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64-814: The Alvor Agreement , signed on 15 January 1975 in Alvor , Portugal, granted Angola independence from Portugal on 11 November and formally ended the 13-year-long Angolan War of Independence . The agreement was signed by the Portuguese government, the People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), the National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA), National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), and it established

128-545: A naval base in the western part of Cabinda, making it the only Brazilian colony outside of South America. Portugal first claimed sovereignty over Cabinda in the February 1885 Treaty of Simulambuco , which gave Cabinda the status of a protectorate of the Portuguese Crown under the request of "the princes and governors of Cabinda". This is often the basis upon which the legal and historical arguments in defense of

192-704: A charter member of the Organization of Emerging African States (OEAS). An ad-hoc United Nations commission for human rights in Cabinda reported in 2003 that many atrocities had been perpetrated by the MPLA. In 2004, according to Peter Takirambudde , executive director of the Human Rights Watch mission for Africa, the Angolan army continued to commit crimes against civilians in Cabinda. Although

256-710: A peace conference, moderated by Kenyan President Jomo Kenyatta , with the three leaders in Nakuru , Kenya , in June. The Angolan leaders issued the Nakuru Declaration on 21 June, agreeing to abide by the provisions of the Alvor Agreement while they acknowledged that a mutual lack of trust had led to violence. Many analysts have criticised the transitional government in Portugal for the violence that followed

320-578: A transitional government composed of representatives of those four parties. It was not signed by the Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (FLEC) or the Eastern Revolt as the other parties excluded them from negotiations. The transitional government soon fell apart, with each of the nationalist factions, distrustful of the others and unwilling to share power, attempting to take control of

384-578: A whole, largely because of corruption. The private sector, particularly the oil industry , has both affected and been affected by the secessionist conflict. During the early days of Cabinda's struggle, the oil companies were perceived as sympathetic to, if not supportive of, Cabinda's self-determination cause. The strategy used by the separatists to gain international attention, was most evident in 1999 and 2000. During 1999, FLEC-R kidnapped four foreign workers (two Portuguese and two French citizens), but released them after several months, having failed to attract

448-459: Is also mention of the localities of Montes de Baixo and Montes de Cima, colloquially known as the Freires since there were a preponderance of residents from that family living in the region. The Matriz Church was constructed in the early part of the 16th century by Ataide family, alcades of the vila, donatorios with many privileges and lands (it was likely Álvaro de Ataide's son who initiated

512-586: Is associated with Sonangol , Agip Angola Lda (41%), Chevron (39.2%), TotalEnergies (10%) and Eni (9.8%). In 1885, the Treaty of Simulambuco established Cabinda as a protectorate of the Portuguese Empire , and Cabindan independence movements consider the occupation of the territory by Angola illegal. While the Angolan Civil War largely ended in 2002, an armed struggle persists in

576-469: Is estimated that oil exports from the province are worth the equivalent of US$ 100,000 per annum for every Cabindan. Yet Cabinda remains one of the poorest provinces in Angola. An agreement in 1996 between the national and provincial governments stipulated that 10% of Cabinda's taxes on oil revenues would be given back to the province, but Cabindans often feel that these revenues do not benefit the population as

640-512: Is located between the towns of Lagos and Portimão. Covering 1700 hectares it includes a diverse mix of habitats of brushwood, forest and agricultural land, comprising the estuary, dunes, marshes and salt-pans, and also the Quinta da Rocha and Abicada peninsula. Ria de Alvor was included in the Natura 2000 network of sites, due to the presence of species and habitats considered worthy of protection at

704-473: Is obliged to maintain the integrity of the territories placed under its protection". The Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (FLEC-R) argues that the above-mentioned treaty was signed between the emissaries of the Portuguese Crown and the princes and notables of Cabinda, then called Portuguese Congo, giving rise to not one, but three protectorates: Cacongo, Loango, and Ngoio. Through

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768-484: Is the result of a fusion of three kingdoms: N'Goyo , Loango and Kakongo . It has an area of 7,290 km (2,810 sq mi) and a population of 716,076 at the 2014 census; the latest official estimate (as at mid-2019) is 824,143. According to 1988 United States government statistics , the total population of the province was 147,200, with a near even split between rural and urban populations. At one point an estimated one third of Cabindans were refugees living in

