Misplaced Pages

#784215

118-602: In 1975, the Saudi government announced plans to relocate the headquarters of the country's foreign ministry from Jeddah to Riyadh and intended to construct a new enclave in northwest of the capital, known as the Diplomatic Quarter in order to house foreign diplomatic missions. The Al-Kindi Plaza was inaugurated in 1986 to cater the needs of the residents of Diplomatic Quarter , incorporating traditional Najdi architecture with modern materials. In 1989, it became

236-787: A body of cardinals appointed by the Pope for five-year periods, executive power is exercised by the president of that commission (who is consequently also the President of the Governorate), assisted by the General Secretary and the Deputy General Secretary. The state's foreign relations are entrusted to the Holy See's Secretariat of State and diplomatic service. Nevertheless, the Pope has absolute power in

354-530: A car. Women would be able to vote in municipal elections beginning in 2012. The significance of the ulama (the body of Islamic religious leaders and jurists) is derived from the central role of religion in Saudi society. It has been said that Islam is more than a religion, it is a way of life in Saudi Arabia, and, as a result, the influence of the ulama is pervasive. Saudi Arabia is almost unique in giving

472-622: A considerable degree of influence over local and national events. In recent years there have been limited steps to widen political participation, such as the establishment of the Consultative Council in the early 1990s and the National Dialogue Forum in 2003. The rule of the Al Saud faces political opposition from four sources: Sunni Islamist activism, liberal critics, including an underground green party,

590-466: A constitution in other countries. The Qur'an and the Sunnah is declared as the official constitution of the country. The kingdom's governance is officially proclaimed to be conducted on the basis of Islamic law (Shari'a) . The Allegiance Council is responsible to determine the new King and the new Crown Prince. All citizens of full age have a right to attend, meet, and petition the king directly through

708-424: A design feature. Imported marble tiles were used for flooring in the public spaces in addition to local cement. Al-Kindi Plaza usually gets crowded during weekends, religious festivities such as Eid al-Fitr , Eid al-Adha and public holidays such as Saudi National Day and Saudi Founding Day besides other organized events and celebrations. Politics of Saudi Arabia [REDACTED] Member State of

826-469: A juridical entity since Roman Imperial times and has been internationally recognised as a powerful and independent sovereign entity since Late Antiquity to the present, without interruption even at times when it was deprived of territory (e.g. 1870 to 1929). Vatican City is one of the few widely recognised independent states that has not become a member of the United Nations . The Holy See, which

944-674: A lawsuit against Saudi Arabia 's Crown Prince, Mohammed bin Salman , and other high-ranking officials. The lawsuit was filed at the Washington, D.C. court under the Torture Victim Protection Act , accusing the crown prince of sending a hit squad, dubbed " Tiger Squad ", in October 2018 for his extrajudicial killing . In March 2021, more than 240 people were arrested in Saudi Arabia for corruption. Employees from

1062-503: A population of about 764, it is the smallest state in the world both by area and by population . It is also the second-least populated capital in the world. As governed by the Holy See, Vatican City State is an ecclesiastical or sacerdotal - monarchical state ruled by the Pope, who is the bishop of Rome and head of the Catholic Church . The highest state functionaries are all Catholic clergy of various origins. After

1180-699: A recipient of the Aga Khan Award for Architecture . The market square contains a Friday mosque , which was built between 1983 and 1986, triangular public square , book galleries, garden and government offices complex. It is located opposite to the headquarters of the Ministry of Tourism . The central mosque is one of the salient features of the plaza that represents the strong traditional links between religion and public services. The plaza's landscaping consists of shaded arcades, small fountains and other water elements, and planters. Modern imported technology

1298-583: A secular role as governors of regions near Rome. They ruled the Papal States , which covered a large portion of the Italian peninsula , for more than a thousand years until the mid-19th century, when all the territory belonging to the papacy was seized by the newly created Kingdom of Italy . For most of this time, the popes did not live at the Vatican. The Lateran Palace , on the opposite side of Rome,

SECTION 10

#1732790773785

1416-506: A separate legislative body . Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarchy . According to the Basic Law of Saudi Arabia, the country's de facto constitution adopted by royal decree in 1992, the king must comply with Sharia (that is, Islamic law) and the Qur'an . The Qur'an and the Sunnah are declared to be the de jure country's constitution. There is no legally binding written constitution and

1534-464: A series of benefits for citizens amounting to $ 36 billion, of which $ 10.7 billion was earmarked for housing . No political reforms were announced as part of the package, though some prisoners indicted for financial crimes were pardoned. On 18 March the same year, King Abdullah announced a package of $ 93 billion, which included 500,000 new homes to a cost of $ 67 billion, in addition to creating 60,000 new security jobs. The lack of critical thought in

1652-511: A statute of the Kingdom of Sardinia of 1848. Construction in 1995 of a new guest house, Domus Sanctae Marthae , adjacent to St Peter's Basilica was criticized by Italian environmental groups, backed by Italian politicians. They claimed the new building would block views of the Basilica from nearby Italian apartments. For a short while the plans strained the relations between the Vatican and

1770-489: Is also a 150-member Consultative Assembly , appointed by the King, which can propose legislation to the King but has no legislative powers itself, including no role in budget formation. The government budget itself is not fully disclosed to the public. "Fully 40%" ... is labeled 'Other sectors' (including defense, security, intelligence, direct investment of the kingdom's revenues outside the country, and how much goes directly to

