti Ouvrier (worker's party), and so were generally known as the Marxist party and Possibilist party. The Possibilist party would convene international socialist conferences several times, in 1883, 1884, and 1886. At the 1886 convention, it was decided that another convention would be held in 1889, but the Social Democratic Party of Germany disagreed with the decision, and the decisions at

6854-533: The Rathaus (Town Hall). The last regular election of the Municipal Council was held on 27 September 2020 for the mandate period ( German : Legislatur ) from January 2021 to December 2024. Currently the Municipal Council consist of 6 (-, no change) members of the Social Democratic Party (SP/PS) , 4 (-) Swiss People's Party (SVP/UDC) , 4 (+1) The Liberals (FDP/PLR) , 3 (+1) The Centre (former CVP/PDC and BDP/PBD) , 3 (+2) Green Liberal Party (GLP/PVL) , 2 (-) Freie Liste & Grüne (Free List & Greens), while

7003-426: The Rhaetian Railway (RhB). While the SBB lines serve most of Switzerland, most of Graubünden's internal rail traffic is served by RhB lines. One of the RhB lines (to Arosa) uses on-street running through streets in the centre of Chur and Sand in order to reach the station—see Chur Stadtbahn . There are three other railway stations in Chur: There is also a postbus station situated above the railway station. Chur

7152-404: The Rhine turns towards the north, in the northern part of the canton. The city, on the right bank of the Rhine, is reputedly the oldest town in Switzerland. The official language of Chur is German , but the main spoken language is the local variant of Alemannic , known as Grisonian German . Romansh and Italian are significantly spoken in the city as a result of the trilingual identity of

7301-410: The Social Democratic Federation , followers of Marxism , and then the Socialist League , a small Marxist splinter group which formed around the artist William Morris . In 1883 Besant started her own periodical, Our Corner . It was a literary and in time a socialist monthly, and published George Bernard Shaw 's novel The Irrational Knot in serial form. Meanwhile, Besant built close contacts with

7450-407: The voter turnout was 45.4%. Chur is twinned with: Chur has a population (as of 31 December 2020) of 36,336. In 2008 17.8% of the population were foreign nationals and by 2014 that number was 19.2%. Over the last 4 years (2010–2014) the population has changed at a rate of 2.34%. The birth rate in the municipality in 2014 was 9.2 and the death rate was 10.0 per thousand residents. Most of

7599-415: The 13th century the town had some 1,300 inhabitants and was surrounded by a line of walls. In the 14th century at least six fires damaged or destroyed the monasteries of St Luzi and St Nicolai and St Martin's church and twice destroyed much of the town. The Gotteshausbund (League of the House of God) was formed in 1367 in Chur to resist the rising power of the Bishopric of Chur and the House of Habsburg. Chur

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7748-414: The 1886 convention were generally seen to have lacked legitimacy. The SPD held its own convention in St. Gallen in 1887, whereupon the FTSF decided to hold their own international conference the following year. When the London International Trades Union Congress declared that a new international meeting would be called in Paris in 1889, both the SPD and Possibilists decided to fold their next congress into

7897-425: The 1893 Zurich congress, prompting many social democratic parties to expel their anarchist factions. An attempt to repeal the decision was made at the subsequent London congress of 1896, which was attended by anarchist figures like Errico Malatesta and Christiaan Cornelissen , supported by some Marxist figures including Keir Hardie , Tom Mann , and a very sickly William Morris. Discussion of anarchism would dominate

8046-421: The 1907 congress. After World War I, there were three Socialist Conferences in Switzerland. These served as a bridge to the creation of the Labour and Socialist International . Chronological list by ideology. After the Second International (1889–1916): Chur Chur is the capital and largest town of the Swiss canton of the Grisons and lies in the Grisonian Rhine Valley , where

8195-414: The Bishop's Vogt Heinrich Ammann in the Lower Engadin , in Prättigau and near Balzers . Troops from Chur also took part in the 1512 invasion of the Valtellina and the Second Musso War in 1530–31. In 1523 Johannes (Dorfmann) Comander was appointed parish priest of St Martin's Church and began preaching the new faith of the Protestant Reformation . It spread rapidly and by 1525 the bishop had fled

8344-480: The Cantonal Archive of Graubünden and the city archive of Chur. There are also four museums on the list; the Bündner Kunstmuseum (Art Museum), Bündner Naturmuseum (Natural History Museum), the Dommuseum and the Rätisches Museum in the Haus Buol. Three churches are included in the list; The cathedral of the Assumption , the Catholic Church of St. Luzi and the Reformed church of St. Martin. There are 15 other buildings that are also heritage sites; these include

8493-409: The Central Hindu College also agreed to the Government of India's precondition that the college should become a part of the new University. The Banaras Hindu University started functioning from 1 October 1917 with the Central Hindu College as its first constituent college. Blavatsky had stated in 1889 that the main purpose of establishing the society was to prepare humanity for the future reception of

