Army Group Mackensen
98-612: Serbian campaign (1915) Austro-Hungarian and Bulgarian occupation The Great Retreat , also known in Serbian historiography as the Albanian Golgotha ( Serbian : Албанска голгота , Albanska golgota ), refers to the retreat of the Royal Serbian Army through the mountains of Albania during the 1915–16 winter of World War I . In late October 1915, Germany , Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria launched
196-529: A bloody four-day fight for a peak of the Jagodnja mountain called Mačkov Kamen, in which both sides suffered horrendous losses in successive frontal attacks and counterattacks. The two Serbian divisions lost around 11,000 men, while Austro-Hungarian losses were probably comparable. On 25 September, the Austrian 6th army withdrew to avoid getting outflanked. Field Marshal Putnik ordered its troops to take up
294-475: A declaration of war, Bulgaria started border attacks into Serbia. On 14 October, Bulgaria officially declared war; General Kliment Boyadzhiev 's Bulgarian First Army , under German orders, was to advance on Niš , the temporary capital of the Serbian government and link with German Eleventh Army; the Bulgarian Second Army under General Georgi Todorov was to proceed into Macedonia , to sever
392-763: A front of 1,200 kilometres (750 miles) against three armies and as promises of aid and reinforcements from the Allies fell through, the Supreme Command of the Serbian Army started an organized retreat towards Kragujevac and Niš . On 6 November the Bulgarian First Army made contact with General Gallwitz's Eleventh German Army in the vicinity of Niš; on 10 November they crossed the Morava River about 18 miles (29 km) south of Niš and struck
490-725: A military campaign carried out by the Central Powers , primarily Germany , Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria , against the Kingdom of Serbia during World War I . The campaign took place from October to November 1915. After Serbia successfully resisted Austria-Hungary's advances during the Serbian campaign of 1914 , the Central Powers launched a joint offensive against Serbia with a combined force of over 600,000 soldiers. They enjoyed numerical and technological superiority over
588-562: A most critical situation. Field Marshal Putnik began concentrating his troops for the purpose of securing access to the plateau of Gnjilane known as the " Field of Blackbirds ". The Austrian Luftfahrtruppen , that until then provided air support to the Austro-Hungarian army and communications between the German Eleventh and Bulgarian First Armies, started using reconnaissance aircraft to carry out bombing missions across
686-540: A retreat across the Albanian mountains , suffering heavy casualties from combat, disease, and harsh weather, the retreat became known as the Great Retreat or the "Albanian Golgotha." By the end of the Serbian campaign of 1915, the Central Powers had effectively eliminated Serbia as a threat, secured their position in the region and opened up a land route to provide supplies to the embattled Ottoman Empire. Serbia
784-431: A synchronised major offensive , under German leadership, against Serbia . Early that same month, France and Britain landed four divisions at Salonika , respectively under General Sarrail and General Sir Byron Mahon, to assist their outnumbered Serbian ally caught between the invading forces. The Serbs fought while retreating southwards with the plan to withdraw into Macedonia to link up with Allied forces. After
882-477: A victory for Serbia. The Austro-Hungarians suffered heavy casualties with over 224,000 dead, wounded or prisoner and were unable to achieve their objectives but the victory also brought heavy losses to the Serbian army with 170,000 casualties a much higher percentage for the small kingdom, making further offensive operations impossible. In early 1915, following Ottoman defeats at the Battle of Sarikamish and during
980-632: Is remembered, using biblical symbolism, as the Albanian Golgotha, a sacred sacrifice followed by the national 'resurrection' of Serbia's victory at the end of the war. Serbian campaign (1915) Royal Serbian Army 600,000: 100,000 Germans 200,000 Austro-Hungarians 566 battalions and 273 guns (108 heavy) ~300,000: ~260,000 Serbians 275 battalions and 654 cannons Serbian campaign (1915) Austro-Hungarian and Bulgarian occupation The Serbian campaign of 1915 ( German : Der serbische Feldzug 1915 ) refers to