1888-492: Is an accepted version of this page Vatican City ( / ˈ v æ t ɪ k ə n ˈ s ɪ t i / ), officially the Vatican City State ( Italian : Stato della Città del Vaticano ; Latin : Status Civitatis Vaticanae ), is a sovereign country , city-state , microstate , and enclave surrounded by, and historically a part of, Rome , Italy. It became independent from Italy in 1929 with

2006-583: Is distinct from Vatican City State, has permanent observer status , with all the rights of a full member except for a vote in the UN General Assembly . The government of Vatican City has a unique structure. As governed by the Holy See, the Pope is the sovereign of the state, but he is supported by different bodies. While legislative authority is also managed, in the Pope's name, by the Pontifical Commission for Vatican City State ,

2124-594: Is estimated to be anything from 7,000 upwards, with the most power and influence being wielded by the 200 or so male descendants of King Abdulaziz . The key ministries have historically been reserved for the royal family, as are the thirteen regional governorships. With the large number of family members seeking well-paying jobs, critics complain that even "middle management" jobs in the Kingdom are out of reach for non-royal Saudis, limiting upward mobility and incentive for commoners to excel. The one exception to this rule

2242-603: Is in this territory that St. Peter's Basilica , the Apostolic Palace , the Sistine Chapel , and museums were built, along with various other buildings. The area was part of the Roman rione of Borgo until 1929. Being separated from the city, on the west bank of the river Tiber, the area was an outcrop of the city that was protected by being included within the walls of Leo IV (847–855), and later expanded by

2360-450: Is known as the ' Sudairi Seven ', comprising the late King Fahd and his full brothers and their descendants. Ideological divisions include issues over the speed and direction of reform, and whether the role of the ulama should be increased or reduced. There were also divisions within the family over who should succeed Crown Prince Sultan. Leading figures in the royal family with differing ideological orientations included Prince Nayef ,

2478-489: Is no general public access to the gardens, but guided tours for small groups can be arranged to the gardens and excavations under the basilica . Other places are open to only those individuals who have business to transact there. Vatican City's climate is the same as Rome's: a temperate , Mediterranean climate Csa with mild, rainy winters from October to mid-May and hot, dry summers from May to September. Some minor local features, principally mists and dews, are caused by

SECTION 20

#1732790773785

2596-450: Is not reported by the Saudi media. In theory, all males of the age of majority have a right to petition the king directly through the traditional tribal meeting known as the majlis . In many ways, the approach to government differs little from the traditional system of tribal rule. Tribal identity remains strong and, outside the royal family, political influence is frequently determined by tribal affiliation, with tribal sheiks maintaining

2714-769: Is the President of the Pontifical Commission for Vatican City State , who since 1952 exercises the functions previously belonging to the Governor of Vatican City . Since 2001, the president of the Pontifical Commission for Vatican City State also has the title of president of the Governorate of the State of Vatican City. The president is Spanish Cardinal Fernando Vérgez Alzaga , who was appointed on 1 October 2021. Legislative functions are administered by

2832-467: Is today dominant in Saudi Arabia. The family is second in prestige only to the Al Saud (the royal family) with whom they formed a "mutual support pact" and power-sharing arrangement nearly 300 years ago. The pact, which persists to this day, is based on the Al Saud maintaining the Al ash-Sheikh's authority in religious matters and upholding and propagating Wahhabi doctrine. In return, the Al ash-Sheikh support

2950-666: The Circus Gaii et Neronis , usually called, simply, the Circus of Nero . The Vatican obelisk in St. Peter's Square is the last visible remnant from the Circus of Nero . It was brought from Heliopolis in Egypt by Emperor Caligula . The obelisk originally stood at the centre of the spina ( median ) of the Roman circus . The circus became the site of martyrdom for many Christians after

3068-531: The 2017 Saudi Arabian anti-corruption arrests on 5 November, 11 princes and dozens of former ministers were detained in a new anti-corruption probe in Saudi Arabia. Among those detained include prominent billionaire investor Prince Al-Waleed bin Talal , National Guard Minister Miteb bin Abdullah and Economy and Planning Minister Adel Fakeih. The official line is that the purge was in response to corrupt practices by

3186-514: The Allied invasion of Sicily , 500 United States Army Air Forces aircraft bombed Rome on 19 July 1943 , targeting the city's railway hub in particular. Approximately 1,500 people were killed, and Pius XII, who had been described in the previous month as "worried sick" about the possibility of Rome being bombed, toured the affected areas. Another Allied bombing raid took place on 13 August 1943, after Mussolini had been ousted from power . On

3304-647: The Avignon Papacy (1309–1377) the popes have mainly resided at the Apostolic Palace within what is now Vatican City, although at times residing instead in the Quirinal Palace in Rome or elsewhere. The Holy See dates back to early Christianity and is the principal episcopal see of the Catholic Church, which has approximately 1.329 billion baptised Catholics in the world as of 2018 in

3422-732: The Etruscan city of Veii (another naming for the Ager Vaticanus was Ripa Veientana or Ripa Etrusca ), and for being subjected to the floods of the Tiber , the Romans considered this originally uninhabited part of Rome dismal and ominous. The particularly low quality of Vatican wine, even after the reclamation of the area, was commented on by the poet Martial ( AD  40 – c.  AD 102). Tacitus wrote that in AD ;69,