8642-406: The Chur congress of 1881, instead opting to hold a separate congress in London which would result in the International Working People's Association or "black" international. As a result, anarchist organizations were not involved in discussions to found the Second International in 1889. Nonetheless, several anarchist individuals would hold positions in the international, and anarchists were actually

8791-442: The Church were those who despised women the most, "Against the teachings of eternal torture, of the vicarious atonement, of the infallibility of the Bible, I leveled all the strength of my brain and tongue, and I exposed the history of the Christian Church with unsparing hand, its persecutions, its religious wars, its cruelties, its oppressions." In the section named "Its Evidences Unreliable" of her work "Christianity", Besant presents

8940-475: The Church. In 1873 she left him and went to London. She had a temporary place to stay, with Moncure Conway. The Scotts found her a small house in Colby Road, Upper Norwood . The couple were legally separated and Annie Besant took her daughter Mabel with her, the agreement of 25 October 1873 giving her custody. Annie remained Mrs. Besant for the rest of her life. At first, she was able to keep contact with both children and to have Mabel live with her; she also got

9089-436: The City Council and the administration. The delegates are selected by means of a system of Proporz . The sessions of the Municipal Council are public. Unlike members of the City Council, members of the Municipal Council are not politicians by profession, and they are paid a fee based on their attendance. Any resident of Chur allowed to vote can be elected as a member of the Municipal Council. The parliament holds its meetings in

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9238-418: The Knowlton book. They were found guilty but released pending appeal. The trial became a cause célèbre , and ultimately the verdict was overturned on a technical legal point. Besant was then instrumental in founding the Malthusian League , reviving a name coined earlier by Bradlaugh. It would go on to advocate for the abolition of penalties for the promotion of contraception. Besant and Bradlaugh supported

9387-443: The Malthusian League for some 12 years. They were concerned with birth control, but were not neo-Malthusians in the sense of convinced believers in the tradition of Thomas Malthus and his demographic theories. Besant did advocate population control as an antidote to the struggle for survival . She became the secretary of the League, with Charles Robert Drysdale as President. In time the League veered towards eugenics , and it

9536-463: The Marxists (many of whom faced conditions of illegality at home) were concerned about information being discovered by the authorities. However, according to John Burns , William Morris , and some of the Marxist delegates, there were no real concerns around verification until Henry Hyndman proposed the measure, and the dispute was a deliberate ploy to split the congress in two, an allegation strongly rebuked by Annie Besant . Regardless of which account

9685-405: The Marxists. In her Autobiography , Besant follows her chapter on "Socialism" with "Through Storm to Peace", the peace of Theosophy. In 1888, she described herself as "marching toward the Theosophy" that would be the "glory" of her life. Besant had found the economic side of life lacking a spiritual dimension, so she searched for a belief based on "Love". She found this in Theosophy, so she joined

9834-432: The Rhine. The routes had already been used under the Romans but acquired greater importance under the Ottonian dynasty of the Holy Roman Empire . Emperor Otto I granted the town the right to collect tolls in 952 and appointed his vassal Hartpert as bishop of Chur in 958, giving the bishopric further privileges. In 1170 the bishop became a prince-bishop and kept total control over the road between Chur and Chiavenna . In

9983-415: The SPD and their Marxist supporters decided to hold a separate congress near the Possibilist congress, with the hope of uniting the two at a later date. The separation into two congresses in 1889 effectively forced foreign delegations to divide themselves up between supporters of the Possibilists, and supporters of the SPD. When the first meetings of the new international were held in Paris on 14 July 1889,

10132-450: The Second International's famous actions were its 1889 declaration of 1 May ( May Day ) as International Workers' Day and its 1910 declaration of the International Women's Day , first celebrated on 19 March and then on 8 March after the main day of the women's marches in 1917 during the Russian Revolution . It initiated the international campaign for the eight-hour working day . The International's permanent executive and information body

10281-484: The Theosophical Society and doctrinal schisms in theosophy. Following the discovery, Jiddu Krishnamurti and his younger brother Nityananda ("Nitya") were placed under the care of theosophists and Krishnamurti was extensively groomed for his future mission as the new vehicle for the "World Teacher". Besant soon became the boys' legal guardian with the consent of their father, who was very poor and could not take care of them. However, his father later changed his mind and began

10430-427: The Theosophical Society in 1906, which was accepted. The next year Besant became president of the society and in 1908, with her express support, Leadbeater was readmitted to the society. Leadbeater went on to face accusations of improper relations with boys, but none of the accusations were ever proven and Besant never deserted him. Until Besant's presidency, the society had as one of its foci Theravada Buddhism and

10579-513: The Theosophical Society, a move that distanced her from Bradlaugh and other former activist co-workers. When Blavatsky died in 1891, Besant was left as one of the leading figures in theosophy and in 1893 she represented it at the Chicago World Fair . In 1893, soon after becoming a member of the Theosophical Society, she went to India for the first time. After a dispute the American section split away into an independent organisation. The original society, then led by Henry Steel Olcott and Besant,

