Oscar Raúl Aguad (born May 7, 1950) is an Argentine politician who served as the Minister of Defense from 2017 to 2019, serving in the cabinet of President Mauricio Macri . He was a member of the Chamber of Deputies from 2005 to 2015, where he became chief of the UCR bloc.
105-618: Aguad was born in Córdoba to Hilda Beily and Raúl Aguad, in 1950. His family is of Syrian origin. His father had, in the 1930s, established the first piano retailer in Córdoba and later opened an art gallery . He enrolled at the National University of Córdoba , and earned a law degree with a specialization in corporate , tax , and criminal law . He married María Dolores Albarenque in 1976, and they had five daughters. He
210-681: A decisive battle against the Byzantines on 30 July. This defeat left Syria vulnerable to the Muslim invaders. Khalid decided to capture Damascus, the Byzantine stronghold. At Damascus, Thomas, son-in-law of Emperor Heraclius, was in charge. Having received intelligence of Khalid's march towards Damascus, he prepared for its defence, writing to Emperor Heraclius in Emesa for reinforcements. Moreover, Thomas, in order to get more time for preparation of
315-570: A cavalry force, caught up to the Romans using an unknown shortcut, and attacked them at the Battle of Maraj-al-Debaj , 305 kilometres (190 miles) north of Damascus. On 22 August, Abu Bakr, the first caliph, died, having made Umar his successor. Umar's first move was to relieve Khalid from command and appoint Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah as the new commander-in-chief of the Islamic army . Abu Ubaidah got
420-544: A decisive battle with the Byzantines. Abu Ubaidah agreed, and concentrated them at Jabiya . This maneuver delivered a decisive blow to Heraclius' plan, since the latter did not wish to engage his troops in open battle with the Muslim light cavalry. From Jabiya, again on Khalid's suggestion, Abu Ubaidah ordered the Muslim troops to withdraw to the Plain of the Yarmouk River, where the cavalry could be used effectively. While
525-691: A few short decades would lead to one of the largest empires in history , starting with a confrontation with the Persian Empire under the general Khalid ibn al-Walid . After successful campaigns against the Sassanids and the ensuing conquest of Iraq , Khalid established his stronghold in Iraq. While engaged with Sassanid forces, he also confronted the Ghassanids, Arab clients of the Byzantines. Medina soon recruited tribal contingents from all over
630-480: A liturgical language by Syriac Christians . English, and to a lesser extent French, is widely understood and used in interactions with tourists and other foreigners. Religious differences in Syria have historically been tolerated, and religious minorities tend to retain distinct cultural, and religious identities. Sunni Islam is the religion of 74% of Syrians. The Alawites , a variety of Shia Islam , make up 12% of
735-566: A major defeat for the Byzantines. This battle and subsequent clean-up engagements forever ended Byzantine domination of the Levant. Meanwhile, Umar occupied Yazdegerd III in a grand deception. Yazdegerd III lost his army at the Battle of Qadisiyyah in November, three months after Yarmouk, ending Sassanid control west of Persia . With the Byzantine army routed, the Muslims quickly recaptured
840-421: A mosaic of West and East. Conservative and liberally minded people will live right next to each other. Like the other countries in the region, religion permeates life; the government registers every Syrian's religious affiliation. However, the number of non-believers in Syria is increasing but there is no credible source or statistics to support this information. Syrian cuisine is dominated by ingredients native to
945-460: A partly Arab population, especially in its eastern and southern parts. The Arabs of Syria were people of no consequence until the migration of the powerful Ghassanid tribe from Yemen to Syria, who converted to Christianity and thereafter ruled a semi-autonomous state with their own king under Roman vassalage. The Ghassanid Dynasty became one of the honoured princely dynasties of the Empire, with
1050-461: A range of agricultural raw materials , and advocated greater revenue sharing benefits for the provinces . He was one of five Congressmen honored with a Parliamentary Prize in 2008 by Semanario Parlamentario ( Parliamentary Weekly ), and during the 2009–10 congress, was the body's most frequent speaker. His tenure as Mayor of Corrientes led to controversy, however, when Aguad took a US$ 60 million loan to cancel Cecacor bonds previously issued by
1155-511: A relatively larger corps, moved north to conquer Northern Syria. While the Muslims were occupied at Fahl, Heraclius, sensing an opportunity, quickly sent an army under General Theodras to recapture Damascus, where a small Muslim garrison was left. Shortly thereafter, the Muslims, having just won the Battle of Fahl, were on their way to Emesa. In the meantime, the Byzantine army split in two, one deployed at Maraj al Rome ( Beqaa Valley ) led by Schinos;
SECTION 10
#17327718406821260-440: A siege, sent armies to delay or, if possible, halt Khalid's march to Damascus. One of these armies was defeated at the Battle of Yaqusa in mid-August near Lake Tiberias , 145 kilometres (90 mi) from Damascus. Another was defeated in the Battle of Maraj as Saffer on 19 August. These engagements had the desired effect, delaying Khalid long enough to prepare for a siege. However, by the time Heraclius' reinforcements had reached
1365-673: A state of collapse when it faced the new challenge from Arabia after being exhausted by recent Roman–Persian Wars , but utterly failed to tackle the challenge effectively. Military confrontations with the Byzantine Empire began during the lifetime of Muhammad . The Battle of Mu'tah was fought in September 629 near the village of Mu'tah , east of the Jordan River and Karak in Karak Governorate , between