832-584: The Democratic Republic of the Congo ; however, after the 2007 peace agreement, refugees started returning to their homes. Cabinda is separated from the rest of Angola by a narrow strip of territory belonging to the Democratic Republic of the Congo (formerly known, up until 1960, as the Belgian Congo ), which bounds the province on the south and the east. Cabinda is bounded on the north by

896-763: The Republic of the Congo (formerly known as French Congo ), and on the west by the Atlantic Ocean . Adjacent to the coast are some of the largest offshore oil fields in the world. Petroleum exploration began in 1954 with the Cabinda Gulf Oil Company, when the territory was under Portuguese rule . Cabinda also produces hardwoods , coffee , cacao , rubber , and palm oil products; however, petroleum production accounts for most of Cabinda's domestic product. Cabinda produces 700,000 barrels (110,000 m ) of crude oil per day. Cabinda Oil

960-574: The Treaty of Simulambuco , three kingdoms existed in what is now referred to as Cabinda: Cacongo, Ngoyo, and Loango. The Cabindans belong to the Bakongo ethnic group whose language is Kikongo . The Bakongo also comprise the majority of the population in Uíge and Zaire provinces of Angola . However, despite this shared ancestry, the Cabindans developed a very different culture and distinct variants of

1024-674: The Távora affair . The parish and the Távora assets were incorporated in the House of the Queens (Portuguese: Casa das Rainhas ) until 1773, when these were integrated into the parish when it was annexed into the municipality of Portimão. Although the 1755 earthquake (1 November) resulted in the death of only one person, it was responsible for the destruction of homes, the fort, the Facho tower, and

1088-400: The self-determination of modern-day Cabinda are constructed. Article 1, for example, states, "the princes and chiefs and their successors declare, voluntarily, their recognition of Portuguese sovereignty, placing under the protectorate of this nation all the territories by them governed" [ sic ]. Article 2, which is often used in separatist arguments, goes even further: "Portugal

1152-438: The 13-year-long Angolan War of Independence . On 14 April 1988 the village once again attained the title of vila (town), under decree 42/88, owing to its economic, cultural and social development. The parish of Alvor is located along the southern coast of Portimão surrounded by its municipal neighbours Mexilhoeira Grande and Portimão , and the municipality of Lagos (parish of Odiáxere). The Ria de Alvor ( Alvor Estuary )

1216-592: The 2014 Census and according to the latest official estimates: The city of Cabinda contains 87% of the provincial population. The other three municipalities lie to the north of the city. The province of Cabinda contains the following communes ( Portuguese : comunas ); sorted by their respective municipalities: Two giant oil fields , the Malonga North and Malonga West were discovered in 1967 and 1970, respectively, both pre-salt or pre- Aptian producers. Located in water depths of 50 to 75 m, oil

1280-571: The Alvor Agreement in terms of a lack of concern for internal Angolan security and favoritism towards the MPLA. High Commissioner Coutinho, one of the seven leaders of the National Salvation Junta , openly distributed ex-Portuguese arms and military equipment to MPLA forces. Edward Mulcahy, Acting Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs in the United States State Department , told Tom Killoran ,

1344-657: The Alvor Agreement. The parties agreed to hold elections for the National Assembly of Angola in October 1975. From 31 January 1975 to independence, a transitional government consisting of the Portuguese High Commissioner Admiral Rosa Coutinho and a Prime Ministerial Council (PMC) would rule. The PMC consisted of three representatives, one from each Angolan party to the agreement, with a rotating premiership among

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1408-633: The Angolan capital, Luanda , and for the rest the country. Holden Roberto , Agostinho Neto , and Jonas Savimbi met in Bukavu , Zaire , in July and agreed to negotiate with the Portuguese as one political entity. They met again in Mombasa , Kenya , on 5 January 1975, agreed to stop fighting one another, and outlined a joint negotiating position on a new constitution. They met for a third time in Alvor , Portugal from January 10–15 and signed what became known as