10728-466: The adult population, 4,770 people or 14.5% of the population are between 20 and 29 years old. 5,517 or 16.7% are 30 to 39, 4,616 or 14.0% are 40 to 49 and 4,254 or 12.9% are 50 to 59. 3,090 people or 9.4% of the population are between 60 and 69 years old, 2,314 or 7.0% are 70 to 79, there are 1,307 or 4.0% who are 80 to 89, 233 or 0.7% who are 90 to 99 and 5 who are 100 or more. In 2015 there were 15,557 single residents, 13,722 people who were married or in

10877-410: The advanced countries, whereupon a portion was given over to a labor aristocracy as a "bribe", in the form of higher wages. The Bolsheviks saw this privileged, highly-skilled strata of workers organized into craft unions as a threat within the labor movement, which would try to take leadership positions in order to gain higher wages at the expense of other proletarians. Lenin and Bukharin believed that

11026-573: The agricultural land has decreased by 87 ha (210 acres). Chur is situated at a height of 1,949 ft (594 m) above sea level , on the right bank of the torrent Plessur just as it issues from the valley Schanfigg and about a mile above its junction with the Rhine, almost entirely surrounded by the Alps , overshadowed by the Mittenberg (northeast) and Pizoggel (southwest), hills that guard

11175-731: The allied powers successfully met four times at the Inter-Allied Socialist Conferences of World War I . Anti-war parties first met as representatives from the neutral countries at the Neutral Socialist Conferences during the First World War , then as part of the Zimmerwald movement which successfully convinced the neutral, pacifist and revolutionary parties to split from the international. The Zimmerwald movement would lead to

11324-598: The better of the debate, followers then began to migrate into left-wing politics. George Bernard Shaw was the speaker on 1 January 1885, talking on socialism, but, instead of the expected criticism from Besant, he saw her opposing his opponent. Shaw then sponsored Besant to join the Fabian Society . The Fabians were defining political goals, rejecting anarchism in 1886, and forming the Fabian Parliamentary League, with both Besant and Shaw on its Council which promoted political candidacy. Unemployment

11473-477: The bishop’s power waning as he came increasingly under the influence of the nearby Habsburg County of Tyrol , the citizens sent a delegation to Emperor Frederick III . The Emperor reconfirmed the historic rights of Chur and also granted them extensive new rights which freed the city from the bishop's power. In 1465 the citizens wrote a constitution that granted all governmental power to Chur's guilds. All government positions were restricted to guild members, allowing

11622-627: The canton. On 1 January 2020 the former municipality of Maladers merged into Chur and on 1 January 2021 Haldenstein also merged. Archaeological evidence of settlement at the site, in the Eastern Alps , goes back as far as the Pfyn culture (3900-3500 BC), making Chur one of the oldest settlements in Switzerland. Remains and objects from the Bronze and Iron Ages have also been found in

11771-599: The case of why the Gospels are not authentic: "before about A.D. 180 there is no trace of FOUR gospels among the Christians." Besant and Bradlaugh set up the Freethought Publishing Company at the beginning of 1877; it followed the 1876 prosecution of Charles Watts , and they carried on his work. They became household names later that year, when they published Fruits of Philosophy ,

11920-549: The city and Protestant services were taking place in the churches of St Martin and St Regula. The Ilanz articles of 1524 and 1526 allowed each resident of the Three Leagues to choose their religion and sharply reduced the political and secular power of the Bishop of Chur and all monasteries in League territory. By 1527 all of Chur except the bishop's estates had adopted the Reformation. On 1 January 1529 Abbot Theodore Schlegel

12069-531: The city. Two years later, on 21 October 1576, another 53 houses were burned. Two years after the 1576 fire, the perpetrator, Hauptmann Stör, was executed. After the Napoleonic Wars the Three Leagues became the canton of Graubünden in 1803. The guild constitution of the city of Chur lasted until 1839 and in 1874 the Burgergemeinde was replaced by an Einwohnergemeinde . When Graubünden became

12218-568: The coming decades. Bradlaugh's family circumstances changed in May 1877 with the death of his wife Susannah, an alcoholic who had left him for James Thomson . His two children, Alice then aged 21, and Hypatia then 19, returned to live with him from his in-laws. He had been able to take a house in St John's Wood in February of that year, at 20 Circus Road, near Besant. They continued what had become

12367-434: The congress would pass an amended resolution targeting "philo-semitic tyranny", noting that many Jewish bankers were "great oppressors of labour". Regnard stated that he believed many Jews owned the newspapers, while Argyriades stated his belief that Jews owned the banks and many industries. The Times reported that the pair's amendment was greeted with applause and was passed with only minor opposition. This has been noted as