1470-719: Is the most recurrent in Levantines (42–68%); the Peninsular Arabian and East African ancestral components represent around 25% of Syrian genetic make-up. The paternal Y-DNA haplogroup J1, which reaches its highest frequencies in Yemen 72.6% and Qatar 58.3%, accounted for 33.6% of Syrians. The J2 group accounted for 20.8% of Syrians; other Y-DNA haplogroups include the E1B1B 12.0%, I 5.0%, R1a 10.0% and R1b 15.0%. The Syrians are closest to other Levantine populations:
1575-418: Is unjust prospers or achieves victory over its enemies. When you meet the enemy turn not your back on him; for whoever turns his back, except to manoeuvre for battle or to regroup, earns the wrath of Allah. His abode shall be hell, and what a terrible place it is! And when you have won a victory over your enemies, don't kill women or children or the aged and do not slaughter beasts except for eating. And break not
1680-512: Is usually served with Arab-style tea – highly concentrated black tea, which is often highly sweetened and served in small glass cups. Another popular drink, especially with Christians and non-practicing Muslims, is the arak , a liquor produced from grapes or dates and flavored with anise that can have an alcohol content of over 90% ABV (however, most commercial Syrian arak brands are about 40–60% ABV). [REDACTED] Media related to People of Syria at Wikimedia Commons Muslim conquest of
1785-671: The Ridda wars (Arabic for the Wars of Apostasy). The Campaign of the Apostasy was fought and completed during the eleventh year of the Hijri. The year 12 Hijri dawned, on 18 March 633, with Arabia united under the central authority of the Caliph at Medina. Whether Abu Bakr intended a full-out imperial conquest or not is hard to say; he did, however, set in motion a historical trajectory that in just
1890-531: The Arabian peninsula . Only those who had rebelled during the Ridda wars were excluded from the summons and remained excluded from Rashidun armies until 636, when Caliph Umar fell short of manpower for the Battle of Yarmouk and the Battle of al-Qādisiyyah . The tradition of raising armies from tribal contingents remained in use until 636, when Caliph Umar organised the army as a state department. Abu Bakr organised
1995-516: The Armenian genocide and the Assyrian genocide and settled in Syria. There are also roughly 500,000 Palestinians , who are mostly descendants of refugees from the 1948 Israeli-Arab War. The community of Syrian Jews inside Syria once numbered 30,000 in 1947, but has only 200 today. The Syrian people's beliefs and outlooks, similar to those of most Arabs and people of the wider Middle-East, are
2100-543: The Battle of Muʿtah in 629 CE. However, the actual conquest did not begin until 634, two years after Muhammad's death. It was led by the first two Rashidun caliphs who succeeded Muhammad: Abu Bakr and Umar ibn al-Khattab . During this time, Khalid ibn al-Walid was the most important leader of the Rashidun army . It was the first time since the collapse of the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 539 BC, that
2205-612: The Cretans and Lebanese Armenians . Studying the genetic relation between Jews and Syrians showed that the two populations share a close affinity. Apparently, the cultural influence of Arabian expansion in the Eastern Mediterranean in the seventh century was more prominent than the genetic influx. However, the expansion of Islam did leave an impact on Levantine genes; religion drove Levantine Muslims to mix with other Muslim populations, who were close culturally despite
SECTION 20
#17327718406822310-773: The Euphrates . Starting from the 2nd century BC onwards, ancient writers referred to the ruler of the Seleucid Empire as the King of Syria or King of the Syrians. The Seleucids designated the districts of Seleucis and Coele-Syria explicitly as Syria and ruled the Syrians as indigenous populations residing west of the Euphrates ( Aramea ) in contrast to Assyrians who had their native homeland in Mesopotamia east of
2415-635: The Lebanese , the Palestinians and Jordanians ; this closeness can be explained by the common Canaanite ancestry and geographical unity which was broken only in the twentieth century with the advent of British and French mandates. Regarding the genetic relation between the Syrians and the Lebanese based on Y-DNA, Muslims from Lebanon show closer relations to Syrians than their Christian compatriots. The people of Western Syria show close relations with
2520-828: The Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon , becoming the accepted national name for the Arabic speakers of the Syrian Republic. Most Arabic speaking Syrians identify as Arabs. There is no contradiction between being an Arab and a Syrian since the Syrian Arab identity is multi-layered and being Syrian complements being Arab. In addition to denoting Syrian Arabs, the term "Syrian" also refer to all Syrian citizens, regardless of their ethnic background. In 2018, Syria had an estimated population of 19.5 million, which includes, aside from
2625-582: The Seleucid Empire , this term was also applied to The Levant , and henceforth the Greeks applied the term without distinction between the Assyrians of north Mesopotamia and Arameans of the Levant. The Greeks used the terms "Syrian" and "Assyrian" interchangeably to indicate the indigenous Arameans , Assyrians and other inhabitants of the Levant and Mesopotamia , Herodotus considered "Syria" west of
2730-514: The Syrian Desert . It is recorded that his soldiers marched for two days without a single drop of water, before reaching a predetermined water source at an oasis . Khalid thus entered Northern Syria and caught the Byzantines on their right flank. According to modern historians, this ingenious strategic maneuver unhinged the Byzantine defences in Syria. Ain Tamer , Quraqir, Suwa, Arak , and