1472-524: The Angolan government says FLEC is no longer operative, this is disputed by the Republic of Cabinda and its Premier, Joel Batila. Earlier increases in the price of oil have made Cabinda's untapped onshore oil reserves a valuable commodity. In July 2006, after ceasefire negotiations in the Republic of Congo, António Bento Bembe – as a president of Cabindan Forum for Dialogue and Peace, and vice-president and executive secretary of FLEC – announced that

1536-602: The Angolan parties into a new military, the Angolan Defense Forces . The ADF would have 48,000 active personnel, made up of 24,000 local Black soldiers of the Portuguese Army and 8,000 MPLA, FNLA, and UNITA fighters respectively. Each party was to maintain separate barracks and outposts. Every military decision required the unanimous consent of each party's headquarters and the joint military command. The Portuguese forces lacked equipment and commitment to

1600-570: The Angolans, and that the only acceptable solution is total independence. On 8 January 2010, the bus carrying the Togo national football team traveling through Cabinda en route to the 2010 Africa Cup of Nations tournament was attacked by gunmen, even though it had an escort of Angolan forces. The ensuing gunfight resulted in the deaths of the assistant coach, team spokesman and bus driver, and caused injuries to several others as well. An offshoot of

1664-722: The Cabindan separatist forces were ready to declare a ceasefire. Bembe is the leader of the " Cabindan Forum for Dialogue ", an organization which represents most Cabindan groups . The peace was recognized by the United States, France, Portugal, Russia , Gabon, Democratic Republic of the Congo , Republic of the Congo , Japan , South Korea , the European Union and the African Union. From Paris, FLEC-FAC contended Bembe has no authority or mandate to negotiate with

1728-457: The Cabindese (the inhabitants of Cabinda , an exclave north of the rest of Angola, many of whom wished independence separate from Angola), and whites. The Portuguese reasoned that white Angolans would have to join the nationalist movements, and the movements would have to moderate their platforms to expand their political bases. The agreement called for the integration of the militant wings of

1792-561: The Crown. During the reign of John II, Alvor continued to receive patronage, the king dying on 25 October 1495 in the palace of Álvaro de Ataíde after catching a chill in Monchique (the residence, which was situated on Rua do Poço , was located near the supposed hydrothermal springs of Caldas de Monchique ). The Prince Regent ordered, in the name of Manuel of Portugal , the elevation of Alvor to vila ( town ) on 28 February 1495, which

1856-594: The European level. The Natura 2000 network recognizes the need for protection of the following: In addition to the temples listed here, the civil parish of Alvor is home to three hermitage -like mosques, or morábito , that include the Morábito de São João , Morábito de São Pedro , and the Morábito anexo à sacristia da Igreja Matriz . All were constructed in the Manueline -era, and show decorative influences from

1920-562: The FLEC claimed responsibility. Rodrigues Mingas , secretary general of the Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda-Military Position (Flec-PM), said his fighters had meant to attack security guards as the convoy passed through Cabinda. "This attack was not aimed at the Togolese players but at the Angolan forces at the head of the convoy", Mingas told France 24 television. "So it

1984-595: The FNLA out of Luanda, and the UNITA voluntarily withdrew to its stronghold in the south. There, MPLA forces engaged the UNITA, which declared war. By August, the MPLA had control of 11 of the 15 provincial capitals, including Cabinda and Luanda. South Africa intervened on 23 October, sending 1,500 to 2,000 troops from Namibia into southern Angola. FNLA-UNITA-South African forces took five provincial capitals, including Novo Redondo and Benguela , in three weeks. On 10 November

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2048-582: The Kikongo language. In the early 1960s, several movements advocating a separate status for Cabinda came into being. The Movement for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (MLEC) was formed in 1960 under the leadership of Luis Ranque Franque . Resulting from the merger of various émigré associations in Brazzaville , the MLEC rapidly became the most prominent of the separatist movements. A further group

2112-531: The Kingdoms of Ngoyo , Loango , and Kakongo in present-day Cabinda. Over the years, the Portuguese, Dutch , and English established trading posts , logging camps, and small palm oil processing factories in Cabinda. Trade continued and the European presence grew, resulting in conflicts between the rival colonial powers. Between 1827 and 1830, the Imperial Brazilian Navy maintained