12516-416: The congress, but the anarchists were not successful in reversing their expulsion. Bolshevik figures like Vladimir Lenin and Nikolai Bukharin gained international notability during the war years for their criticisms of the international's inability to coordinate an anti-war opposition. Lenin and Bukharin based their critique in a theory of imperialism , associating the reformism and social imperialism of

12665-406: The day, whilst winter means are around freezing, with daytime temperatures being about 5 °C (41 °F). Between 1981 and 2010 Chur had an average of 104.6 days of rain per year and on average received 849 mm (33.4 in) of precipitation . The wettest month was August, with an average of 112 mm (4.4 in) of precipitation over an average of 11.2 days. The driest month of the year

12814-596: The days of the First International, which was frequently characterized by clashes between the state socialists (ie. the Lassallists , Marxists and Blanquists ) on one hand, and the anarchists (ie. the mutualists and collectivists ) on the other. Tensions reached their peak after the Hague Congress of 1872 , wherein an attempt was made to expel Mikhail Bakunin and James Guillaume and move

12963-661: The dominant faction within several of the ostensibly Marxist organizations, such as the Social Democratic League . Despite holding positions as delegates, and ostensibly being welcome during the first two congresses, expressions of anarchist ideas were often shouted down, and in one incident Francesco Saverio Merlino faced violence from the other delegates, but was shielded by delegates from the British Socialist League. Anarchist individuals and factions would ultimately be officially excluded at

13112-470: The eastern sector of the centre of the current city. These include Bronze Age Urnfield and Laugen-Melaun settlements from 1300 to 800 BC and Iron Age settlements from the 5th to 3rd centuries BC. The Roman Empire conquered the area that then came to be known as the Roman province of Raetia in 15 BC . Under emperor Diocletian (late 3rd century AD), the existing settlement of Curia Raetorum (later Chur)

13261-618: The electors to vote for me, and the non-electors to work for me because women are wanted on the Board and there are too few women candidates." From the early 1880s Besant had also been an important feminist leader in London, with Alice Vickery , Ellen Dana Moncure and Millicent Fawcett . This group, at the South Place Ethical Society , had a national standing. She frequented the home of Richard and Emmeline Pankhurst on Russell Square , and Emmeline had participated in

13410-424: The end of 1888. Besant was further involved in the London dock strike of 1889 . The dockers, casual workers who were employed by the day, were led by Ben Tillett in a struggle for the "Dockers' Tanner". Besant helped Tillett draw up the union's rules and played an important part in the meetings and agitation which built up the organisation. She spoke for the dockers at public meetings and on street corners. Like

13559-678: The entrance to the deep-cut valley Schanfigg. The altitude in the city area varies from 600 meters (2,000 ft) above sea level to 1,800 meters (5,900 ft) above sea level and the Churer Hausberg Brambrüesch (accessible from the Old Town ) is 2,174 meters (7,133 ft) above sea level . The water of Chur's spring is exported and sold as Passugger mineral water. Chur has an oceanic climate in spite of its inland position. Summers are warm and sometimes hot, normally averaging around 25 °C (77 °F) during

13708-659: The first overseas Lodge of the International Order of Co-Freemasonry, Le Droit Humain . Over the next few years, she established lodges in many parts of the British Empire . In 1907 she became president of the Theosophical Society, whose international headquarters were, by then, located in Adyar , Madras , ( Chennai ). Besant also became involved in politics in India, joining the Indian National Congress . When World War I broke out in 1914, she helped launch

13857-514: The first three degrees and Annie returned to England, bearing a Charter and founded there the first Lodge of International Mixed Masonry, Le Droit Humain." Besant eventually became the Order's Most Puissant Grand Commander and was a major influence in the international growth of the Order. Besant met fellow theosophist Charles Webster Leadbeater in London in April 1894. They became close co-workers in

14006-605: The following year) and herself with needlework . Besant began in 1874 to write for the National Reformer , the organ of the National Secular Society (NSS), run by Charles Bradlaugh . She also continued to write for Thomas Scott's small press. On the account given by W. T. Stead , Besant had encountered the National Reformer on sale in the shop of Edward Truelove . Besant had heard of Bradlaugh from Moncure Conway. She wrote to Bradlaugh and

14155-517: The founding of the international, Paul Lafargue affirmed that socialists were "brothers with a single common enemy [...] private capital, whether it be Prussian, French, or Chinese." The 1907 conference at Stuttgart resulted in a joint resolution which stated that "struggle against militarism cannot be separated from the Socialist class struggle in general." The extraordinary congress in Basel in 1912

14304-541: The freethinker and publisher Thomas Scott . Encouraged by Scott, Besant wrote an anonymous pamphlet On the Deity of Jesus of Nazareth , by "the wife of a beneficed clergyman", which appeared in 1872. Ellen Dana Conway, wife of Moncure Conway befriended Annie at this time. The Besants made an effort to repair the marriage. The tension came to a head when Annie Besant refused to attend Communion , which Frank Besant demanded, now fearing for his own reputation and position in