2835-517: The ancient Near East . The Seleucids ruled the indigenous peoples of the Levant, whom they named "Syrians", as a conquered nation; Syrians were not assimilated into Greek communities, and many local peasants were exploited financially as they had to pay rent for Greek landlords. Outside Greek colonies , the Syrians lived in districts governed by local temples that did not use the Greek civic system of poleis and colonies. The situation changed after
2940-751: The 1880s for the name to begin to be widely used by the inhabitants to refer to themselves. Both Muslims and Christians agreed that the Muslims were not Syrians because they belonged to the Arabs while the Christians retained the Syrianism of antiquity. The spread of the Syrian "idea" amongst the Muslims can be traced to the efforts of Rashid Rida who contributed to the formulation of the Syrian Union Party's manifesto in 1918, demanding that Syria, in
3045-486: The Arameans, whom he calls Aramaei , indicating an extant ethnicity. Posidonius noted that the people called Syrians by the Greeks refer to themselves as Arameans. In his book The Great Roman-Jewish War , Josephus , a Hebrew native to the Levant, mentioned the Syrians as the non-Hebrew, non-Greek indigenous inhabitants of Syria. Syrians are mainly descended from the various ancient Semitic-speaking peoples of
3150-467: The Byzantine forces, according to rough estimates, was about 100,000. Abu Ubaidah informed the Caliph about the preparations made by the Byzantines in the third week of May 634. Because Abu Ubaida did not have experience as a commander of military forces in such major operations, especially against the powerful Roman Army, Abu Bakr decided to send Khalid ibn Walid to assume command. According to early Muslim chronicles, Abu Bakr said, "By Allah, I shall destroy
3255-498: The Byzantines. The communication between Northern Syria and Palestine was now cut off. Abu Ubaidah decided to march to Fahl , which is about 150 metres (500 ft) below sea level, where a strong Byzantine garrison and survivors of the Battle of Ajnadayn were present. The region was crucial because from here the Byzantine army could strike eastwards and cut Muslim communications with Arabia. Moreover, with this large garrison at their rear Palestine could not be invaded. Khalid, commanding
Oscar Aguad - Misplaced Pages Continue
3360-585: The Elder , and Ptolemy , reported that Arabs inhabited many parts of Syria, which according to modern historians indicate either an ethnic group or a nomadic way of life. The urheimat of the Arab ethnos is unclear; the traditional 19th century theory locates this in the Arabian Peninsula, while some modern scholars, such as David Frank Graf, note that the epigraphic and archaeological evidence render
3465-668: The Euphrates. However, the interchangeability between Assyrians and Syrians persisted during the Hellenistic period . In one instance, the Ptolemaic dynasty of the Hellenistic kingdom of Egypt applied the term "Syrian Village" as the name of a settlement in Fayoum . The Ptolemies referred to all peoples originating from Modern Syria and Palestine as Syrian. The term Syrian was imposed upon Arameans of modern Levant by
3570-662: The Ghassanid king ruling over the Arabs in Jordan and Southern Syria from his capital at Bostra . The last of the Ghassanid kings, who ruled at the time of the Muslim invasion, was Jabalah ibn al-Aiham . The Byzantine Emperor Heraclius , after re-capturing Syria from the Sassanians , set up new defense lines from Gaza to the south end of the Dead Sea. These lines were only designed to protect communications from bandits, and
3675-590: The Jizya. I entrust you to the care of Allah. Moving to their assigned target beyond Tabouk, Yazid's corps made contact with a small Christian Arab force that was retreating after a skirmish with the Muslim advance guard, after which Yazid made for the Valley of Arabah where it meets the southern end of the Dead Sea . As the main Byzantine defence line started from the coastal regions near Ghazahh, Yazid arrived at
3780-573: The Levant Byzantine Empire Sassanid Persia Caucasus Other regions The Levant Egypt North Africa Anatolia & Constantinople Border conflicts Sicily and Southern Italy Naval warfare Byzantine reconquest The Muslim conquest of the Levant ( Arabic : فَتْحُ الشَّام , romanized : Fatḥ al-šām ; lit. ' Conquest of Syria ' ), or Arab conquest of Syria ,
3885-645: The Levant" based on studies comparing modern and ancient DNA samples. Syrians cluster closely with ancient Levantine populations of the Neolithic and Bronze Ages. A Levantine ancestral genetic component was identified; it is estimated that the Levantine, the Arabian and East African ancestral components diverged 23,700–15,500 years ago, while the divergence between the Levantine and European components happened 15,900–9,100 years ago. The Levantine ancestral component
3990-400: The Levant; this helped to further strengthen the development of the Syrian national consciousness. Initially, most inhabitants were against the establishment of Syria as they considered this a step against Arab unity, but gradually, Faisal's Syria, which was declared an independent kingdom in 1920, prompted the Syrians to begin exploring the notion of Syrianism instead of pan-Arabism. Faisal
4095-468: The Muslim armies were gathering at Yarmouk, Khalid intercepted and routed the Byzantine advance guard, ensuring a safe path of retreat. The Muslim armies reached the plain in July. A week or two later, around mid-July, the Byzantine army arrived. The Byzantine commander-in-chief, Vahan, sent Ghassanid forces, under their king, Jabala, to gauge the Muslim strength. Khalid's mobile guard defeated and routed them,
4200-704: The Roman conquest in 64 BC; Semitic-speaking Syrians obtained the citizenship of Greek poleis , and the line separating the Greeks and the natives blurred. The idioms Syrian and Greek were used by Rome to denote civic societies instead of separate ethnic groups. Ancient Syria of the first millennium BC was dominated by the Aramaeans; they originated in the Northern Levant as a continuum of the Bronze Age populations of Syria. The Aramaeans assimilated most of