3540-624: The Great Fire of Rome in AD 64. Tradition states that it was in this circus that Saint Peter was crucified upside-down . In 1586, the obelisk was relocated to its current position by Pope Sixtus V using a method devised by Italian architect Domenico Fontana . Opposite the circus was a cemetery separated by the Via Cornelia . Funeral monuments and mausoleums, and small tombs, as well as altars to pagan gods of all kinds of polytheistic religions, were constructed lasting until before

3658-581: The Lateran Treaty , and is a distinct territory under "full ownership, exclusive dominion, and sovereign authority and jurisdiction" of the Holy See, which is itself a sovereign entity under international law , maintaining the city-state's temporal power , governance, diplomatic, and spiritual independence. The Vatican is also a metonym for the pope , the Holy See, and the Roman Curia . With an area of 49 hectares (121 acres) and as of 2023

Al Kindi Plaza - Misplaced Pages Continue

3776-518: The Latin Church and 23 Eastern Catholic Churches . The independent state of Vatican City, on the other hand, came into existence on 11 February 1929 by the Lateran Treaty between the Holy See and Italy, which spoke of it as a new creation, not as a vestige of the much larger Papal States (756–1870), which had previously encompassed much of Central Italy . Vatican City contains religious and cultural sites such as St. Peter's Basilica ,

3894-547: The Pope but also delegated to the Pontifical Commission for Vatican City State , led by the President of the Pontifical Commission for Vatican City State . Its members are cardinals appointed by the Pope for terms of five years. Acts of the commission must be approved by the Pope, through the Holy See's Secretariat of State , and must be published in a special appendix of the Acta Apostolicae Sedis . Most of

4012-620: The Renaissance and Baroque era, are decorated with fountains and sculptures. The gardens cover approximately 23 hectares (57 acres). The highest point is 60 metres (197 ft) above mean sea level . Stone walls bound the area in the north, south, and west. The gardens date back to medieval times when orchards and vineyards extended to the north of the Papal Apostolic Palace . In 1279, Pope Nicholas III (Giovanni Gaetano Orsini, 1277–1280) moved his residence back to

4130-484: The Renaissance until it was systematically excavated by orders of Pope Pius XII from 1939 to 1941. The Constantinian basilica was built in 326 over what was believed to be the tomb of Saint Peter , buried in that cemetery. From then on, the land mass became more populated in connection with activity at the basilica. A palace was constructed nearby as early as the 5th century during the pontificate of Pope Symmachus (reigned 498 – 514 ). Popes gradually came to have

4248-482: The Riyadh Region from 1962 to 2011. In the absence of national elections and political parties, politics in Saudi Arabia takes place in two distinct arenas: within the royal family, the Al Saud, and between the royal family and the rest of Saudi society. The royal family is politically divided by factions based on clan loyalties, personal ambitions, and ideological differences. The most powerful clan faction

4366-513: The Roman Empire , many villas were constructed there, after Agrippina the Elder (14 BC – 18 October AD 33) drained the area and laid out her gardens in the early 1st century AD. In AD 40, her son, Emperor Caligula (31 August AD 12 – 24 January AD 41; r. 37–41) built in her gardens a circus for charioteers (AD 40) that was later completed by Nero ,

4484-692: The Shia minority – particularly in the Eastern Province ; and long-standing tribal and regional particularistic opponents (for example in the Hejaz ). Of these, the Islamic activists have been the most prominent threat to the regime and have in recent years perpetrated a number of violent or terrorist acts in the country . However, open protest against the government, even if peaceful, is not tolerated. On 29 January 2011, hundreds of protesters gathered in

4602-577: The Sistine Chapel , the Vatican Apostolic Library , and the Vatican Museums . They feature some of the world's most famous paintings and sculptures. The unique economy of Vatican City is supported financially by donations from Catholic believers, by the sale of postage stamps and souvenirs, fees for admission to museums, and sales of publications. Vatican City has no taxes, and items are duty-free. The name Vatican City

4720-526: The Swiss Guard , was disbanded by the will of Paul VI , as expressed in a letter of 14 September 1970. The Gendarmerie Corps was transformed into a civilian police and security force. In 1984, a new concordat between the Holy See and Italy modified certain provisions of the earlier treaty, including the position of Catholic Christianity as the Italian state religion, a position given to it by

4838-678: The Year of the Four Emperors , when the northern army that brought Vitellius to power arrived in Rome, "a large proportion camped in the unhealthy districts of the Vatican, which resulted in many deaths among the common soldiery; and the Tiber being close by, the inability of the Gauls and Germans to bear the heat and the consequent greed with which they drank from the stream weakened their bodies, which were already an easy prey to disease". During

Al Kindi Plaza - Misplaced Pages Continue

4956-477: The ulama (religious scholars), leading tribal sheiks, and heads of prominent commercial families are considered. As an absolute monarchy, the personality and capabilities of the reigning monarch influence the politics and national policies of the country. King Saud ( r.  1953–1964 ) was considered incompetent and extravagant and his reign led to an economic and political crisis that resulted in his forced abdication. King Faisal ( r.  1964–1975 )

5074-664: The 674 people investigated on suspicion of corruption. The detainees included current and retired military officers, security officers under the Interior Ministry , health officials, and judges. The mass-detention raised human rights concerns, where the Human Rights Watch called for the revelation of the legal and evidentiary basis for each person's detention. On 6 August 2020, former top Saudi Intelligence official Saad AlJabri , who self-exiled in Canada , filed