14453-403: The general council to New York City , effectively disbanding the organization. Competing anarchist and state socialist internationals attempted to continue on alone, but both ultimately ended in failure within five years. As a result of the 1872 split, anarchist and social democratic factions were reluctant to work with one another. The anarchist organizations ultimately refused to participate in

14602-701: The guilds to regulate all aspects of life in Chur. Since guild membership had become the only route to political power, local patricians and nobles quickly became guild members, often joining the winemakers guild. The Chur-led League of the House of God allied with the Grey League and the League of the Ten Jurisdictions in 1471 to form the Three Leagues . In 1489 Chur obtained the right to have

14751-528: The historiography of the strike, stating that "A proper examination of the primary evidence about the strike makes it impossible to continue to believe that Annie Besant led it." William Morris played some part in converting Besant to Marxism, but it was to the Social Democratic Federation of Hyndman, not his Socialist League, that she turned in 1888. She remained a member for a number of years and became one of its leading speakers. She

14900-609: The international in 1889 included some noted antisemites including Henry Hyndman, who led the English attendees at the Possibilist congress, but also a great many Jewish-led organizations and Jewish delegates. Despite these differences, at the 1891 congress in Brussels the delegates managed to pass a unanimous resolution against antisemitism; however, at the insistence of the Blanquist delegates Dr. A. Regnard and M. Argyriades,

15049-613: The international into three factions: the pro-war social democratic parties in the Central Powers, the pro-war parties of the Triple Entente, and the various anti-war parties, including the parties in neutral countries and many pacifist or revolutionary socialist parties. The leadership of the international, especially Secretary General of the ISB Camille Huysmans, attempted to coordinate meetings between

15198-486: The international, the "who started it?" theorists represented by Georgi Plekhanov , and the more nuanced "saccharo-conciliatory chauvinis[ts]" represented by Karl Kautsky . Plekhanov generally agreed with the Entente, believing that German warmongering was a criminal act that needed to be punished by an international coalition. Kautsky suggested that the principle of national self-determination gave each national proletariat

15347-529: The island of Sri Lanka , where Henry Olcott did the majority of his useful work. Under Besant's leadership there was more stress on the teachings of "The Aryavarta", as she called central India, as well as on esoteric Christianity. Besant set up a new school for boys, the Central Hindu College (CHC) at Banaras which was formed on underlying theosophical principles, and which counted many prominent theosophists in its staff and faculty. Its aim

15496-519: The jailed workers and support for their families. In its aftermath the Law and Liberty League, defending freedom of expression , was formed by Besant and others, and Besant became editor of The Link , its journal. Besant's involvement in the London matchgirls strike of 1888 came after a Fabian Society talk that year on female labour by Clementina Black . Besant wrote in The Link about conditions at

15645-500: The leadership of the international, especially in the pro-war parties, were largely labor aristocrats or else were influenced by a labor aristocratic ideology. While the labor aristocracy thesis informed the Bolsheviks' general critique of the international, Lenin also had more specific criticisms of the leaders of the international who had sided with the pro-war parties. Lenin believed that there were really two pro-war ideologies in

15794-426: The marriage was already under strain. As Besant wrote in her Autobiography , "we were an ill-matched pair". Money was short and Frank Besant was parsimonious. Annie Besant was sure a third child would impose too much on the family finances. She wrote short stories, books for children, and articles, the money she earned being controlled by her husband. Besant began to question her own faith, after her daughter Mabel

15943-629: The match-girls, the dockers won public support for their struggle, and the strike was won. In 1889, Besant was asked to write a review for the Pall Mall Gazette on The Secret Doctrine , a book by H. P. Blavatsky . After reading it, she sought an interview with its author, meeting Blavatsky in Paris. In this way, she was converted to Theosophy. She allowed her membership of the Fabian Society to lapse (1890) and broke her links with

16092-461: The matchgirl organisation. Besant came out on top of the poll in Tower Hamlets , with over 15,000 votes. She wrote in the National Reformer : "Ten years ago, under a cruel law, Christian bigotry robbed me of my little child. Now the care of the 763,680 children of London is placed partly in my hands." Financial constraints meant that Besant closed down both Our Corner and The Link at

16241-676: The new one, creating one large international meeting. However, the SPD had only joined the new meeting on the condition that the hosts would not ask for records and names from the delegates, since the SPD could have faced immediate dissolution and ejection from the Reichstag if the German government discovered it had sent delegates abroad. When the Trade Union Congress responded that delegates would only be considered legitimate if they could prove their mandate with appropriate records,

16390-578: The oath of loyalty. It took more than six years before the matter was completely resolved, in Bradlaugh's favour, after a series of by-elections and court appearances. He was an individualist and opposed to socialism in any form. While he defended free speech, he was very cautious about encouraging working-class militancy. Edward Aveling , a rising star in the National Secular Society, tutored Besant during 1879, and she went on to