2176-512: The Moors in 716, the settlement began to be referred to as Albur , and gained an impressive castle, with only vestiges remaining. This bastion was conquered on 3 June 1189, by the forces of King Sancho I of Portugal , with help from Crusader forces. It was retaken two years later, and definitively reconquered in 1250. Rebuilt by King Denis in 1300, it served for 500 years the coastal defences against attacks by pirates and privateers until it

2240-431: The Portuguese constitution of 1933 until 15 January 1975 under the Alvor Agreement. The Portuguese constitution of 1933 distinguished between the colony of Angola and the protectorate of Cabinda, but in 1956, the administration of Cabinda was transferred to the governor-general of Angola. The legal distinction of Cabinda's status from that of Angola was also expressed in the Portuguese constitution of 1971. Yet, when Angola

2304-663: The Portuguese did, which endangered the colonial power's ability to keep the peace. Factional fighting resumed and reached new heights as foreign supplies of arms increased. In February, the Cuban government warned the Eastern Bloc that the Alvor Agreement would not succeed. By spring, the African National Congress and SWAPO echoed Cuba's warning. Leaders of the Organization of African Unity organised

2368-620: The Portuguese left Angola in accordance with the Alvor Agreement. Cuban-MPLA forces defeated South African-FNLA forces, maintaining control over Luanda. On 11 November, Neto declared the independence of the People's Republic of Angola. The FNLA and the UNITA responded by proclaiming their own government, based in Huambo . By mid-November, the Huambo government had control over southern Angola and began pushing north. Alvor (Portim%C3%A3o) Alvor

2432-650: The Treaty of Simulambuco in 1885 between the kings of Portugal and the princes of Cabinda, a Portuguese protectorate was decreed, reserving rights to the local princes and independent of Angola. Cabinda once had the Congo River as the only natural boundary with Angola, but in 1885, the Berlin Conference extended the territory of the Congo Free State along the Congo River to the river's mouth at

2496-539: The US Consul General in Angola, to congratulate the PMC, rather than the FNLA and the UNITA on their own and Coutinho, for Portugal's "untiring and protracted efforts" at a peace agreement. US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger considered any government involving the pro-Soviet, communist MPLA, to be unacceptable, but US President Gerald Ford oversaw heightened aid to the FNLA. In July, the MPLA violently forced

2560-557: The attention of the international community. FLEC-FAC also increased its activities during 2000 with the more widely publicized kidnapping of three Portuguese workers employed by a construction company, while FLEC-R kidnapped another five Portuguese civilians. These hostages were not freed until June 2001, following diplomatic intervention by the governments of Gabon and the Republic of the Congo . The province of Cabinda consists of four municipalities ( Portuguese : municípios ); listed below with their areas (in km ) and populations at

2624-409: The balance of power in the agreement restricted the transitional Angolan government's ability to function. The Portuguese government's main goal in negotiations was to prevent the mass emigration of white Angolans. Paradoxically, the agreement allowed only the MPLA, FNLA, and UNITA to nominate candidates to the first assembly elections, deliberately disenfranchising Bakongo in the east of the country,

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2688-455: The capital of the territory, was a Portuguese administrative and services center with a port and airfield. The beaches of Cabinda were popular with Portuguese Angolans. A 1974 military coup in Lisbon abolished the authoritarian regime established by António de Oliveira Salazar that had prevailed in Portugal for decades. The new government decided immediately to grant all Portuguese colonies

2752-492: The cause, while Angolan nationalists were antagonistic of each other and lacked training. The treaty, to which FLEC never agreed, described Cabinda as an "integral and inalienable part of Angola". Separatists see the agreement as a violation of Cabindan right to self-determination . By August 1975 MPLA had taken control of Cabinda. The agreement did not establish a mechanism to verify the number of fighters from each force. All three parties soon had forces greater in number than