5192-418: The Al Saud's political authority thereby using its religious-moral authority to legitimize the royal family's rule. Although the Al ash-Sheikh's domination of the ulama has diminished in recent decades, they still hold the most important religious posts and are closely linked to the Al Saud by a high degree of intermarriage. Corruption is widespread in Saudi Arabia, most prevalent in the form of nepotism ,

5310-589: The Arab League The politics of Saudi Arabia takes place in the context of a unitary absolute monarchy , along traditional Islamist lines, where the King is both the head of state and government . Decisions are, to a large extent, made on the basis of consultation among the King, the Council of Ministers , Islamic scholars (until the mid-2010s), tribal leaders, and other traditional elites of

5428-534: The British from bombing Rome if the British so decided". The US military even exempted Catholic servicemembers from air raids on Rome and other areas with a significant Catholic presence, unless they voluntarily agreed to participate. Notably, with the exception of Rome, and presumably the possibility of the Vatican, no Catholic US servicemember refused a mission within German-held Italy. On the other hand,

5546-407: The British insisted "they would bomb Rome whenever the needs of the war demanded". In December 1942, the British envoy to the Holy See suggested that Rome be declared an open city , a suggestion that the Holy See took more seriously than was probably meant by the envoy, who did not want Rome to be an open city, but Mussolini rejected the suggestion when the Holy See put it to him. In connection with

5664-595: The Consultative Council was expanded from 60 to 90 members in July 1997, to 120 in May 2001, and to 150 members in 2005. Membership has changed significantly during each expansion of the council, as many members have not been reappointed. The role of the council is gradually expanding as it gains experience. Saudi municipal elections took place in 2005 and some journalists saw this as a first tentative step towards

5782-513: The Holy See during the period of the empty throne or sede vacante (papal vacancy). Those of the Vatican State remain under the control of the Pontifical Commission for Vatican City State . Acting with three other cardinals chosen by lot every three days, one from each order of cardinals ( cardinal bishop , cardinal priest , and cardinal deacon ), he in a sense performs during that period the functions of head of state of Vatican City. All

5900-544: The Italian government. The head of the Vatican's Department of Technical Services robustly rejected challenges to the Vatican State's right to build within its borders. John R. Morss writes in the European Journal of International Law that due to the terms of the Lateran Treaty, Vatican City's status as a sovereign state, and the Pope 's status as a head of state, are problematic. The name "Vatican"

6018-440: The Pope's holdings were left in an uncertain situation when Rome itself was annexed by Italian forces, thus bringing to completion the Italian unification , after a nominal resistance by the papal forces. Between 1861 and 1929 the status of the Pope was referred to as the "Roman Question". Italy made no attempt to interfere with the Holy See within the Vatican walls. However, it confiscated church property in many places. In 1871,

SECTION 50

#1732790773785

6136-528: The Pope's spiritual and pastoral governance, largely exercised through the Roman Curia . His official title with regard to Vatican City is Sovereign of the State of the Vatican City . Pope Francis , born Jorge Mario Bergoglio in Buenos Aires , Argentina, was elected on 13 March 2013. His principal subordinate government official for Vatican City as well as the country's head of government

6254-408: The Quirinal Palace was confiscated by the King of Italy and became the royal palace. Thereafter, the popes resided undisturbed within the Vatican walls, and certain papal prerogatives were recognised by the Law of Guarantees , including the right to send and receive ambassadors. But the Popes did not recognise the Italian king's right to rule in Rome, and they refused to leave the Vatican compound until

6372-484: The Qur'an and the Sunna remain subject to interpretation. This is carried out by the Council of Senior Scholars , the Saudi religious establishment, although the power of the religious establishment has been significantly eroded in the 2010s. The government of Saudi Arabia is led by the monarch, King Salman , who acceded to the throne on 23 January 2015. No political parties or national elections are permitted, and according to The Economist ' s Democracy Index ,

6490-423: The Roman Curia , Black Nobility ). They also formed the ceremonial Noble Guard . In the first decades of the existence of the Vatican City State, executive functions were entrusted to some of them, including that of delegate for the State of Vatican City (now denominated president of the Commission for Vatican City). But with the motu proprio Pontificalis Domus of 28 March 1968, Pope Paul VI abolished

6608-463: The Saudi government was the eighteenth-most authoritarian regime among the 167 countries rated in 2022, being at it lowest score in 2012 and at its highest from 2020 to 2022. Government is dominated by the royal family. The Basic Law specifies that the king must be chosen from among the sons of the first king, Abdulaziz Al Saud , and their male descendants subject to the subsequent approval of leaders (the ulama ). In 2007, an " Allegiance Council "

6726-501: The Shia community of the Eastern Province. Women will be allowed to vote beginning in 2012, as King Abdullah announced in the opening speech of the new term of the Shura Council. In 2005, candidates tended to be local businessmen, activists, and professionals. Although political parties were not permitted, it was possible to identify candidates as having an Islamist orientation, a liberal agenda, or reliant on tribal status. The Islamist candidates tended to be backed by public figures and

6844-406: The State of Vatican City, which is a rare case of a non-hereditary monarchy. The Vatican City State, created in 1929 by the Lateran Pacts, provides the Holy See with a temporal jurisdiction and independence within a small territory. It is distinct from the Holy See. The state can thus be deemed a significant but not essential instrument of the Holy See. The Holy See itself has existed continuously as

6962-437: The U.S. for his reaction. It also took pressure from within the royal family for him to launch a hunt for Islamist militants who had attacked Western targets in Saudi Arabia. By contrast, Prince Saud Al Faisal is one of the strongest supporters of political and social reform. For example, he (as well as King Abdullah) has spoken in favor of women having the right to vote, to follow the career path they wish, and to be able to drive