16539-568: The outbreak of war, all of the major socialist parties in belligerent nations (with the notable exception of the Independent Labour Party ) had issued statements in full support of war. This took many socialist parties in neutral countries by surprise, such as the Romanian Social Democrats , who initially refused to print the SPD's endorsement of war, believing it to be a forgery. The war effectively split

16688-408: The population (as of 2000 ) speak German (81.0%), with Italian being second most common (6.4%) and Romansh being third (5.3%). As of 2000 the gender distribution of the population was 47.9% male and 52.1% female. The age distribution as of 2000 in Chur is; 3,087 children or 9.4% of the population are between 0 and 9 years old. 1,602 or 4.9% are 10 to 14 and 2,194 teenagers or 6.7% are 15 to 19. Of

16837-431: The population) who belong to another church (not listed on the census), 1,998 (or about 6.06% of the population) belong to no church, are agnostic or atheist , and 1,589 individuals (or about 4.82% of the population) did not answer the question. In Chur about 70.3% of the population (between age 25 and 64) have completed either non-mandatory upper secondary education or additional higher education (either University or

16986-498: The rate of construction of new housing units per 1000 residents was 7.71. The vacancy rate for the municipality, in 2015 , was 0.6%. The historical population is given in the following chart: From the 2000 census , 14,713 or 44.6% are Roman Catholic , while 12,199 or 37.0% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, there are 15 individuals (or about 0.05% of the population) who belong to

17135-414: The right to defend itself, including violence against other proletarians. Lenin believed that both positions represented different attempts to rationalize labor aristocratic ideology. Despite issuing a statement against colonialism at the 1896 London congress, the international was criticized by anti-colonial figures for providing insufficient opposition to colonial expansion. While the pre-war international

17284-598: The rights of women and the greater brotherhood of man and saw co-freemasonry as a "movement which practised true brotherhood, in which women and men worked side by side for the perfecting of humanity. She immediately wanted to be admitted to this organisation", known now as the International Order of Freemasonry for Men and Women, "Le Droit Humain" . The link was made in 1902 by the theosophist Francesca Arundale, who accompanied Besant to Paris, along with six friends. "They were all initiated, passed, and raised into

17433-711: The role that many theosophists expected him to fulfil. He dissolved the Order of the Star in the East , an organisation founded to assist the World Teacher in his mission, and eventually left the Theosophical Society and theosophy at large. He spent the rest of his life travelling the world as an unaffiliated speaker, becoming in the process widely known as an original, independent thinker on philosophical, psychological, and spiritual subjects. His love for Besant never waned, as also

17582-484: The special status of Christianity and allowed her to act as one of its public speakers. On 6 March 1881 she spoke at the opening of Leicester Secular Society 's new Secular Hall in Humberstone Gate, Leicester. The other speakers were George Jacob Holyoake , Harriet Law and Bradlaugh. Bradlaugh was elected to Parliament in 1881. Because of his atheism, he asked to be allowed to affirm , rather than swear

17731-415: The theosophical movement and would remain so for the rest of their lives. Leadbeater claimed clairvoyance and reputedly helped Besant become clairvoyant herself in the following year. In a letter dated 25 August 1895 to Francisca Arundale, Leadbeater narrates how Besant became clairvoyant. Together they clairvoyantly investigated the universe, matter, thought-forms, and the history of mankind, and co-authored

17880-638: The two factions were still discussing the possibility of unity. The two meetings had effectively divided the entire European socialist movement into two camps: the Possibilists, supported by the British Social Democratic Federation , and the Marxists, supported by the SPD, the British Socialist League , and most of the other European delegates. The Possibilists insisted upon recording the names and documentation of delegates so as to verify their mandate, while

18029-505: The various parties, including one-on-one meetings between pro-war leaders from opposing sides, but by July 1916 the ISB's attempts had failed. Despite the failure to bring the various parties together into a single congress, each faction would hold its own conferences during the war. The German, Austrian, and Hungarian pro-war parties successfully met at the Vienna Socialist Conference of 1915 . The pro-war parties in

18178-399: The various pro-war parties with the rise of monopoly capital and imperialist superprofits . The Bolsheviks believed that monopoly capitalists had created large national blocs of capital which sought to divide the world among themselves, a process which created superprofits either through tariffs, or as a side-effect of capital export. Superprofits extracted from colonized areas were diverted to

18327-589: The war, for peace, and for the settlement of the Austro-Serbian conflict by international arbitration.” The antimilitarist French Section of the Workers' International (SFIO) leader Jean Jaurès 's assassination a few days before the beginning of the First World War generated an outpouring of antimilitarist sentiment from many members of the socialist international. Nonetheless, immediately after