1078-586: The Balkanstreitkräfte , consisting of the 5th Army and 6th Army , attacked Serbia from the west and north. Despite initial setbacks, the Serbs, under General Radomir Putnik 's command, used the terrain and strategic advantages to secure a decisive victory at the Battle of Cer . The blow to Habsburg prestige was incalculable, with Serbia marking the first Allied victory of World War I as all Austro-Hungarian forces were repelled out of Serbia. Following
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#17327838449951176-422: The Battle of Kolubara expelled the Central Powers forces from Serbia before the end of the month, concluding the campaign. After being humiliated by "the peasant regiments of a small Balkan kingdom", the blow to Habsburg prestige was "incalculable" and Franz Ferdinand's avenging remained unfulfilled. The Serbian Campaign of 1914 concluded within the year and General Potiorek was relieved of command. In early 1915,
1274-527: The Drin River , the troops, who had retreated from Macedonia, continued west through Albania, ultimately to Lezhë . The Timok Division also continued to move south and then west through Albania to Durrës . It had the shortest route to the sea but encountered some resistance from hostile Albanians. Regent Alexander crossed it in just two and a half days and the Serbian government set off on 24 November, reaching Shkodër/Scutari four days later. The officers of
1372-554: The First Balkan War , made many of the locals ready to take their revenge on the soldiers retreating through the mountain passes, continuing the cycle of revenge with killing and looting. The Northern column, composed of the First, Second and Third Army and the troops of the defence of Belgrade, took the route across southern Montenegro, from Peć to Scutari (Shkodër), via Rožaje , Andrijevica and Podgorica . It contained
1470-564: The First Suez Offensive , German Chief of the General Staff Erich von Falkenhayn attempted to persuade Austro-Hungarian Chief of Staff Conrad von Hötzendorf about the strategic importance of capturing Serbia . The rationale behind this proposition was to establish a direct rail connection from Germany through Austria-Hungary, ultimately reaching Istanbul and beyond. This proposed rail link would facilitate
1568-809: The Imperial and Royal Danube Flotilla . Having sent the Timok Group and the Second Army to defend the Bulgarian border, Putnik could only oppose four divisions to the Austro-Hungarian and German invading forces. On 8 October German troops managed to reach the south bank of the Sava, threatening the Serbian west flank and the north of Belgrade. That same day Austro-Hungarian troops enter Belgrade, hard hand to hand fighting ensued. Facing overwhelming artillery superiority, Serbian forces were forced back; during
1666-525: The Ionian Sea , near the Greek island of Vido ; more than 5,000 Serbs are believed to have been buried this way. The sea around Vido is known as "The Blue Graveyard" ( Plava grobnica ). Field Marshal Putnik travelled to France for medical treatment, where he died the following year. Nearly 5,000 Serbian refugees, mostly women and children were sent to Corsica, evacuated from Albania, they were attended by
1764-782: The Military General Governorate of Serbia was established with its center in Belgrade. In the territory occupied by the Bulgarians , a military government was set up with its center in Niš, the area was divided into two administrative zones. Both the Austrian and the Bulgarian occupation regimes were very harsh, the population was exposed to various measures of repression, including mass internment, forced labour, concentration camps for political opponents, starvation, Denationalization and Bulgarisation policy. Kosovo
1862-534: The Montenegrin Sanjak Army (roughly a division) conducted an offensive into Bosnia taking Visegrad on 14 September. In addition, both sides conducted a few local attacks, none of which succeeded. Although the Serbs successfully halted the second Austrian invasion of Serbia, the Austro-Hungarian kept a foothold on Serbian territory from where they were to launch a third invasion. Military historian Mark Clodfelter reports 40,000 casualties for
1960-477: The New Territories , was replaced by Petar Bojović . On 25 October units of First Army captured Negotin and connected with German Eleventh Army. Facing encirclement from German and Austro- Hungarian troops only 6 miles from Kragujevac and Bulgarians 15 miles to the east near Niš, the Serbs only hope was to fight its way south to link up with Allies forces. After Greece chose to remain neutral, despite
