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56-505: Agrarian Reform Law may refer to: Agrarian Reform Law (Albania) , of 1945 Agrarian Reform Law (Bolivia) , decreed in August 1953 Agrarian Reform Law (Cuba) , of 1959 Agrarian Reform Law (Nicaragua) , of 1979 Agrarian Reform Law (Syria) , decreed in 1958, 1962, 1963 and in 1967 Agrarian reform of 1952 Latvian Land Reform of 1920 Roman Agrarian law Topics referred to by

112-479: A group of brothers, some of whom are behaving justly while others are acting unjustly. When questioned about the optimal resolution, Cleinias suggests that the most effective judge would not necessarily be one who imposes the just to govern over the unjust, whether by force or consent. Instead, he advocates for a judge who facilitates reconciliation by establishing a mutually agreed-upon set of laws designed to maintain harmony among them. This implies Cleinias' belief that

168-458: A result of the 2011 Egyptian revolution , counter revolutionary techniques included: power outages by remnants of his regime, police allegedly refused to serve citizens and oil was thrown into the desert to halt gas station services. On 1 February 2012, the biggest tragedy in Egyptian football resulted in the deaths of 72 Al Ahly fans. It happened after exactly a year when Mubarak announced in

224-614: A revolutionary movement before it takes power, as well as attempts to restore the old regime after a successful revolution. Defunct Defunct The word "counter-revolutionary" originally referred to thinkers who opposed themselves to the 1789 French Revolution , such as Joseph de Maistre , Louis de Bonald or, later, Charles Maurras , the founder of the Action Française monarchist movement. More recently, it has been used in France to describe political movements that reject

280-527: A speech that there would be chaos if he stepped down, the very same day when armed thugs attacked protestors of the 2011 revolution. Many photographic and footage evidence also show that police and security forces in the stadium were unwilling to respond to the riot. Many argue that the riot was planned as a revenge against Ultras Ahlawy taking part in the 2011 revolution against Hosni Mubarak and their constant anti-governmental chants in matches. Finally on 3 July 2013, Defense Minister Abdel-Fattah Al Sisi overthrew

336-463: A state can be considered morally superior when the virtuous citizens triumph over the unruly masses and the less virtuous classes. He asserts, "the state in which the better citizens win a victory over the mob and over the inferior classes may be truly said to be better than itself, and may be justly praised." However, the Athenian presents a hypothetical scenario wherein someone must pass judgment on

392-453: Is anyone who opposes or resists a revolution , particularly one who acts after a revolution in order to try to overturn it or reverse its course, in full or in part. The adjective "counter-revolutionary" pertains to movements that would restore the state of affairs, or the principles, that prevailed during a prerevolutionary era. A counter-revolution is opposition or resistance to a revolutionary movement. It can refer to attempts to defeat

448-439: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Agrarian Reform Law (Cuba) On January 27, 1959, Che Guevara made one of his most significant speeches where he talked about "the social ideas of the rebel army." During this speech, he declared that the main concern of the new Cuban government was "the social justice that land redistribution brings about." In most of Cuba

504-409: Is to say, which most perfectly demonstrates the petty-bourgeois spirit. Despite their petty-bourgeois spirit, the peasants soon learned that they could not satisfy their desire to possess land without breaking up the large landholding system. Radical agrarian reform , the only type that could give land to the peasants, clashed directly with the interests of the imperialists , the large landholders and

560-596: The FARC , and other left-wing guerrilla movements. Some counter-revolutionaries are former revolutionaries who supported the initial overthrow of the previous regime, but came to differ with those who ultimately came to power after the revolution. For example, some of the Contras originally fought with the Sandinistas to overthrow Anastasio Somoza , and some of those who oppose Castro also opposed Batista . During

616-790: The German Revolution of 1918–1919 and signing of the Treaty of Versailles , a failed coup d'état known as the Kapp Putsch was instigated by various elements opposed to the Weimar Republic . It was led principally by Wolfgang Kapp and Walther von Lüttwitz . During the Weimar era, the German Realm became an ideological battlefield between "red" and "white" factions, with the state eventually becoming bifurcated between