4305-470: The Romans and the friends of Satan with Khalid Ibn Al Walid." Khalid immediately set out for Syria from Al-Hirah , in Iraq , in early June, taking with him half his army, about 8000 strong. There were two routes towards Syria from Iraq: one was via Daumat-ul-Jandal, and the other was through Mesopotamia, passing through Raqqa . The Muslim armies in Syria were in need of urgent reinforcement, so Khalid avoided
Oscar Aguad - Misplaced Pages Continue
4410-493: The Romans. Pompey created the province of Syria , which included modern-day Lebanon and Syria west of the Euphrates, framing the province as a regional social category with civic implications. Plutarch described the indigenous people of this newly created Roman province as "Syrians", so did Strabo , who observed that Syrians resided west of the Euphrates in Roman Syria, and he explicitly mentions that those Syrians are
4515-671: The Sassanids' Arab allies, the Lakhmids . During the Roman period , beginning after the fall of Jerusalem in the year 70 , the entire region ( Judea , Samaria , and the Galilee ) was renamed Palaestina , subdivided into Diocese I and II. The Romans also renamed an area of land including the Negev , Sinai , and the west coast of the Arabian Peninsula as Palaestina Salutaris , sometimes called Palaestina III or Palaestina Tertia . Part of
4620-600: The Syrian Civil War also live outside Syria now, mostly in Turkey , Jordan , and Lebanon . Various sources indicate that the name Syria itself is derived from Luwian term "Sura/i", and the derivative ancient Greek name: Σύριοι , Sýrioi , or Σύροι , Sýroi , both of which originally derived from the Akkadian word Aššūrāyu ( Assyria ) in northern Mesopotamia , modern-day Iraq. However, during
4725-432: The University of Córdoba Foundation. He established Amparo Legal (Legal Recourse), a legal assistance office, in 1994, and later a law office. Ramón Mestre would be both a friend and political mentor to Aguad. Mestre was appointed to head a Federal intervention of politically troubled Corrientes Province by President Fernando de la Rúa in 1999, and recommended Aguad for the post of mayor of Corrientes . The former
4830-428: The Valley of Araba at about the same time as Amr bin Al Aas reached Elat . The two forward detachments sent by the Byzantine army to prevent the entry of Yazid's and Amr's corps, respectively, into Palestine, were easily defeated by them, though they did prevent the Rashidun forces from reaching their assigned objective. Abu Ubaidah and Shurhabil, on the other hand, continued their march, and by early May 634 they reached
4935-421: The advance guard of the larger Muslim army to come, sallied out of the fortified city and attacked Shurhabil, surrounding him from all sides; however, Khalid reached the arena with his cavalry and saved Shurhabil. The combined forces of Khalid, Shurhabil, and Abu Ubaidah then resumed the siege of Bosra , which surrendered some time in mid-July 634 CE, effectively ending the Ghassanid Dynasty. Here Khalid took over
5040-460: The advance guard, reached Fahl first and found that the Byzantines had flooded the plains by blocking the River Jordan . The Byzantine army was eventually defeated at the Battle of Fahl on 23 January 635. Next, the Muslim armies consolidated their conquest of the Levant as Shurhabil and Amr went deeper into Palestine. Bet She'an surrendered after a little resistance followed by the surrender of Tiberias in February. Umar, after having learned of
5145-455: The aforementioned majority, Kurds , Assyrians , Turks , Armenians and others. Before the Syrian Civil War , there was quite a large Syrian diaspora that had emigrated to North America ( United States and Canada ), European Union member states (including Sweden, France, and Germany), South America (mainly in Brazil , Argentina , Venezuela , and Chile ), the West Indies , Africa, Australia, and New Zealand. Six million refugees of
5250-418: The aftermath of World War I and the Ottoman withdrawal from the region, become an independent state and not part of larger Arab one ruled by the Hashemites of the Kingdom of Hejaz . Rida did not reject the Arab identity but recognized a Syrian uniqueness and advocated the idea of a Syrian state. In the end, Syria did become a separate state but under the Hashemite king Faisal . He entered Damascus in 1918 in
5355-415: The aftermath of the Ottomans' evacuation of the Levant at the end of World War I. His entry ignited the Syrian national consciousness after he declared an Arab government in the Levant centred in Damascus with him as prince. In June 1919, the Syrian National Congress , which included representatives from Palestine and Lebanon, demanded the full independence of Syria, within borders that encompass more or less
SECTION 50
#17327718406825460-498: The area was ruled by the Arab vassal state of the Ghassanids ' symmachos . During the last of the Roman-Persian Wars , beginning in 603, the Persians under Khosrau II had succeeded in occupying Syria, Palestine and Egypt for over a decade before being forced by the victories of Heraclius to conclude the peace of 628. Thus, on the eve of the Muslim conquests the Romans (or Byzantines as modern Western historians conventionally refer to Romans of this period) were still in
5565-424: The army into four corps, each with its own commander and objective. Not knowing the precise position of the Byzantine army , Abu Bakr ordered that all corps should remain in touch with each other so that they could render assistance if the Byzantines were able to concentrate their army in any operational sector. In case the corps had to concentrate for one major battle, Abu Ubaidah was appointed Commander-in-Chief of