2058-513: The River Drina at the western Serbian border; after successfully crossing the river the night of 7—8 September the Austro-Hungarian forces were stopped facing strong Serbian defensive positions. In the meantime, the Serbian army was forced to end their offensive into Austrian Syrmia and regroup their forces to face the threat. Meanwhile, in the far west, a smaller force of Serbian and Montenegrin troops moved into Bosnia , taking Višegrad . In
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#17327838449952156-642: The Scottish Women's Hospitals for Foreign Service in Serbia also evacuated following this route, at times alongside the army. The mission of the troops of the defence of Belgrade was to cover the retreat of the Army of the Timok as long as that army had not begun its movement of retreat, and then to retire in its turn. Because of this, the northern column delayed its departure from Peć until 7 December. It also had
2254-714: The Serbian First Army , Voivode Stepa Stepanović commander of the Second Army while the Serbian Third Army was under Pavle Jurišić Šturm . The Serbian army had about 780 guns, most of them heavy, the Serbians were forced to spread their forces by the entry of Bulgaria on the side of the Central powers. The commander (Serdar) of the Montenegrin forces was Janko Vukotić . Against Serbia were
2352-840: The Serbian Third Army and gained a foothold in Serbian territory. After some units from the Serbian Second Army were sent to bolster the Third, the Austro-Hungarian Fifth Army also successfully established a bridgehead with a renewed attack. Field Marshal Radomir Putnik withdrew the First Army from Syrmia force marching them south to deliver a fierce counterattack against the Sixth Army. It initially went well but finally bogged down in
2450-487: The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by a Bosnian-Serb nationalist. This triggered a series of alliances and escalations among European powers, ultimately leading to the outbreak of World War I . In August 1914, Austria-Hungary launched an invasion of Serbia. Against all odds, the Serbian army, led by General Radomir Putnik managed to repel multiple offensives from a much larger and better-equipped enemy. The Serbian campaign of 1914 ended late on 14 December with
2548-433: The "Great Retreat", also known as the Albanian Golgotha, is regarded in Serbian history as one of the nation's greatest tragedies. The Army of Montenegro did not follow the Serbs into exile but retreated to defend their own country. The Austrian-Hungarians launched their Montenegrin campaign on 5 January 1916. Despite some success of The Montenegrins in the Battle of Mojkovac , they were defeated within two weeks. Serbia
2646-559: The Adriatic coast. They then boarded Allied transport ships that took them to the island of Corfu , before eventually being sent to Salonika. The evacuation of the Serbian army was completed on 5 April 1916. Some survivors were in such weakened conditions that thousands of them died in the weeks following their rescue. Marshal Putnik, who had to be carried throughout the entire retreat, died fifteen months later in France. The period known as
2744-528: The Adriatic. Upon reaching Albania Essad Pasha Toptani , an Albanian leader and former Ottoman General, who was a Serb ally and the one central authority left in Albania, provided protection where this was possible. Where he was in control, his gendarmes gave support to retreating Serbian troops, but as the columns moved to territories in the north, attacks by Albanian tribesmen and irregulars became commonplace. The Serb-Montenegrin troops' brutal actions in
2842-687: The Albanian coast to Valona and across via Tirana reaching Durrës on 21 December. As early as 20 November, Pašić sent an urgent message to Serbia's allies, asking for supplies, particularly food, to be sent to the Adriatic ports. When the Northern and Central columns arrived in Shkodër, they found the harbour empty of the foreign ships they had expected and hoped for. Learning that some supplies had come ashore in Durrës, 60 kilometres (37 mi) away,
2940-613: The Allied army after Greece entered the war; some six Serbian infantry divisions and one cavalry division, named after regions and rivers in their homeland would eventually return to serve, playing a key role in the breakthrough of the Macedonian Front in September 1917, and the liberation of their homeland a year later. The great retreat is considered by Serbs to be one of the greatest tragedies in their nation's history. It