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672-630: The German Revolution of 1918–1919 , were also counter-revolutionaries. The Bolshevik government tried to build an anti-revolutionary image for the Green armies composed of peasant rebels. The largest peasant rebellion against Bolshevik rule occurred in 1920–21 in Tambov . General Victoriano Huerta , and later the Felicistas , attempted to thwart the Mexican Revolution in the 1910s. In

728-520: The Holy Roman Empire and German Confederation , operated under counterrevolutionary principles, with these monarchical federations crushing attempted uprisings in, for example, 1848 . After the 1867 – 71 creation of a new German realm by Prussia , chancellor Otto von Bismarck used policies favored by Socialists (such as state-sponsored healthcare) to undercut the opponents of the monarchy and protect it against revolution. Not long after

784-639: The Qing dynasty by seizing Beijing in the Manchu Restoration . The anti-communist (and thus counter-revolutionary) Kuomintang party in China used the term "counter-revolutionary" to disparage the communists and other opponents of its regime. Chiang Kai-shek , the Kuomintang party leader, was the chief user of this term. The reason that the nominally conservative Kuomintang used this terminology

840-678: The Bourbon government in exile and the Papal States . The revolt, labelled pejoratively by opponents as brigandage , resulted in a bloody civil war that lasted almost ten years. In the Austrian Empire , a revolt took place against Napoleon called the Tyrolean Rebellion in 1809. Led by a Tyrolean innkeeper by the name of Andreas Hofer , 20,000 Tyrolean rebels fought successfully against Napoleon's troops. However, Hofer

896-698: The German people by propagandistic demonstrations linking the Nazi state to the traditional Reich ("realm" or "empire") by referring to it informally as the "Drittes Reich" ("Third Realm"), implying a specious continuity between it and the historic German entities appealing to German reactionaries: the Holy Roman Empire (the "First Realm") and the German Empire (the "Second Realm"). (See also reactionary modernism .) Many historians have held that

952-619: The Great . The fact that the Nazis called their 1933 rise to power the national revolution showed that they understood the popular hunger for some type of radical change; nonetheless, they understood the equally powerful popular impulse toward stability and continuity, and rejected the parliamentarianism of the Weimar Constitution as merely a first step towards Bolshevism. Thus, for instance, they catered to reactionary tendencies among

1008-432: The Kuomintang. Chiang showed extreme rage when he was called a warlord, because of its negative, feudal connotations. Chiang also crushed and dominated the merchants of Shanghai in 1927, seizing loans from them, with the threats of death or exile. Rich merchants , industrialists , and entrepreneurs were arrested by Chiang, who accused them of being "counter-revolutionary", and Chiang held them until they gave money to

1064-401: The Kuomintang. Chiang's arrests targeted rich millionaires, accusing them of communism and counter-revolutionary activities. Chiang also enforced an anti-Japanese boycott, sending his agents to sack the shops of those who sold Japanese made items and fining them. He also disregarded the internationally protected International Settlement, putting cages on its borders in which he threatened to place

1120-582: The Nazi Party march Die Fahne hoch which labeled them as reactionaries ( Reaktion ) and counted them together with the Red Front as enemies of the Nazis. Nevertheless, in practice the Nazis supported many of the same ideas as the counterrevolutionary factions and virulently opposed revolutionary Marxism (e.g., using the conservative Freikorps to crush Communist uprisings), ostensibly idealising German tradition, folklore, and heroes, such as Frederick

1176-740: The Republican side, the acts of the Communist Party of Spain against the rural collectives are also sometimes considered counter-revolutionary. The Carlist cause began with the First Carlist War in 1833 and continues to the present. The White Army and its supporters who tried to defeat the Bolsheviks after the October Revolution , as well as the German politicians, police, soldiers and Freikorps who crushed

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1232-580: The War in the Vendée. The suppression of this counter-revolution produced what is considered by some historians to be the first modern genocide . Monarchists and Catholics took up arms against the revolutionary French Republic in 1793 after the government asked that 300,000 men be conscripted into the Republican military in the levée en masse . The Vendeans also rose up against Napoleon 's attempt to conscript them in 1815. The German Empire , and its predecessors