7080-408: The Vatican City's status as neutral territory . One of the main diplomatic priorities of Pius XII was to prevent the bombing of the city; a high level of sensitivity led him to protest even the dropping of pamphlets over Rome by the Royal Air Force , claiming that the few which landed within the Vatican City violated its neutrality. The British government's policy towards the Vatican, as expressed in

7198-425: The Vatican from the Lateran Palace and enclosed this area with walls. He planted an orchard ( pomerium ), a lawn ( pratellum ), and a garden ( viridarium ). The politics of Vatican City takes place in the context of an absolute elective monarchy and being governed by the Holy See , in which the head of the Catholic Church holds power. The Pope exercises principal legislative, executive, and judicial power over

SECTION 60

#1732790773785

7316-451: The accused and that the anti-corruption committee has the right to issue arrest warrants, impose travel restrictions, and freeze bank accounts. It is also empowered to investigate financials and freeze assets until cases are decided on. The Royal proclamation further said, "due to the propensity of some people for abuse, putting their interest above public interest, and stealing public funds." In 2018, Saudi Arabian journalist Jamal Khashoggi

7434-402: The allegations. Investigations by both US and UK authorities resulted, in 2010, in plea bargain agreements with the company, by which it paid $ 447 million in fines but did not admit to bribery. Transparency International in its annual Corruption Perceptions Index for 2010 gave Saudi Arabia a score of 4.4 (on a scale from 0 to 10 where 0 is "highly corrupt" and 10 is "very clean"). During

7552-430: The anomalous bulk of St Peter's Basilica, the elevation, the fountains, and the size of the large paved square. The highest temperature ever recorded was 40.8 °C (105.4 °F), on 28 June 2022. In July 2007, the Vatican accepted a proposal by two firms based respectively in San Francisco and Budapest , whereby it would become the first carbon neutral state by offsetting its carbon dioxide emissions with

7670-449: The basic statutes of government and codifying royal succession for the first time. The King's political reform program also provided for the establishment of a national Consultative Council , with appointed members having advisory powers to review and give advice on issues of public interest. It also outlined a framework for councils at the provincial or emirate level. In September 1993, King Fahd issued additional reform decrees, appointing

7788-588: The basis of the country's legislation. The king is also the prime minister and presides over the Council of Ministers (Majlis al-Wuzarāʾ) , which comprises the first and second deputy prime ministers (usually the first and second in line to the throne respectively), 23 ministers with portfolio, and five ministers of state. The king makes appointments to and dismissals from the council, which is responsible for such executive and administrative matters as foreign and domestic policy, defense, finance, health, and education, administered through numerous separate agencies. There

7906-402: The boundary, and for a small part of the frontier a modern wall was constructed. The territory includes St. Peter's Square , distinguished from the territory of Italy only by a white line along the limit of the square, where it touches Piazza Pio XII. St. Peter's Square is reached through the Via della Conciliazione which runs from close to the Tiber to St. Peter's. This grand approach

8024-419: The character and mission of the Holy See. Castel Gandolfo and the named basilicas are patrolled internally by police agents of Vatican City State and not by Italian police . According to the Lateran Treaty (Art. 3) St. Peter's Square, up to but not including the steps leading to the basilica, is normally patrolled by the Italian police. There are no passport controls for visitors entering Vatican City from

8142-421: The city is Città del Vaticano or, more formally, Stato della Città del Vaticano , meaning 'Vatican City State'. Its Latin name is Status Civitatis Vaticanae ; this is used in official documents by the Holy See , the Church and the Pope . The name "Vatican" was already in use in the time of the Roman Republic for the Ager Vaticanus , a marshy area on the west bank of the Tiber across from

8260-403: The city of Jeddah in a rare display of protest against the city's poor infrastructure after deadly floods swept through the city, killing eleven people. Police stopped the demonstration after about 15 minutes and arrested 30 to 50 people. In March 2018, the crown prince Mohammed bin Salman faced severe criticism from British opposition figures during his visit to the United Kingdom . Salman

8378-465: The city of Rome, located between the Janiculum , the Vatican Hill and Monte Mario , down to the Aventine Hill and up to the confluence of the Cremera creek. The toponym Ager Vaticanus is attested until the 1st century AD: afterwards, another toponym appeared, Vaticanus , denoting an area much more restricted: the Vatican Hill, today's St. Peter's Square , and possibly today's Via della Conciliazione . Because of its vicinity to Rome's archenemy,

8496-551: The construction of the Constantinian Basilica of St. Peter in the first half of the 4th century. A shrine dedicated to the Phrygian goddess Cybele and her consort Attis remained active long after the ancient Basilica of St. Peter was built nearby. Remains of this ancient necropolis were brought to light sporadically during renovations by various popes throughout the centuries, increasing in frequency during

8614-708: The creation of a Vatican Climate Forest in Hungary, as a purely symbolic gesture to encourage Catholics to do more to safeguard the planet. Nothing came of the project. On 26 November 2008, the Vatican itself put into effect a plan announced in May 2007 to cover the roof of the Paul VI Audience Hall with solar panels . Within the territory of Vatican City are the Vatican Gardens (Italian: Giardini Vaticani ), which account for about half of this territory. The gardens, established during