5670-413: The bulk of the Byzantine defenses were concentrated in Northern Syria facing the traditional foes, the Sassanid Persians. The drawback of this defense line was that it enabled the Muslims , advancing from the desert in the south, to reach as far north as Gaza before meeting regular Byzantine troops. The 7th century was a time of rapid military change in the Byzantine Empire. The empire was certainly not in
5775-521: The capital of the Ghassanids. He ordered other Muslim commanders to concentrate their armies, still near the Syrian-Arabian border, at Bosra. At Maraj-al-Rahab, Khalid defeated a Ghassanid army in a quick battle, called the Battle of Marj-al-Rahit . Meanwhile, Abu Ubaida ibn al-Jarrah, the supreme commander of the Muslim armies in Syria, had ordered Shurhabil ibn Hasana to attack Bosra. The latter laid siege to Bosra with his small army of 4000. The Roman and Ghassanid Arab garrison, realizing that this might be
5880-442: The cavalry and relied heavily on his advice during the whole campaign. Soon after the appointment of Abu-Ubaidah as commander in chief, he sent a small detachment to the annual fair held at Abu-al-Quds, modern day Ablah , near Zahlé 50 kilometres (31 miles) east of Beirut. There was a Byzantine and Christian Arab garrison nearby, but the size of the garrison was miscalculated by the Muslim informants. The garrison quickly encircled
5985-488: The city Khalid had begun his siege, having reached Damascus on 20 August. To isolate the city from the rest of the region Khalid placed detachments south on the road to Palestine and in the north at the Damascus-Emesa route, and several other smaller detachments on routes towards Damascus. Heraclius' reinforcements were intercepted and routed at the Battle of Sanita-al-Uqab , 30 kilometres (20 mi) from Damascus. Khalid's forces withstood three Roman sallies that tried to break
6090-491: The command of the Muslim armies in Syria from Abu Ubaidah, according to the instructions of the Caliph. Massive Byzantine armies were concentrating at Ajnadayn to push the invading armies back to the desert. Early Muslim sources claim the Byzantine strength to have been 90,000, although most modern historians doubt the figures, yet consider this battle to be the key to breaking Byzantine power in Syria. On Khalid's instructions, all Muslim corps concentrated at Ajnadayn, where they won
6195-428: The command was given to Khalid ibn al-Walid and he succeeded in saving the rest of the forces. The surviving Muslim forces retreated to Medina . After the Farewell Pilgrimage in 632, the Muhammad appointed Usama ibn Zayd as the commander of an expeditionary force which was to invade the region of Balqa in the Byzantine Empire . This expedition was known as the Expedition of Usama bin Zayd and its stated aim
6300-417: The conquest of all Palestine, while Shurahbil moved against the coastal towns of Acre and Tyre . Yazid advanced from Damascus to capture the ports of Sidon , Arqa , Byblos and Beirut . By 635 CE , Palestine, Jordan and Southern Syria, with the exception of Jerusalem , Caesarea and Ashkelon , were in Muslim hands. On the orders of Umar, Yazid next besieged Caesarea, which, barring a suspension around
6405-406: The conventional route to Syria via Daumat ul Jandal, as it was the longer route, and would take weeks to reach Syria. Khalid avoided the Mesopotamian route because of the presence of Roman garrisons there and in Northern Syria. To engage them at a time when Muslim armies were being outflanked in Syria was not a wise idea. Khalid selected a shorter route to Syria, an unconventional route passing through
SECTION 60
#17327718406826510-472: The earlier Levantine populations through their language. With the adoption of a common religion, Christianity , most of the inhabitants turned into Syrians (Aramaeans). Islam and the Arabic language had a similar effect where the Aramaeans themselves became Arabs regardless of their ethnic origin following the Muslim conquest of the Levant . The presence of Arabs in Syria is recorded since the 9th century BC, and Roman period historians, such as Strabo , Pliny
6615-409: The early periods of the conquest, and formed an isolated aristocracy. The Arabs of the caliphate accommodated many new tribes in isolated areas to avoid conflict with the locals; caliph Uthman ordered his governor, Muawiyah I , to settle the new tribes away from the original population. Syrians who belonged to Monophysitic denominations welcomed the Muslim Arabs as liberators. The Abbasids in
6720-476: The eighth and ninth centuries sought to integrate the peoples under their authority, and the Arabization of the administration was one of their methods. Arabization gained momentum with the increasing numbers of Muslim converts from Christianity ; the ascendancy of Arabic as the formal language of the state prompted the cultural and linguistic assimilation of Syrian converts. Some of those who remained Christian also became Arabized, while others stayed Aramean, it
6825-587: The entire army. In the first week of April 634, the Muslim forces began to move from their camps outside Medina. The first to leave was Yazid's corps, followed by Shurahbil, Abu Ubaidah and Amr, each a day's march from the other. Abu Bakr walked for a short distance by the side of each corps commander. His parting words which he repeated to each of the corps commanders, were as follows: In your march be not hard on yourself or your army. Be not harsh with your men or your officers, whom you should consult in all matters. Be just and abjure evil and tyranny, for no nation which
6930-416: The eve of the Rashidun Caliphate conquest of the Levant, 634 AD, Syria's population mainly spoke Aramaic as the Lingua franca , while Greek was the language of administration. Arabization and Islamization of Syria began in the 7th century, and it took several centuries for Islam, the Arab identity, and language to spread; the Arabs of the caliphate did not attempt to spread their language or religion in