1288-705: The cardinal Fabrizio Ruffo , which overthrew the Parthenopean Republic and allowed the Bourbon dynasty to return to the throne of the Kingdom of Naples . A resurgence of the phenomenon happened during the Napoleon's second Italian campaign in the early 19th century. Another example of counter-revolution was the peasants' rebellion in Southern Italy after the national unification , fomented by

1344-438: The conservative Junker nobility which dominated the army and other high offices, including the presidency with Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg , and the leftist revolutionaries who attempted several coups in the 1920s and later gained a base in parliament via the Communist Party of Germany , which, being internationalist in nature, opposed the extremist nationalism of the new Nazi Party . The Nazis, by making common cause with

1400-510: The counterrevolutionaries against the Communists, effected a takeover of the German state, at first under the adopted imagery of the monarchical era and only later (after the death of Hindenburg) under purely Nazi imagery. The Nazis did not publicly characterise themselves as counterrevolutionaries; they condemned the traditional German forces of conservatism (e.g., Prussian monarchists , Junkers , and Roman Catholic clergy ), for example in

1456-479: The demands of the populace when it comes to root vegetables and fruits. These supply-demand shortages were a direct result of the economic organisation—private farmers used to be the ones to produce these goods. However, as the state centralised agricultural production, the participation of private farmers decreased. As a result of the state's dominant position in agriculture, the first and second agrarian reforms transformed Cuba's natural resource organisation. First,

1512-543: The democratically elected president Mohamed Morsi , who was the first president to be elected by the Egyptian people since the proclamation of the republic in 1953. The counter-revolution ended when Al Sisi was sworn as Egypt’s 6th president in June 2014. In the Laws , Plato relates a dialogue between Cleinias of Crete and an unnamed Athenian interlocutor. Part of their discourse touches on counter-revolution. Cleinias posits that

1568-476: The gap of production inputs, the state encouraged cooperatives: small farmers using traditional peasant knowledge of production and returning to animal traction, at a lower cost and less damage to the environment. The state implemented the Basic Units of Cooperative Production (UBPCs), which limited the sizes of state farms. Counter-revolutionary A counter-revolutionary or an anti-revolutionary

1624-431: The government and either redistributed to peasants in 67 acres (271,139 m ) parcels or held as state-run communes. This caused almost 40% of arable land to be removed from foreign owners and corporations to the state, which then distributed these lands primarily to farmers and agricultural workers. This arrangement gave small peasant farmers limited autonomy, but it all changed in August 1962 when Castro announced that

1680-545: The late 1920s, Mexican Catholics took up arms against the Mexican Federal Government in what became known as the Cristero War . The President of Mexico, Plutarco Elias Calles, was elected in 1924. Calles began carrying out anti-Catholic policies which caused peaceful resistance from Catholics in 1926. The counter-revolution began as a movement of peaceful resistance against the anti-clerical laws. In

1736-618: The legacy of the 1789 Revolution, which historian René Rémond has referred to as légitimistes . Thus, monarchist supporters of the Ancien Régime following the French Revolution were counter-revolutionaries, as were supporters of the War in the Vendée and of the monarchies that put down the various Revolutions of 1848 . The royalist legitimist counter-revolutionary French movement survives to this day, albeit marginally. It

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1792-702: The merchants. The Kuomintang's alliance with the Green Gang allowed it to ignore the borders of the foreign concessions. A similar term also existed in the People's Republic of China , which includes charges such collaborating with foreign forces and inciting revolts against the government and ruling CCP . According to Article 28 of the Chinese constitution , The state maintains public order and suppresses treasonable and other counter-revolutionary activities; It penalizes actions that endanger public security and disrupt

1848-540: The mid-19th century Bakumatsu , especially during the Japanese civil war of 1868–1869, the pro-bakufu forces and especially the samurai (and after the period ex-samurai) were left without money since their skills are obsolete, so they banded up with the eastern shogunate led by the Shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu who wished to drive foreign and especially Western European and American influence against