8732-430: The current fortification walls, built under Paul III (1534–1549), Pius IV (1559–1565), and Urban VIII (1623–1644). When the Lateran Treaty of 1929 that gave the state its form was being prepared, the boundaries of the proposed territory were influenced by the fact that much of it was all but enclosed by this loop. For some tracts of the frontier, there was no wall, but the line of certain buildings supplied part of

8850-712: The decisions these four cardinals take must be approved by the College of Cardinals as a whole. The nobility that was closely associated with the Holy See at the time of the Papal States continued to be associated with the Papal Court after the loss of these territories, generally with merely nominal duties (see Papal Master of the Horse , Prefecture of the Pontifical Household , Hereditary officers of

8968-602: The dispute was resolved in 1929; Pope Pius IX (1846–1878), the last ruler of the Papal States, was referred to as a " prisoner in the Vatican ". Forced to give up secular power, the popes focused on spiritual issues. This situation was resolved on 11 February 1929, when the Lateran Treaty between the Holy See and the Kingdom of Italy was signed by Prime Minister and Head of Government Benito Mussolini on behalf of King Victor Emmanuel III and by Cardinal Secretary of State Pietro Gasparri for Pope Pius XI . The treaty, which became effective on 7 June 1929, established

9086-474: The early 1990s did not satisfy demands for political participation, and, in 2003, an annual National Dialogue Forum was announced that would allow selected professionals and intellectuals to publicly debate current national issues, within certain prescribed parameters. In 2005, the first municipal elections were held. In 2007, the Allegiance Council was created to regulate the succession. In 2009,

9204-456: The education system has been cited by some as the reason why fewer protests occurred in the Kingdom. Saudi Arabia and other GCC countries also sent some policemen to Bahrain to assist police clampdown on protesters within Bahrain. The kingdom is divided into 13 regions or provinces ( manāṭiq ), which in turn are divided into numerous districts. Regional governors are appointed, usually from

9322-534: The executive, legislative, and judicial branches over Vatican City, and is thus the only absolute monarch in Europe. Operationally, there are departments that deal with health, security, telecommunications and other matters. The Cardinal Camerlengo presides over the Apostolic Camera , to which is entrusted the administration of the property and protection of other papal temporal powers and rights of

9440-492: The first elections in Saudi Arabian history were held. The elections for "virtually powerless" municipal councils were for half the seats (half of each council's seats were appointed). Women were not allowed to stand for office or to vote. In Riyadh , the number of registered voters did not exceed 18% of those eligible to vote, representing only 2% of the city's population. There was evidence of much greater interest in

9558-685: The following day, the new Italian government declared Rome an open city, after consulting the Holy See on the wording of the declaration. Pius XII had refrained from creating cardinals during the war. By the end of World War II, there were several prominent vacancies: Cardinal Secretary of State , Camerlengo , Chancellor , and Prefect for the Congregation for the Religious among them. Pius XII created 32 cardinals in early 1946 , having announced his intention to do so in his preceding Christmas message. The Pontifical Military Corps , except for

9676-827: The formation of political parties and sanctions sedition and condemnation of the king with long jail terms. The founding members of the National Assembly Party are Activist Yahya Assiri , comedian Omar Abdulaziz , Professor Madawi al-Rasheed , and scholar Abdullah al-Aoudh. Osama bin Laden and 15 out of the 19 hijackers of 9/11 were Saudi nationals or used to be Saudi nationals and former CIA director James Woolsey described Saudi Arabian Wahhabism as "the soil in which Al-Qaeda and its sister terrorist organizations are flourishing." Since 2011, Saudi Arabia has been affected by its own Arab Spring protests. In response, King Abdullah announced on 22 February 2011

9794-464: The honorary positions that had continued to exist until then, such as Quartermaster general and Master of the Horse . As Vatican City is governed by the Holy See , the Pope is ex officio head of state of Vatican City, a function dependent on his primordial function as bishop of the diocese of Rome and head of the Catholic Church . The term "Holy See" refers not to the Vatican state but to

9912-407: The imposition of the oil embargo in 1973 and the invitation of foreign troops to Saudi Arabia in 1990 . It plays a major role in the judicial and education systems and has a monopoly of authority in the sphere of religious and social morals. By the 1970s, as a result of oil wealth and the modernization of the country initiated by King Faisal, important changes to Saudi society were under way and

10030-517: The independent state of Vatican City and reaffirmed the special status of Catholic Christianity in Italy. The Holy See, which governed the Vatican City, pursued a policy of neutrality during World War II under the leadership of Pope Pius XII . Although German troops occupied Rome after the September 1943 Armistice of Cassibile , with Allied forces pushing them out in 1944, both sides respected

10148-403: The introduction of democratic processes in the Kingdom, including the legalization of political parties. Other analysts of the Saudi political scene were more skeptical. Islamist candidates, often businessmen, did well, but in practice had little real power. In 2009, promised new elections and hopes for female suffrage in them were postponed for at least two years. Vatican City This

10266-502: The king made significant personnel changes to the government by appointing reformers to key positions and the first woman to a ministerial post. However, the changes have been criticized as being too slow or merely cosmetic, and the royal family is reportedly divided on the speed and direction of reform. In 2011, Abdullah announced that women will be able to be nominated to the Shura Council . Politics in Saudi Arabia, outside

10384-549: The late Interior Minister, and Prince Saud Al-Faisal , the Foreign Minister. Prince Nayef was personally committed to maintaining Saudi Arabia's conservative Wahhabi values. Of the senior princes, he was probably the least comfortable with King Abdullah's desire for reform. Following the 11 September 2001 attacks in the United States, perpetrated mostly by Saudi nationals, Prince Nayef was strongly criticized by