18476-441: The war, she continued to campaign for Indian independence and for the causes of theosophy, until her death in 1933. Annie Wood was born on 1 October 1847 in London , the daughter of William Burton Persse Wood (1816–1852) and his wife Emily Roche Morris (died 1874). Her father was English, attended Trinity College Dublin , and attained a medical degree; her mother was an Irish Catholic . Her paternal grandfather Robert Wright Wood

18625-416: Was "ethical imperialism". Ho Chi Minh wrote that the Second International's pro-colonial reputation led him to support the Third International instead. From its outset, one of the objectives of the international was to build a consensus on the " Jewish question ", a contemporary term for debates on the civil, legal, national, and political status and treatment of Jews as a minority group. The founders of

18774-428: Was 68.6 per thousand residents, only slightly higher than the national average of 64.6 per thousand. During the same period the rate of drug crimes was 15.7 per thousand residents, which is about one and a half times the national rate. The rate of violations of immigration, visa and work-permit laws was 2.4 per thousand residents, or about half the national rate. Chur is 120 kilometres (75 miles) by rail from Zürich, and

18923-506: Was February with an average of 47 mm (1.9 in) of precipitation over 6.6 days. Blazon: Argent, a city gate gules with three merlons , within which a capricorn rampant sable, langued and viriled of the second. The City Council ( Stadtrat ) constitutes the executive government of the City of Chur and operates as a collegiate authority . It is composed of only three councilors ( German : Stadtrat/ Stadträtin ), each presiding over

19072-436: Was a brother of Sir Matthew Wood, 1st Baronet . Wood's father died when she was five years old, leaving a son, Henry Trueman Wood, and one daughter. Her mother supported Henry's education at Harrow School , by running a boarding house there. Annie was fostered by Ellen Marryat, sister of the author Frederick Marryat , who ran a school at Charmouth , until age 16. She returned to her mother at Harrow self-confident, aware of

19221-562: Was a central issue of the time, and in 1887 some of the London unemployed started to hold protests in Trafalgar Square . Besant agreed to appear as a speaker at a meeting on 13 November. The police tried to stop the assembly, fighting broke out, and troops were called. Many were hurt, one man died, and hundreds were arrested; Besant offered herself for arrest, an offer disregarded by the police. The events became known as Bloody Sunday . Besant threw herself into organising legal aid for

19370-645: Was a graduate of Emmanuel College, Cambridge , ordained priest in 1866, but had no living: in 1866 he was teaching at Stockwell Grammar School as second master, and in 1867 he moved to teach at Cheltenham College as assistant master. In 1872, he became vicar of Sibsey in Lincolnshire, a benefice in the gift of the Lord Chancellor —who was Lord Hatherley , a Wood family connection, son of Sir Matthew Wood, 1st Baronet. The Besant family, with their two children, Arthur and Mabel , moved to Sibsey, but

19519-404: Was a prolific writer and a powerful orator. She addressed causes including freedom of thought , women's rights, secularism , birth control , Fabian socialism and workers' rights . Margaret Cole called her "the finest woman orator and organiser of her day". Besant opined that for centuries the leaders of Christian thought spoke of women as a necessary evil and that the greatest saints of

19668-746: Was accepted as an NSS member. She first heard him speak on 2 August 1874. Through Bradlaugh, Besant met and became a supporter of Joseph Arch , the farmworkers' leader. Her career as a platform speaker began on 25 August 1874, with topic "The Political Status of Women". The lecture was at the Co-operative Hall, Castle Street, Long Acre in Covent Garden. It was followed in September by an invitation from Moncure Conway to speak at his Camden Town church on "The True Basis of Morality". Besant published an essay under this title, in 1882. She

19817-466: Was from the outset an individualist organisation, also for many members supportive of a social conservatism that was not Besant's view. Her pamphlet The Law of Population (1878) sold well. Besant was a leading member of the National Secular Society alongside Charles Bradlaugh. She attacked the status of the Church of England as established church . The NSS argued for a secular state and an end to

19966-465: Was largely devoted to a discussion of rising militarism, which resulted in a manifesto stating that the working classes should "exert every effort in order to prevent the outbreak of war by the means they consider most effective." Finally on July 29, 1914, the ISB held an emergency meeting wherein it “resolved unanimously that it shall be the duty of the workers of all nations concerned not only to continue but to further intensify their demonstrations against

20115-510: Was made the capital of the newly established province of Raetia prima . In the 4th century Chur became the seat of the first Christian bishopric north of the Alps. Despite a legend assigning its foundation to an alleged British king, St Lucius, the first known bishop is one Asinio in AD 451. The bishop soon acquired great temporal powers, especially after 831 when his dominions were made dependent on

20264-487: Was originally built as propaganda for the Nazi regime. Chur has an area (as of the 2004/09 survey) of 54.33 km (20.98 sq mi). About 17.6% is used for agricultural purposes and 52.1% is forested. Of the rest of the land, 26.5% is settled (buildings or roads) and 3.9% is unproductive land. Over the past two decades (1979/85–2004/09) the amount of land that is settled has increased by 86 ha (210 acres) and