3038-529: The Allied defeat in the Gallipoli campaign and the Russian setback at Gorlice , Tsar Ferdinand of Bulgaria signed a treaty with Germany and on 23 September 1915 started mobilisation for war. During the preceding nine months, the Serbs had tried and failed to rebuild their battered armies and improve their supply situation. Despite their efforts, the Serbian army was only about 30,000 men stronger than at
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3136-721: The Allied forces following Greece's entry into the war. These Serbian units would ultimately play a pivotal role in the breakthrough of the Macedonian Front in September 1917 and the subsequent liberation of Serbia a year later when French and Serbian forces defeated Bulgarian and German forces at the Battle of Dobro Pole . Battle of the Drina Serbian campaign (1915) Austro-Hungarian and Bulgarian occupation Serbian campaign (1914) Serbian campaign (1915) Austro-Hungarian and Bulgarian occupation Aegean Albania Greece ( National Schism ) Macedonian front The Battle of
3234-725: The Allies and the Central Powers attempted to persuade Bulgaria to align with their respective sides. Bulgaria and Serbia had a history of conflict, having engaged in two wars in the previous three decades: the Serbo-Bulgarian War in 1885 and the Second Balkan War in 1913. By aligning with the Central Powers, Bulgaria was promised not only disputed lands from Serbia but also additional territories in Macedonia and Thrace; in addition Germany and Austria-Hungary, offered Bulgaria military and economic support. Following
3332-739: The Austro-Hungarian Navy. Eventually, a decision was made to evacuate the Serbian Army, and its accompanying civilians, to the French-occupied Greek island of Corfu and as far as Bizerte in French Tunisia . This decision, made primarily by the French did not involve any discussions with the Greek authorities. The refugees were to be transported from Durrës and Saint Giovanni di Medua to Vlora where they would board three large French ships and another one provided by
3430-603: The Austro-Hungarian and Bulgarian occupation administrations implemented stringent measures, subjecting the population to various forms of repression, including mass internment, forced labor, concentration camps for political opponents, famine, denationalisation, and policies aimed at cultural assimilation. Kosovo was divided into two Austro-Hungarian occupational zones and the Bulgarian Military Region of Macedonia. In 1916, over 110,000 Serbian troops were relocated to Salonika, where they subsequently joined
3528-565: The Austro-Hungarians who had soak-proof leather boots. Most of the war material was supplied by the Allies, who were also short. In such a situation, Serbian artillery quickly became almost silent while the Austro-Hungarians steadily increased their fire. Serbian daily casualties reached 100 soldiers from all causes in some divisions. During the first weeks of trench warfare, the Serbian Užice Army (one strengthened division) and
3626-695: The Bulgarian 9th Infantry Division successfully established contact with the German Eleventh Army. On November 6, the Forty-Third Reserve Infantry Division secured the area south of Kraljevo . This allowed the Central Powers access to the Ibar River valley. Field Marshal Mackensen ordered a pursuit by the Bulgarians southwest toward Pristina , however, the First Army encountered challenges in crossing
3724-615: The Bulgarians. The French government and the War Office in London were both hesitant to advance too deep into Serbia, but Sarrail continued up the Vardar. This advance provided some limited assistance to the retreating Serbian army, as the Bulgarians had to concentrate larger forces on their southern flank to deal with the threat, which led to the Battle of Krivolak . The French and British soldiers, moving up in two columns on both sides of
3822-513: The Drina ( Serbian : Bitka na Drini , Битка на Дрини ) was fought between Serbian and Austro-Hungarian armies in September 1914, near Loznica , Serbia , during the First Serbian campaign of World War I . After a first failed invasion of Serbia where he lost 40,000 men, Oskar Potiorek , the Austro-Hungarian commander of the Balkanstreitkräfte , launched a new offensive across
3920-666: The French front, as well as the Austro-Hungarian 10th Mountain Brigade . In the south, the Bulgarian Second Army could not be stopped and managed to sever the train line on 16 October then reach the Vardar River on 19, Kumanovo on 20, Skopje on 22 and capturing the strategic Kačanik gorge on 26 October forcing the Serbians to retreat again. As a result Serbian General Damjan Popović , commander of