10502-577: The launch of a political party in opposition to King Salman 's rule. The National Assembly Party members were exiled in the US, Britain, and elsewhere at the time of the party's launch from London. The opposition party aims to bring democracy as a form of government in the absolute monarchy and oust the de facto leader of Saudi Arabia, Mohammed bin Salman. The NAP is the first formalized political opposition in King Salman's rule. The country's Basic Law bans

10620-551: The members of the National Consultative Council and spelling out procedures for the new council's operations. He announced reforms to the Council of Ministers, including term limitations of 4 years and regulations to prohibit conflict of interest for ministers and other high-level officials. The members of 13 provincial councils and the councils' operating regulations were also announced. The membership of

10738-421: The ministries of interior, health, municipal and rural affairs and housing, education, and human resources and social development, customs and the postal story were arrested. Since the 9/11 attacks in 2001, there has been mounting pressure to reform and modernize the royal family's rule, an agenda championed by King Abdullah both before and after his accession in 2005. The creation of the Consultative Council in

10856-474: The minutes of a Cabinet meeting, was "that we should on no account molest the Vatican City, but that our action as regards the rest of Rome would depend upon how far the Italian government observed the rules of war". After the United States entered into the war, US officials were against bombing the Vatican City, fearful of offending Catholic members of the American military , but said that "they could not stop

10974-578: The power of the ulama was in decline. However, this changed following the seizure of the Grand Mosque in Mecca in 1979 by Islamist radicals. The government's response to the crisis included strengthening the ulama's powers and increasing their financial support: in particular, they were given greater control over the education system and allowed to enforce stricter observance of Wahhabi rules of moral and social behaviour. Following his accession to

11092-413: The religious establishment and won most of the seats in the Saudi cities such as Riyadh, Jeddah , Medina , Tabuk , and Taif . Candidates with "Western sympathies or any suspicion of secularism" lost out heavily to "hardline conservatives who were endorsed by the local religious establishment." This demonstrated to some that rather than being a conservative force holding back the country, the royal family

11210-416: The royal family). Although in theory, the country is an absolute monarchy , in practice major policy decisions are made outside these formal governmental structures and not solely by the king. Decisions are made by establishing a consensus within the royal family (comprising the numerous descendants of the kingdom's founder, King Abdulaziz ). Also, the views of important members of Saudi society, including

11328-479: The royal family, and preside over one or more municipal councils, half of whose members are appointed and half elected. The governors are responsible for such functions as finance, health, education, agriculture, and municipalities. The consultative principle operates at all levels of government, including the government of villages and tribes. The governors act as regional "mini-kings", sitting in majlises , hearing grievances, and settling disputes. In February 2005,

11446-540: The royal family, can be examined in three contexts: the extent to which the royal family allows political participation by the wider Saudi society, opposition to the regime, and Islamist terrorism. Outside the House of Al Saud, participation in the political process is limited to a relatively small segment of the population and takes the form of the royal family consulting with the ulama, tribal sheiks, and members of important commercial families on major decisions. This process

11564-496: The society. Saudi government is authoritarian , although some analysts have characterized the government of Mohammed bin Salman as totalitarian . The Crown Prince and Prime Minister of Saudi Arabia , Mohammed bin Salman, is the de facto ruler of Saudi Arabia. Under his rule, he has centralized policymaking, purged competing political elites, and dismantled pre-existing power-sharing dynamics. The Basic Law of Saudi Arabia contains many characteristics of what might be called

11682-538: The surrounding Italian territory. There is free public access to Saint Peter's Square and Basilica and, on the occasion of papal general audiences, to the hall in which they are held. For these audiences and for major ceremonies in Saint Peter's Basilica and Square, tickets free of charge must be obtained beforehand. The Vatican Museums , incorporating the Sistine Chapel, usually charge an entrance fee. There

11800-580: The throne in 2005, King Abdullah took steps to rein back the powers of the ulama, for instance transferring their control over girls' education to the Ministry of Education. The ulama have historically been led by the Al ash-Sheikh , the country's leading religious family. The Al ash-Sheikh are the descendants of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab , the 18th century founder of the Wahhabi form of Sunni Islam which

11918-521: The traditional tribal meeting known as the majlis . The government is dominated by the vast royal family, the Al Saud , which has often been divided by internal disputes and into factions. The members of the family are the principal political actors allowed by the government. Political participation outside the royal family is limited. Saudi Arabia is one of only four countries (the other being Vatican City , Brunei , and Afghanistan ) that does not have

12036-567: The ulama a direct role in government, the only other example being Iran . Prior to 1971, a council of senior ulama advising the king was headed by the Grand Mufti and met informally. In that year, the council was formalized in a Council of Senior Scholars , appointed by the king and with salaries paid by the government. Not only is royal succession subject to the approval of the ulama, so are all new laws (royal decrees). The ulama have also influenced major executive decisions, for example

12154-432: The use of middlemen, ' wasta ', to do business as well as patronage systems. The Saudi government and the royal family have often, and over many years, been accused of corruption. In a country that is said to "belong" to the royal family and is named after it , the lines between state assets and the personal wealth of senior princes are blurred. The corruption has been described as systemic and endemic, and its existence