7035-409: The exhaustion of his government, could not coordinate with the Heraclian offensive, frustrating the plan. Five massive armies were launched in June to recapture Syria. Khalid, having grasped Heraclius' plan, feared that the Muslim armies would become isolated and then destroyed piecemeal. He thus suggested to Abu Ubaidah in a council of war that he consolidate all the Muslim armies at one place to force
7140-446: The forces of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and the forces of the Byzantine Empire and their Arab Christian Ghassanid vassals. In Islamic historical sources, the battle is usually described as the Muslims ' attempt to take retribution against the Ghassanids after a Ghassanid official executed Muhammad's emissary who was en route to Bosra . During the battle the Muslim army was routed. After three Muslim leaders were killed,
7245-414: The geographic distance, and this produced genetic similarities between Levantine Muslims and Moroccan and Yemeni populations. Christians and Druze became a genetic isolate in the predominantly Islamic world. Arabic is the mother tongue of the majority of Syrians as well as the official state language. The Syrian variety of Levantine Arabic differs from Modern Standard Arabic . Western Neo-Aramaic ,
7350-621: The great Temple of Jupiter stood. In May 636, Heliopolis surrendered to the Muslims after little resistance and agreed to pay tribute. Abu Ubaidah sent Khalid straight towards Emesa . Emesa and Chalcis offered a peace treaty for a year. Abu Ubaidah accepted the offer and, rather than invading districts of Emesa and Chalcis, he consolidated his rule in conquered land and captured Hamah , and Maarrat al-Nu'man . Having mustered sizeable armies at Antioch, Heraclius sent them to reinforce strategically important areas of Northern Syria, like Emesa and Chalcis. The Byzantine reinforcement of Emesa violated
7455-417: The historical city of Tadmur were first to fall to Khalid. Sukhnah , al-Qaryatayn and Hawarin were captured after the Battle of al-Qaryatayn and the Battle of Hawarin. After dealing with all these cities, Khalid moved towards Damascus through a mountain pass which is now known as Sanita-al-Uqab (Uqab Pass) after the name of Khalid's army standard. From here he moved away from Damascus, towards Bosra ,
7560-515: The inhabitants of the Levant. Following the Muslim conquest of the Levant, Arab identity became dominant and the ethnonym "Syrian" was used mainly by Christians who spoke Syriac. In the 19th century, the name "Syrian" was revived amongst the Arabic speakers of the Levant. Following the establishment of the Arab Kingdom of Syria in 1920, the name "Syrian" began to spread amongst its Arabic speaking inhabitants. The term gained more importance during
7665-478: The land and its people over the course of thousands of years. By the seventh century, most of the inhabitants of the Levant spoke Aramaic . In the centuries after the Muslim conquest of the Levant in 634, Arabic became the dominant language, but a minority of Syrians retained Aramaic (Syriac) , which is still spoken in its Eastern and Western dialects. The national name "Syrian" was used in antiquity to denote
7770-406: The last action before the battle started. For one month negotiations continued between the two armies and Khalid went to meet Vahan in person at the Byzantine camp. Meanwhile, Muslim reinforcements arrived from Umar. Abu Ubaidah, in another council of war, transferred field command of the Muslim army to Khalid. Finally, on 15 August, the Battle of Yarmouk was fought, lasting six days and ending in
7875-617: The latter's daughter (or granddaughter, according to tradition) Manyanh. While Heraclius prepared for a major offense in the Levant, Yazdegerd was supposed to mount a well-coordinated counterattack on his front in Iraq , while Heraclius attacked in the Levant. However, it was not meant to be. Umar probably had intelligence of this alliance, and started peace negotiations with Yazdegerd III , apparently inviting him to join Islam . When Heraclius launched his offensive in May 636, Yazdegerd, probably owing to
7980-508: The letter memorializing this during the siege, but he delayed the announcement until the city had been conquered. Later on, Khalid pledged his loyalty to the new Caliph and continued to serve as an ordinary commander under Abu Ubaidah. He is reported to have said, "If Abu Bakr is dead and Umar is Caliph, then we listen and obey." Abu Ubaidah moved more slowly and steadily, which had a concomitant effect on military operations in Syria. Abu Ubaidah, being an admirer of Khalid, made him commander of
8085-540: The only surviving Western Aramaic dialect, is still spoken in three villages ( Maaloula , Bakh'a and Jubb'adin ) in the Anti-Lebanon Mountains by both Muslim and Christian Arameans (Syriacs) . Syriacs in the northeast of the country are mainly Turoyo-Aramaic speakers but there are also some speakers of Suret-Aramaic , especially in the Khabour Valley . Classical Syriac is also used as
8190-562: The other, commanded by Theodras, stationed to the west of Damascus ( Al-Sabboura region). During the night, Theodras advanced to Damascus to launch a surprise attack. Khalid's spy informed him about the move and Khalid, having received permission from Abu Ubaidah, galloped towards Damascus with his mobile guard . While Abu Ubaidah fought and defeated the Roman army in the Battle of Marj ar-Rum , Khalid moved to Damascus with his cavalry and attacked and defeated Theodras there. A week later, Abu Ubaida himself moved towards Heliopolis , where
8295-456: The pacts which you make. You will come upon a people who live like hermits in monasteries, believing that they have given up all for God. Let them be and destroy not their monasteries. And you will meet other people who are partisans of Satan and worshippers of the Cross, who shave the centre of their heads so that you can see the scalp. Assail them with your swords until they submit to Islam or pay