4018-794: The German Eleventh Army led by Generaloberst Max von Gallwitz , the Austro-Hungarian Third Army commanded by General der Infanterie Hermann Kövess and the Bulgarian First Army under Generalleutnant Kliment Boyadzhiev (comprising the Sixth, Eighth, Ninth and First Divisions); all under the supreme command of Field Marshal August von Mackensen . In addition, the Bulgarian Second Army commanded by Georgi Todorov (comprising
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4116-475: The German chief of the general staff von Falkenhayn convinced the Austro-Hungarian chief of staff von Hoetzendorf to launch a new invasion of Serbia. In September Bulgaria signed a treaty of alliance with Germany and quickly mobilized its army. On 6 October 1915, combined German and Austro-Hungarian forces under the command of Field Marshall August von Mackensen attacked Serbia from the north and west with
4214-575: The Italian Royal Navy and transported to the Tunisian port of Bizerte. On 11 January 1916 French soldiers, later joined by Italian and British, started the occupation of Corfu, in preparation for the arrival of the Serbian troops. The evacuation started on 15 January; the journey was made from three ports, San Giovanni di Medua , Durrës and Valona (Vlorë). Altogether, 45 Italian, 25 French and eleven British transport ships were employed in
4312-511: The Italian steamers Palatino and Gallinara, which were sailing from Brindisi to Saint Giovanni di Medua and Durrës on the Albanian coast, while the Unione another Italian vessel transporting supplies was forced to scuttle after being attacked by a submarine. On 5 December the Italian steamer Benedetto Giovanni, alongside the Greek steamer Thira, was sank near Saint Giovanni di Medua by an Austrian cruiser. On 8 and 9 January two more Italian ships Brindisi and Città di Palermo were sunk by
4410-412: The Montenegrin Army, Montenegrin forces played a key role in covering up the withdrawal, most notably against Austro-Hungarian forces in the Battle of Mojkovac . The central column consisted of King Peter I, the court, the government and the General Staff took the route through central Kosovo across northern Albania, from Prizren to Shkodër via Lum and Pukë . Once across the Vizier's Bridge on
4508-428: The Serbian Army at Kragujevac via encirclement. Facing the oncoming German III Corps, Austro-Hungarian units to the west, and the Bulgarian 9th Infantry Division blocking the southern route through Niš, the Serbian army abandoned Kragujevac without a fight. They retreated into the mountains followed by large groups of civilians, escaping the trap, and leaving only rearguards to slow down the oncoming enemies. On 5 November,
4606-434: The Serbian army, which was heavily outnumbered and lacked adequate supplies and equipment. The campaign began with a series of coordinated offensives aimed at breaking through Serbian defensive lines. The Serbian army, led by King Peter I and Field Marshal Radomir Putnik , fought valiantly but was ultimately overwhelmed by the Central Powers' forces. The Serbian army, along with a significant number of civilians, embarked on
4704-524: The Serbian forces with the X Reserve Corps, including the 107th Infantry Division, which had to navigate difficult terrain and mountain passes, on 13 November they were able to secure the passes against the Serbian Drina II Division. As the Central Powers advanced, the Serbian army managed to maintain its organisational integrity and hold off their pursuers despite the loss of key cities. The Serbian forces reached Pristina and Kosovo ahead of their pursuers and chose to continue retreating towards Prizren , escaping
4802-459: The Serbian troops had been evacuated by 19 February. On 23 February 1916, the transfer of the infantry was completed including 6,000 Montenegrin soldiers who had joined them. The cavalry division who had started evacuating on 27 February 1916 but had to wait for better weather, was last to embark on 5 April 1916, which marked the end of the operation. A total of 260,895 men were evacuated, including Serbian and Montenegrin soldiers and civilian refugees,
4900-448: The Serbs. For two days, the greatly outnumbered Serbian army held Prokuplje but eventually had to retreat. The pressure of the Austro-Hungarians, the Germans, and the Bulgarian First Army in the north and the Bulgarian Second Army advancing from the east forced the Serbs to retreat in a southwesterly direction into Kosovo . In mid-November, the Serbian armies reached Pristina ahead of their pursuers, but were unable to break south through