20413-476: Was particularly insistent on the legitimacy of a "socialist colonialism", and opposed most anti-colonial resolutions on the basis that colonialism under a socialist government could be benevolent and mutually beneficial. The French SFIO likewise supported a policy of "national colonialism", while the right wing of the SPD supported "national imperialism", and the British Labour Party 's stated policy

20562-469: Was probably built in the 8th century, though the first record of it appears in 821 when the relics of St. Luzius were removed from the church. It may have been the site of a Carolingian scribes' school during the early middle ages. In 1149 it became the church of the Premonstratensian monastery. Annie Besant Annie Besant ( née Wood ; 1 October 1847 – 20 September 1933) was

20711-535: Was probably built under Bishop Tello (758–73). It contains remarkable paintings by Albrecht Dürer and Hans Holbein . The current building was built between 1154 and 1270. In 1272 it was dedicated to Saint Mary of the Assumption. The round arch window along the center axis is the largest medieval window in Graubünden. The late- Gothic high altar was completed in 1492 by Jakob Russ. The Church of St. Luzi

20860-418: Was publicly beheaded. Bishop Thomas Planta, a friend of St Charles Borromeo, tried, but without success, to suppress Protestantism. He died, probably poisoned, on 5 May 1565. During the 16th century the German language started to prevail over Romansh . In 1479 about 300 houses and stalls burned in another fire. Nearly a century later, on 23 July 1574, a fire destroyed 174 houses and 114 stalls, or about half

21009-553: Was relatively consistent in its opposition to an inter-imperialist conflict between European powers, it was often paternalistic towards colonial areas, and statements often mentioned a need to educate or civilize conquered peoples. By the Stuttgart congress of 1907, parties in the international had substantially shifted away from their earlier consensus on ostensible anticolonialism towards a mix of overtly pro-colonial, anti-colonial and neutral views. These divisions were made apparent in

21158-590: Was seriously ill in 1871. She consulted Edward Bouverie Pusey : by post he gave her advice along orthodox, Bampton Lecture lines, and in person he sharply reprimanded her unorthodox theological tendencies. She attended in London, with her mother, a service at St George's Hall given by the heterodox cleric Charles Voysey , in autumn 1871, and struck up an acquaintance with the Voyseys, reading in "theistic" authors such as Theodore Parker and Francis Newman on Voysey's recommendation. Voysey also introduced Besant to

21307-469: Was still a member of the Fabian Society, the two movements being compatible at the time. Besant was elected to the London School Board in 1888. Women at that time were not able to take part in parliamentary politics but had been brought into the London local electorate in 1881. Besant drove about with a red ribbon in her hair, speaking at meetings. "No more hungry children", her manifesto proclaimed. She combined her socialist principles with feminism: "I ask

21456-437: Was the International Socialist Bureau (ISB) based in Brussels and formed after the International's Paris Congress of 1900. Emile Vandervelde and Camille Huysmans of the Belgian Labour Party were its chair and secretary. Vladimir Lenin was a member from 1905. The pre-war period is notable for the repeated statements against militarism jointly issued by members of the international, which were largely ignored in 1914. At

21605-466: Was the Third International organised in 1919 by revolutionary socialists after the October Revolution and the creation of the Soviet Union. It was officially called the Communist International (Comintern) and lasted until 1943 when it was dissolved by then Soviet leader Joseph Stalin . The Second International had a complex and changeable relationship to anarchist groups and individuals. The conflict between anarchist and Marxist factions dated back to

21754-448: Was the case with Besant's feelings towards him; concerned for his wellbeing after he declared his independence, she had purchased 6 acres (2.4 ha) of land near the Theosophical Society estate which later became the headquarters of the Krishnamurti Foundation India. As early as 1902 Besant had written that "India is not ruled for the prospering of the people, but rather for the profit of her conquerors, and her sons are being treated as

21903-406: Was the chief town of the League and one of the places the League’s assemblies met regularly. A burgmeister (mayor) of Chur is first mentioned in 1413. The bishop's residence was attacked by the inhabitants in 1418 and 1422, when a series of concessions were wrung out of him. On 27 April 1464 most of the town was destroyed in a fire, which only the bishop's estates and St Luzi monastery survived. With

22052-418: Was to build a new leadership for India. The students spent 90 minutes a day in prayer and studied religious texts, but they also studied modern science. It took 3 years to raise the money for the CHC, most of which came from Indian princes. In April 1911, Besant met Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya and they decided to unite their forces and work for a common Hindu University at Banaras. Besant and fellow trustees of

22201-424: Was to provide employment, better living conditions, and proper education for the poor. She became a prominent speaker for the National Secular Society (NSS), as well as a writer, and a close friend of Charles Bradlaugh . In 1877 they were prosecuted for publishing a book by birth control campaigner Charles Knowlton . Thereafter, she became involved with union actions, including the Bloody Sunday demonstration and

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