2816-644: The chapel of Nossa Senhora da Ajuda, in addition to altering the river's course. Its effects also resulted in the decrease of the local population by 1000 residents; by 1900 the population included less than 3014 souls, owing to the effects of the earthquake. After the Carnation Revolution of 1974 in Lisbon, the Alvor Agreement was signed on 15 January 1975 in Alvor and granted Angola independence from Portugal on 11 November formally ending

2880-598: The construction of the church in 1497). In 1652 the Santa Casa da Misericórdia was first erected in the community. By royal charter, issued by Peter II , the vila of Alvor was once again raised to Countship (4 February 1683) under Francisco de Távora, a nobleman who occupied several official duties and distinguished himself during the Battle of Montes Claros . The title was later passed on to Bernardo de Távora, and then Luís Bernardo de Távora, eventually extinguished after

2944-516: The country by force. This initiated the Angolan Civil War . The name of the agreement comes from the village of Alvor , in the southern Portuguese region of Algarve , where it was signed. Leftist military officers overthrew the Caetano government in Portugal in the Carnation Revolution on 25 April 1974. The MPLA, FNLA and UNITA all negotiated peace agreements with the transitional Portuguese government and began to fight one another for control of

3008-583: The exclave of Cabinda. Some of the factions have proclaimed an independent Republic of Cabinda , with offices in Paris . Portuguese explorers, missionaries , and traders arrived at the mouth of the Congo River in the mid-15th century, making contact with the Manikongo , the powerful King of the Bakongo tribe . The Manikongo controlled much of the region through affiliation with smaller kingdoms, such as

3072-490: The independence for which nationalist guerilla movements had been striving. In Angola, the decolonization process took the form of a violent conflict between the different guerilla movements and their allies. In 1975, the Treaty of Alvor between Portugal and National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA), People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola ( MPLA ) and National Union for the Total Independence of Angola ( UNITA ) reconfirmed Cabinda's status as part of Angola. The treaty

3136-433: The majority of Organization of African Unity (OAU) members, concerned that this could encourage separatism elsewhere on the continent , committed to the sanctity of state borders and firmly rejected recognition of the FLEC's government in exile. In January 1975, Angola's MPLA, FNLA and UNITA liberation movements signed the Alvor Agreement with Portugal, to establish the modalities of the transition to independence. FLEC

3200-496: The period, including specifically the doorjamb elements. Cabinda (province) Cabinda (formerly called Portuguese Congo , Kongo : Kabinda ) is an exclave and province of Angola , a status that has been disputed by several political organizations in the territory. The capital city is also called Cabinda , known locally as Tchiowa , Tsiowa or Kiowa . The province is divided into four municipalities— Belize , Buco-Zau , Cabinda and Cacongo . Modern Cabinda

3264-527: The province's oil and construction businesses. The National Union for the Liberation of Cabinda ( Portuguese : União Nacional de Libertação de Cabinda ; UNLC), a militant separatist group, emerged in the 1990s under the leadership of Lumingu Luis Gimby. In April 1997, Cabinda joined the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization , a democratic and international organization whose members are indigenous peoples , occupied nations , minorities and independent states or territories. In 2010, Cabinda became

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3328-460: The representatives. Every PMC decision required two-thirds support. The twelve ministries were divided among the Angolan parties and the Portuguese government, three for each. The author Witney Wright Schneidman criticised that provision in Engaging Africa: Washington and the Fall of Portugal's Colonial Empire for ensuring a "virtual paralysis in executive authority". The Bureau of Intelligence and Research cautioned that an excessive desire to preserve

3392-469: The sea. During this time rubber was harvested and traded in Cabinda. Atrocities such as the cutting of hands were also committed there, although comprehensive reports on these atrocities were more scant and less publicly known compared to the neighbouring Congo Free State. By the mid-1920s, the borders of Angola had been finally established in negotiations with the neighboring colonial powers. From there on Angola and Cabinda were treated distinctively under

3456-417: Was confirmed in a secondary diploma on 28 December 1498. In the closing decades of the 15th century Alvor was a centre of the Jewish community in Portugal. King Sebastian visited the municipality on 27 January 1573, staying on the 24-25 in Alvor, where he visited the houses (now in ruins) where in 1495 King John II died. At that time the alcaide already pertained to the Count of Odemira. The first foral