4998-414: The South, the Austrians took Shabatz (Šabac). On 17 September, a counterattack pushed the Austrians back to the Drina, where both sides settled into trench warfare. The Battle of the Drina is considered one of the bloodiest on the war's Balkan Front. After being defeated in the Battle of Cer in August 1914, the Austro-Hungarian army retreated over the Drina River back into Bosnia and Syrmia . Under
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#17327838449955096-404: The Supreme Command under Field Marshall Radomir Putnik made the decision to order a general withdrawal and fight on from exile, planning to reorganise and reform the army with the help and support from the Allies . On 23 November, Vojvoda Putnik ordered all Serbian forces to use the last of the artillery ammunition and then bury the cannons, taking the breechblocks and sights with them; if burying
5194-423: The Supreme Command who accompanied the Chief of the General Staff Radomir Putnik took longer, leaving on 26 November and arriving in Shkodër on 6 December. The southern column followed the third route of withdrawal, from Prizren to Lumë and further through the Albanian mountains to Debar and Struga . The southern column was the first to depart and the last to arrive at the coast. The southern route presented
5292-408: The Third and Seventh Divisions, a cavalry division and a group of volunteers), which remained under the direct control of the Bulgarian high command, was deployed in Macedonia to block any advance by the entente forces from Salonika. On 5 October after extensive aerial reconnaissance, Austro-Hungarian artillery began to fire on Serbian guns and known defensive positions. On 6 October, the offensive
5390-602: The Vardar River into Serbian Macedonia, comprised a total force of 60,000 men. They were stopped and forced to retreat after clashing with the leading elements of the Bulgarian Second Army. In a similar fashion, on December 7, at the Battle of Kosturino , the Second Army attacked the British 10th (Irish) Infantry Division, veterans of the Gallipoli campaign in poor physical condition, forcing it to retreat into Salonika by 12 December. The German High Command refused Bulgarian demands to advance into Greece. On October 31, 1915, Mackensen launched an attack intended to decisively defeat
5488-409: The West and South Morava Rivers. On 10 November the Bulgarian First Division managed to cross the South Morava at Leskovac , but a Serbian force consisting of the Timok I, Šumadija II, and Morava II Divisions launched a surprise counterattack driving the Bulgarians back. The Serbians continued their retreat toward Pristina while enemy aerial reconnaissance followed their movements. The Germans pursued
5586-420: The beginning of World War I . The campaign represented the first significant military engagement between the Central Powers , mainly Austro-Hungary, and the Allied Powers , led by the Kingdom of Serbia. The campaign began in the night of 28-29 July with Austria-Hungary bombarding Belgrade . On 12 August, the Austro-Hungarian forces, under General Oskar Potiorek , initiated their first offensive into Serbia when
5684-535: The best way to stop the Serbian offensive was to launch another invasion into Serbia to force the Serbs to recall their troops to defend their homeland. On 7 September, a renewed Austro-Hungarian attack started from the west, across the river Drina , this time with both the Fifth Army in Mačva and the Sixth Army further south. The initial attack by the Fifth Army was repelled by the Serbian Second Army , with 4,000 Austro-Hungarian casualties, forcing them back into Bosnia. The stronger Sixth Army managed to surprise
5782-406: The blockade of the Bulgarian Second Army at Kačanik Pass near Skopje , to reach Salonika and establish the liaison with the French troops of General Sarrail . The goal of Mackensen was to corner the Serbs in the Kosovo area and force them to fight a decisive final battle. The rupture of communications between Niš-Skopje-Salonika and the rupture of the liaison with the Allies brought the army into
5880-422: The columns of troops and refugees were sent further south. Food was dispatched from France and Britain but it was still in Brindisi , Italy, the chosen port for the shipment of materials. Due to the presence of Austrian naval forces in the Adriatic, and after a convoy sent to Skadar earlier was destroyed by the Austro-Hungarian navy, the Italians had only sent a few vessels. On 22 November Austrian destroyers sank