8400-646: The people of Northern Lebanon. Mitochondrial DNA shows the Syrians to have an affinity with Europe; main haplogroups are H and R . Based on Mitochondrial DNA, the Syrians, Palestinians, Lebanese and Jordanians form a close cluster. Compared to the Lebanese, Bedouins and Palestinians, the Syrians have noticeably more Northern European component, estimated at 7%. Regarding the HLA alleles , Syrians, and other Levantine populations, exhibit "key differences" from other Arab populations; based on HLA-DRB1 alleles, Syrians were close to eastern Mediterranean populations, such as
8505-893: The population and mostly live in and around Tartus and Latakia . Christians make up 10% of the country. Most Syrian Christians adhere to the Byzantine Rite ; the two largest are the Antiochian Orthodox Church and the Melkite Greek Catholic Church . The Druze are a mountainous people who reside in Jabal al-Druze who helped spark the Great Syrian Revolt . The Ismailis are an even smaller sect that originated in Asia. Many Armenian and Assyrian Christians fled Turkey during
8610-622: The position and strength of the Byzantine army in Palestine, wrote detailed instructions to his corps commanders there and ordered Yazid to capture the Mediterranean coast. Amr and Shurhabil accordingly marched against the strongest Byzantine garrison and defeated them in the Second Battle of Ajnadyn. The two corps then separated, with Amr moving to capture Nablus , Amawas , Jaffa , Haifa , Gaza and Yubna in order to complete
8715-422: The process of rebuilding their authority in these territories, which in some areas had been lost to them for almost twenty years. Politically, the Syrian region consisted of two provinces: Syria proper stretched from Antioch and Aleppo in the north to the top of the Dead Sea . To the west and south of the Dead Sea lay the province of Palestine . Syria was mostly made up of Aramaic and Greek speakers with
8820-560: The province. The bonds, which had declined to junk status, could not ultimately be redeemed by the city government, and in 2009, Aguad was indicted for misfeasance related to their handling. Aguad was elected First Vice President of the Chamber of Deputies (the body's second-highest ranking post) by his colleagues in December 2010. He obtained his party's nomination for Governor of Córdoba ahead of provincial elections on August 7 . He
8925-499: The raid. After his past experiences, Heraclius now avoided pitched battle with the Muslim army. His plans were to send massive reinforcements to all the major cities, isolate the Muslim corps from each other, and then separately encircle and destroy the Muslim armies. Part of his plan was to coordinate his attacks with those of Yazdgerd III , the Sassanid emperor . In 635 Yazdgerd III had sought an alliance with Heraclius, marrying
9030-522: The region between Bosra and Jabiya . The Emperor Heraclius, having received intelligence of the movements of the Muslim armies from his Arab clients, began to plan countermeasures. Upon Heraclius' orders, Byzantine forces from different garrisons in the north started moving to gather at Ayjnadyn. From here they could engage Amr's corps and maneuver against the flank or rear of the rest of the Muslim corps that were in Jordan and Southern Syria. The strength of
9135-627: The region was ruled again by Semitic-speaking people, after centuries of Persian ( Achaemenid Empire ), and Roman-Greek ( Macedonian Empire , the Roman Empire and Byzantine Empire ) ruling periods. Syria had been under Roman rule for seven centuries prior to the Arab Muslim conquest and had been invaded by the Sassanid Persians on a number of occasions during the 3rd, 6th and 7th centuries; it had also been subject to raids by
9240-665: The region, with many of its speakers having become Arabs. Those who retained the Aramaic language are divided among two groups: The Arabs in Arabia called the region of Syria region al-Sham ( Arabic : بِـلَاد الـشَّـام , romanized : Bilād al-Šām , lit. 'the country of Sham') which became the dominant name of the Levant under the Rashidun Caliphate and its successors. The geographic designation "Syria" returned in 1864 when Ottoman Syria
9345-484: The region. Olive oil , garlic , olives , spearmint , and sesame oil are some of the ingredients that are used in many traditional meals. Traditional Syrian dishes enjoyed by Syrians include, tabbouleh , labaneh , shanklish , wara' 'enab , makdous , kebab , Kibbeh , sfiha , moutabal , hummus , mana'eesh , bameh , and fattoush . A typical Syrian breakfast is a meze . It is an assortment platter of foods with cheeses, meats, pickles, olives, and spreads. Meze
9450-499: The siege. Khalid finally attacked and conquered Damascus on 18 September after 30 days, although, according to some sources, the siege had in fact lasted for four or six months. Heraclius, having received the news of the fall of Damascus, left for Antioch from Emesa . The citizens were granted peace on the promise of annual tribute and the Byzantine army was given three days to go as far as they could. After three days, Khalid took
9555-404: The small Muslim detachment, but before it was completely destroyed, Khalid came to the rescue of the Muslim army. Abu Ubaidah, having received new intelligence, had sent Khalid. Khalid reached the battlefield and defeated the garrison on 15 October and returned with tons of looted booty from the fair and hundreds of Roman prisoners. By capturing central Syria, the Muslims had given a decisive blow to
9660-405: The territory they had conquered prior to Yarmouk. Abu Ubaida held a meeting with his high commanders, including Khalid, and decided to conquer Jerusalem . The Siege of Jerusalem lasted four months, after which the city agreed to surrender, but only to Umar personally. Amr-bin al-Aas suggested that Khalid should be sent to impersonate the caliph , due to his very strong resemblance. However, Khalid