1904-497: The peasants had been progressively proletarianized due to the needs of large-scale, semi-mechanized capitalist agriculture. They had reached a new level of organization and therefore a greater class consciousness . In fact the Sierra Maestra , the site of the first revolutionary settlement, is a place where peasants who had struggled against large landholders took refuge. They went there seeking new land — somehow overlooked by

1960-567: The production of large-scale crops such as sugar cane and improved infrastructure, it also led to Cuba's dependent on the Soviet Union. Not only did the biodiversity and environment suffer, but Cuba also grew to be dependent on the Soviet Union for its production and supply inputs, making it vulnerable to external shocks. When the Soviet Bloc collapsed in the 1990s, Cuba had to explore alternative solutions to sustain its production. To fill

2016-444: The psychological security necessary for autonomous conscience and liberal ideals to become internalized, an integrated part of the 'new men'… regenerated by Wesleyan preaching." The practice of temperance among Methodists, as well as their rejection of gambling , allowed them to eliminate secondary poverty and accumulate capital. Individuals who attended Methodist chapels and Sunday schools "took into industrial and political life

2072-430: The purpose of increasing production, diversifying crop production, and eliminating rural poverty . The second agrarian reforms solidified the centralisation of state farms and nationalisations of land and other natural resources. The second agrarian reforms were introduced in 1963 to further limit the allowable size of private farms—all property holdings over 67 hectares became nationalised. Thus, these reforms allowed for

2128-757: The qualities and talents they had developed within Methodism and used them on behalf of the working classes in non-revolutionary ways." The spread of the Methodist Church in the United Kingdom, author and professor Michael Hill states, "filled both a social and an ideological vacuum" in English society, thus "opening up the channels of social and ideological mobility… which worked against the polarization of English society into rigid social classes." The historian Bernard Semmel argues that "Methodism

2184-580: The reforms abolished the latifunidos — Cuba was able to return to pre-colonial way of organising — small farmers, cooperatives style, social and financial services such as the Credit and Services Cooperatives (CSS) developed to support the new way of organising. However, the elimination of one kind of hegemony created another. Although implementing the Soviet model of supply distribution (implementing farming tools and inputs) had positive results in terms of increased

2240-496: The revolutionaries of Emperor Meiji who sought to modernize Japan with the states of Western Europe as Japan's example. The war ended with a small number of casualties, most of whom were the samurai. Years later though, western samurai and imperial modernists then engaged in the deadlier Satsuma Rebellion . In 1917, during the Warlord Era general Zhang Xun attempted to reverse the 1911 Revolution that brought an end to

2296-592: The revolutionary government of Fidel Castro . In the 1980s, the Contra -Revolución rebels fighting to overthrow the revolutionary Sandinista government in Nicaragua . In fact, the Contras received their name precisely because they were counter-revolutionaries. The Black Eagles , the AUC , and other paramilitary movements of Colombia can also be seen as counter-revolutionary. These right-wing groups are opposition to

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2352-604: The rise and spread of Methodism in the United Kingdom prevented the development of a revolution there. In addition to preaching the Christian Gospel, John Wesley and his Methodist followers visited those imprisoned, as well as the poor and aged, building hospitals and dispensaries which provided free healthcare for the masses. The sociologist William H. Swatos stated that "Methodist enthusiasm transformed men, summoning them to assert rational control over their own lives, while providing in its system of mutual discipline

2408-474: The rural areas were nationalised, and exploitative conditions such as paying rent for land were abolished. Additionally, it given that the agriculture sector is a significant driver of Cuba's economy, the state scaled up its direct ownership. The Agrarian Reform Law called for and crafted by Guevara went into effect, limiting the size of farms to 3,333 acres (13 km ) and real estate to 1,000 acres (4 km ). Any holdings over these limits were expropriated by

2464-435: The same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Agrarian Reform Law . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agrarian_Reform_Law&oldid=1161612372 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description

2520-452: The small cooperatives would be converted to state farmers. Moreover, in instances where government seizes land from small peasants for public use, the small peasants are entitled to compensations. In the case for Cuba, compensations, though wrote into the reforms, were not guaranteed when land titles were liquidised under the state. The law also stipulated that sugar plantations could not be owned by foreigners. For lands taken over compensation