12272-511: Was Khaled al-Tuwaijri , Secretary-General of the Court and King Abdullah's éminence grise . He was a commoner and immensely powerful, which meant he was despised by most royals, especially the Sideris, who sacked him as soon as the old king died. Long term political and government appointments result in the creation of "power fiefdoms" for senior princes. Examples include: King Abdullah , who

12390-668: Was kidnapped and killed after he criticized the Saudi government. On 6 March 2020, the Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia Mohammed bin Salman detained three senior royal members, including King Salman 's brother Prince Ahmed bin Abdulaziz , the former crown prince Muhammed bin Nayef , and his younger brother, to eliminate the risk of potential successors of the throne. On 15 March 2020, Saudi Arabia conducted another mass-detention campaign and arrested 298 government employees out of

12508-498: Was a "modernist" who favored economic, technological and governmental progress but was also politically and religiously conservative. He directed the country's rapid economic and bureaucratic development of the early 1970s, but also made concessions to the religious establishment, and abandoned plans to broaden political participation. King Khalid ( r.  1975–1982 ) left government largely to his Crown Prince, Fahd , who succeeded him as King ( r.  1982–2005 ). Prince Fahd

12626-442: Was a talented administrator who initiated significant industrial development in the Kingdom. He was regarded by many as the "father of the country's modernization". However, during the last 10 years of his reign, ill health prevented him from fully functioning. In the absence of a king who could provide strong central leadership, the state structure began to fragment and the country stagnated. King Abdullah ( r.  2005–2015 )

12744-509: Was accused of funding extremism in the UK, committing human rights abuses domestically, and breaching international humanitarian law in Yemen with the on-going war , where millions are on the verge of famine. Later that year, he was criticized by many other countries after Saudi American journalist Jamal Khashoggi was murdered. On 24 September 2020, a group of dissidents from Saudi Arabia announced

12862-549: Was acknowledged and defended by Prince Bandar bin Sultan (a senior member of the royal family) in an interview in 2001. Although corruption allegations have often been limited to broad undocumented accusations, specific allegations were made in 2007, when it was claimed that the British defence contractor BAE Systems had paid Prince Bandar US$ 2 billion in bribes relating to the Al-Yamamah arms deal . Prince Bandar denied

12980-830: Was already in use in the time of the Roman Republic for the Ager Vaticanus , a marshy area on the west bank of the Tiber across from the city of Rome, located between the Janiculum , the Vatican Hill and Monte Mario , down to the Aventine Hill and up to the confluence of the Cremera creek. The territory of Vatican City is part of the Vatican Hill, and of the adjacent former Vatican Fields. It

13098-509: Was constructed by Benito Mussolini after the conclusion of the Lateran Treaty. According to the Lateran Treaty, certain properties of the Holy See that are located in Italian territory, most notably the Papal Palace of Castel Gandolfo and the major basilicas , enjoy extraterritorial status similar to that of foreign embassies . These properties, scattered all over Rome and Italy, house essential offices and institutions necessary to

13216-500: Was created, consisting of King Abdulaziz's surviving sons plus a son of each of his deceased sons, to determine who will be the heir apparent (the Crown Prince) after the previous heir apparent dies or accedes to the throne. Prince Mohammad bin Salman is the current Crown Prince, and is widely regarded as the country's de facto ruler. The king combines legislative, executive, and judicial functions and royal decrees form

13334-416: Was first used in the Lateran Treaty , signed on 11 February 1929, which established the modern city-state named after Vatican Hill , the geographic location of the state within the city of Rome . "Vatican" itself is derived from the name of an Etruscan settlement, Vatica or Vaticum , located in the general area the Romans called Ager Vaticanus , "Vatican territory". The Italian name of

13452-487: Was more progressive than the Saudi population as a whole. In 2007, a Saudi commentator noted that the municipal councils were proving to be powerless. Nevertheless, the elections represented an important step in modernizing the regime. Although male-only municipal elections were held again on 29 September 2011 , Abdullah announced that women will be able to vote and be elected in the 2015 municipal elections . In March 1992, King Fahd issued several decrees outlining

13570-432: Was seen as a reformer and introduced economic reforms (limited deregulation, encouragement of foreign investment, and privatization) and made modernizing changes to the judiciary and government ministries. The royal family dominates the political system. The family's vast numbers allow it to hold most of the kingdom's important posts and to have an involvement and presence at all levels of government. The number of princes

13688-641: Was the Commander of the National Guard from 1963 until 2010, when he then appointed his son to replace him; Crown Prince Sultan was Minister of Defense and Aviation from 1962 to 2011; Crown Prince Nayef was the Minister of Interior from 1975 until his death in 2012; Prince Saud had been Minister of Foreign Affairs from 1975 to just before his death in 2015; and King Salman was the Governor of

13806-476: Was their habitual residence for about a thousand years. From 1309 to 1377, they lived at Avignon in France. On their return to Rome, they chose to live at the Vatican. They moved to the Quirinal Palace in 1583, after work on it was completed under Pope Paul V (1605–1621), but on the capture of Rome in 1870 retired to the Vatican, and what had been their residence became that of the King of Italy . In 1870 ,

13924-463: Was used to build the Al-Kindi Plaza. Reinforced concrete was used in the framed system with hollow concrete blocks for the infill; precast slabs were also used in certain parts of the building. Insulated tiled roofs and suspended ceiling complete the modern look. However, by using stucco spray on metal lath, the traditional Najdi facade of mud plaster finish on adobe (mud-brick) was preserved as

#784215