9765-574: The time of the Battle of Yarmouk , lasted until the port fell in 640. According to lexicographer David ben Abraham al-Fasi (died before 1026 CE), the Muslim conquest of Palestine brought relief to the country's Jewish citizens, who had previously been barred by the Byzantines from praying on the Temple Mount . After the battle, which proved to be the key to Palestine and Jordan, the Muslim armies split up. Shurhabil and Amr's corps moved south to capture Palestine, while Abu Ubaidah and Khalid, with
9870-419: The traditional theory inadequate to explain the Arabs' appearance in Syria. The Arabs mentioned in Syria by Greco-Roman writers were assimilated into the newly formed "Greco–Aramaean culture" that dominated the region, and the texts they produced were written in Greek and Aramaic. Old Arabic , the precursor of Classical Arabic , was not a literary language; its speakers used Aramaic for writing purposes. On
9975-668: The treaty, and Abu Ubaidah and Khalid accordingly marched there. A Byzantine army that halted Khalid's advance guard was defeated. The Muslims besieged Emesa which was finally conquered in March 636 CE after two months. After capturing Emesa, Khalid moved north to capture Northern Syria, using his cavalry as an advance guard and raiding force. At Shaizar, Khalid intercepted a convoy taking provisions for Chalcis. The prisoners were interrogated and informed him about Emperor Heraclius' ambitious plan to take back Syria with an army possibly two hundred thousand (200,000) strong. Khalid immediately ended
10080-430: Was a 634–638 CE invasion of Byzantine Syria by the Rashidun Caliphate . A part of the wider Arab-Byzantine Wars , as well as the larger Muslim colonial project, the Levant was brought under Arab Muslim rule and developed into the provincial region of Bilad al-Sham . Clashes between the Arabs and Byzantines on the southern Levantine borders of the Byzantine Empire had occurred during the lifetime of Muhammad , with
10185-573: Was brought on as an associate by José Severo Caballero , a Córdoba jurist who would be appointed president of the Argentine Supreme Court in 1983 by President Raúl Alfonsín . Following elections that year in which the UCR swept both national and Córdoba offices, Aguad was appointed Chief of Staff by Córdoba Mayor Ramón Mestre . Aguad served in the board of directors of La Voz del Interior (the leading Córdoba news daily), as well as of
10290-409: Was defeated, however, by former Governor José Manuel de la Sota . Syrians Syrians ( Arabic : سوريون ) are the majority inhabitants of Syria , indigenous to the Levant , who have Arabic , especially its Levantine dialect , as a mother tongue. The cultural and linguistic heritage of the Syrian people is a blend of both indigenous elements and the foreign cultures that have come to rule
10395-515: Was deposed by the French who established a mandate in 1920, but the formation of a Syrian consciousness amongst the members of the Syrian Arab national movement solidified and spread amongst the Muslims as well as the Christians. Genetic tests on Syrians were included in many genetic studies. The genetic marker which identifies descendants of the ancient Levantines is found in Syrians in high proportion. Modern Syrians exhibit "high affinity to
10500-597: Was probably during the Abbasid period in the ninth century that Christians adopted Arabic as their first language; the first translation of the gospels into Arabic took place in this century. Many historians, such as Claude Cahen and Bernard Hamilton, proposed that the Arabization of Christians was completed before the First Crusade . By the thirteenth century, the Arabic language achieved complete dominance in
10605-591: Was recognized and Umar had to come himself to accept the surrender of Jerusalem in April 637. Umar appointed his close advisor Ali to hold the lieutenancy of Medina. After Jerusalem, the Muslim armies broke up once again. Yazid's corps went to Damascus and then captured Beirut . Amr and Shurhabil's corps left to conquer the rest of Palestine, while Abu Ubaidah and Khalid, at the head of a 17,000-strong army, moved north to conquer Northern Syria. With Emesa already in hand, Abu Ubaidah and Khalid moved towards Chalcis , which
10710-505: Was reorganized and the name was used for a vilayet encompassing generally the southern Levant. The use of the national designation "Syrian" however has its origin in the tense relationship between the Arabic-speaking Muslims and Christians of the Levant, where Christians wanted to distance themselves from the Muslims. Already in the 1830s, the Lebanese traveler As’ad Khayyat identified with the term Syria, but it took till
10815-529: Was strategically the most significant Byzantine fort. Through Chalcis the Byzantines would be able to guard Anatolia , Heraclius' homeland of Armenia , and the regional capital, Antioch . Abu Ubaidah sent Khalid with his mobile guard towards Chalcis. The virtually impregnable fort was guarded by Greek troops under Menas, reportedly second in prestige only to the Emperor himself. Menas, diverting from conventional Byzantine tactics, decided to face Khalid and destroy
10920-592: Was to avenge the Muslim losses at the Battle of Mu'tah , in which Usama's father and Muhammad's former adopted son, Zayd ibn Harithah , had been killed. Usama's expedition in May/June 632 was successful and his army was the first Muslim force to successfully invade and raid Byzantine territory. Muhammad died in June 632, and Abu Bakr was appointed Caliph and political successor at Medina . Soon after Abu Bakr 's succession, several Arab tribes revolted against him in
11025-575: Was transferred to the post of Interior Minister by the President in March 2001, and Aguad was named as his successor. He presided over new provincial elections, and on December 10, was succeeded by a duly elected governor. Aguad was elected to the Argentine Chamber of Deputies in 2005, and in 2007, his UCR colleagues elected him president of their caucus. He was a vocal opponent of Resolution 125 , which would have raised export tariffs on
#681318