2576-746: The socialist economy and other criminal activities, and punishes and reforms criminals. The term was widely used during the Cultural Revolution , in which thousands of intellectuals and government officials were denounced as "counter-revolutionaries" by the Red Guards . Following the end of the Cultural Revolution, the term was also used against Lin Biao and the Gang of Four . After the overthrow of Hosni Mubarak ’s government as

2632-469: The state farmlands to dominate the agricultural sector—70 per cent of the arable land was under the state control and the government became the largest employer, while 30 per cent was privately owned. As a result, between 80 and 85 per cent of Cuba's land was expropriated. The centralisation of Cuba's economy through farming had advantages—productions of meat, milk, rice, and sugarcane increased exponentially. However, these advancements fell short in meeting

2688-408: The state or the voracious landholders — on which to earn a modest income. They struggled constantly against the demands of the soldiers, always allied to the landholders, and their ambitions extended no further than a property deed. The peasants who belonged to our first guerrilla armies came from that section of this social class which most strongly shows love for the land and the possession of it; that

2744-536: The success of the Cuban Revolution, the first wave of land reforms was the first major institutional change. According to Botella-Rodriguez and Gonzalez-Esteban (2021), the first reforms were implemented in May 1959, which eliminated latifunidos —large scale private ownerships and granted ownership and titles to workers who previously worked on those lands, as well as previously foreign-owned land, especially in

2800-480: The sugar and cattle magnates . The bourgeoisie was afraid to clash with those interests but the proletariat was not. In this way the course of the revolution itself brought the workers and peasants together. The workers supported the demands of the peasants against the large landholders. The poor peasants , rewarded with ownership of land, loyally supported the revolutionary power and defended it against its imperialist and counter-revolutionary enemies. Following

2856-454: The summer of 1926, fighting broke out. The fighters known as Cristeros fought the government due to its suppression of the Church, jailing and execution of priests, formation of a nationalist schismatic church, state atheism , Socialism, Freemasonry and other harsh anti-Catholic policies. The 1961 Bay of Pigs invasion into Cuba was conducted by counter-revolutionaries who hoped to overthrow

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2912-538: Was active during the Révolution nationale of Vichy France , though, which has been considered by René Rémond not as a fascist regime but as a counter-revolutionary regime, whose motto was Travail, Famille, Patrie ("Work, Family, Fatherland"), which replaced the Republican motto Liberté, égalité, fraternité . After the French Revolution, anti-clerical policies and the execution of King Louis XVI led to

2968-528: Was an antirevolutionary movement that succeeded (to the extent that it did) because it was a revolution of a radically different kind" that was capable of effecting social change on a large scale. In Italy, after being conquered by Napoleon's army in the late 18th century, there was a counter-revolution in all the French client republics . The most well-known was the Sanfedismo , a reactionary movement led by

3024-428: Was offered in the form of Cuban currency bonds to mature in 20 years at 4.5% interest. Bonds were based on land values as assessed for tax purposes. Lastly, two years into the implementation of the first agrarian land reforms, approximately 58.4 per cent of arable land was privately owned, while 41.6 per cent was under government control, which required a second wave of reforms. Both of these reforms were carried out for

3080-420: Was that the party had several leftist revolutionary influences in its ideology left over from the party's beginnings. The Kuomintang, and Chiang Kai-shek used the words " feudal " and "counter-revolutionary" as synonyms for evil, and backwardness, and proudly proclaimed themselves to be revolutionary . Chiang called the warlords feudalists, and called for feudalism and counter-revolutionaries to be stamped out by

3136-538: Was ultimately betrayed by the Treaty of Schönbrunn , which led to the disbandment of his troops and was captured and executed in 1810. The Spanish Civil War was a counter-revolution. Supporters of Carlism , monarchy, and nationalism (see Falange ) joined forces against the (Second) Spanish Republic in 1936. The counter-revolutionaries saw the Spanish Constitution of 1931 as a revolutionary document that defied Spanish culture, tradition and religion. On

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