3520-440: Was declared an " overseas province " (Província Ultramarina) within the empire of Portugal in 1951, Cabinda was treated as an ordinary district of Angola. In 1972, the name of Angola was changed to "State of Angola". Under Portuguese rule, Cabinda was an important agricultural and forestry center, and in 1967, it discovered huge offshore oil fields. Oil, timber, and cocoa had been its main exports until then. The town of Cabinda,

3584-402: Was destroyed in 1755 by the tsunami and earthquake that devastated Lisbon. By royal decree of Afonso V , dated 22 May 1469, it was raised to the status of Countship, under the seigneurial title bestowed to Afonso, Count of Faro . But, this title did not extend beyond this period, as the Count of Faro was implicated in a conspiracy against John II of Portugal (in 1483-84), and it reverted to

3648-448: Was discovered in Barremian deposits in 1971, then the Cenomanian section in 1979. Four offshore oil fields, the Wamba , Takula , Numbi and Vuko , are located in the greater Takula area, producing from the Upper Cretaceous , Cenomanian Vermelha sandstone deposited in the coastal environment. Cretaceous and Paleocene vertebrates, including fossil turtles as Cabindachelys have been collected from Lândana. Up to 1991,

3712-512: Was elected president. Following the declaration of Angolan independence in November 1975, Cabinda was invaded by forces of the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), with the support of Cuban troops. The MPLA overthrew the provisional FLEC government and incorporated Cabinda into Angola. For much of the 1970s and 1980s, FLEC operated a low intensity guerrilla war , attacking Angolan government troops and economic targets, or creating havoc by kidnapping foreign employees working in

3776-418: Was founded in 436 B.C. by the Carthaginian General Aníbal Barca as a commercial port, which he named Portus Hannibalis . The settlement grew around the sea, near the place called Vila Velha , where a Celtic castro dominated the river mouth during the Iron Age . It is likely that it was the Roman colony of Ipses , which was authorized to mint currency, and was absorbed during the Roman era. Taken by

3840-400: Was issued during the reign of Philip II of Spain during the Iberian Union on 13 December 1585. Friar João de São José declared, in 1577, that Alvor was a transit port for fully loaded ships (carracks and battleships), while Fernandes Serrão (around 1606) referred to settlement of 240 homes, a heavily defended by its fort, that helped to serve a local fishing fleet and local exports. There

3904-405: Was not invited. On 1 August 1975, at an OAU summit in Kampala which was discussing Angola in the midst of its turbulent decolonization process, Ranque Franque proclaimed the independence of the "Republic of Cabinda". Zairian President Mobutu Sese Seko called for a referendum on the future of Cabinda. FLEC formed a provisional government , led by Henriques Tiago . Luiz Branque Franque

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3968-584: Was pure chance that the gunfire hit the players. We don't have anything to do with the Togolese and we present our condolences to the African families and the Togo government. We are fighting for the total liberation of Cabinda." Consisting largely of tropical forest , Cabinda produces hardwoods , coffee, cocoa, crude rubber, and palm oil. The product for which it is best known, however, is its oil . Conservative estimates say that Cabinda accounts for close to 60% of Angola's oil production, estimated at approximately 900,000 barrels per day (140,000 m /d), and it

4032-686: Was rejected by the Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda and other local political organizations which advocated for separate independence. Since then, Cabinda has been, on the one hand, a normal Angolan province, but on the other hand, there has been persistent political protest against this status; the "Kabinda Free State" says the exclave was a Portuguese protectorate until Angola invaded in 1974. They also say they control 85% of Kabinda territory and invite proposals for joint ventures . A number of guerrilla actions have also occurred in Cabinda. The arguments for self-determination are based on Cabindans' cultural and ethnic background. Prior to

4096-449: Was the Alliama (Alliance of the Mayombe), representing the Mayombe , a small minority of the population. In an important development, these movements united in August 1963 to form a united front. They called themselves the FLEC, and the leadership role was taken by the MLEC's Ranque Franque. In marked contrast with the FNLA, the FLEC's efforts to mobilize international support for its government in exile met with little success. In fact,

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