5978-457: The commanders of all armies, was published by the Serbian High Command: The only way out of this grave situation is a retreat to the Adriatic coast. There our army will be reorganised, furnished with food, arms, munitions, clothing, and all other necessities which our allies will send us, and we shall again be a fact with which our allies must reckon. The nation has not lost its being, it will continue to exist even though on foreign soil, so long as
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#17327838449956076-420: The crisis with his people. The elderly monarch, who was almost blind, travelled through the mountains riding in an ox cart. To evade General Mackensen's final encirclement effort, the Serbian army, and a mass of civilians fleeing the massacres perpetrated by Austro-Hungarian troops, retreated along three routes, all converged on Lake Scutari , on the border of Albania and Montenegro, and from there headed towards
6174-443: The defection of Greece , the Bulgarian forces stopped the Franco-British relief force in the Vardar Valley, the Serbs found themselves swept together in the plain of Kosovo by the converging Austro-Hungarian, German, and Bulgarian columns. To escape the invaders' encirclement, on November 23, 1915, the government and supreme command made the joint decision to retreat across the mountains of Montenegro and Albania . The objective
6272-430: The enemy's attempts to encircle them. On 20 November, Nikola Pašić sent a message asking the Allies for supplies to be sent to Adriatic ports. On 23 November Mitrovica and Pristina fell to the Central Powers. To escape the encirclement by the Central Powers, on 25 November 1915, the government and the supreme command made the decision to withdraw across the Accursed Mountains of Montenegro and Albania. The objective
6370-412: The estimated 220,000 civilian refugees who had set off for the Adriatic coast from Kosovo, only about 60,000 survived. Those who survived were so weak that thousands of them died from sheer exhaustion in the weeks after their rescue. Because the rock composition of the island made it hard to dig graves, those who died on the journey were buried at sea. Bodies were lowered from French ships into the depths of
6468-420: The evacuation in Vlorë, Albania. On 14 January the Serbian government, ministers, and the members of the diplomatic corps boarded an Italian ship, the Citta di Bari , for Brindisi . On 6 February the Serbian supreme command and Regent Alexander were evacuated to Corfu , where around 120,000 evacuees had arrived by 15 February, and around 135,000 ten days later. Up to 10,000 evacuees were taken to Bizerta around
6566-473: The evacuation; they carried out 202, 101 and 19 voyages, respectively. The Duke of Abruzzi and Vice Admiral Emanuele Cutinelli Rendina, commander of Italian naval forces in the southern Adriatic (with headquarters in Brindisi ), were tasked with planning the evacuation by sea; it was established that larger ships would load the troops in Durres and Vlore, whereas smaller vessels would be employed in San Giovanni di Medua. Rear Admiral Guglielmo Capomazza supervised
6664-408: The guns was impossible, they were to be rendered useless. Putnik also ordered that, to save them from being captured by the enemy, every boy near military age, from twelve to eighteen years old, 36 000 in total, was to follow the army and join the retreat with the goal of saving the country's manhood and raising soldiers for the future front. On 25 November 1915, an official order of retreat addressed to
6762-399: The initial failure, Austria-Hungary regrouped and launched a second invasion in September 1914. The Battle of the Drina saw the Serbs pushing the 5th Army back into Bosnia, forcing the remnants of the Balkanstreitkräfte to retreat in late September. A third invasion launched in October 1914, resulted in the capture of Belgrade on 2 December 1914 before a successful Serbian counter-offensive at
6860-421: The intention of drawing the bulk of the Serbian forces along the Sava and Danube . On 11 October, without a previous declaration of war, the Bulgarians started making attacks on Serbian border positions. On 14 October Bulgaria finally declared war on Serbia and the First and Second Armies, under the command of General Boyadzhiev , advanced into the Timok region of northeastern Serbia with the mission of cutting
6958-415: The largest contingent of Serbian troops and it also included a mobile medical unit The first Serbian-English Field Hospital , with two doctors, six nurses and six ambulance drivers. The unit was headed by British nurse and commissioned major, Mabel Stobart . The retreat of this force to Andrijevica was to take place under the direction of the First Army, which was to occupy positions at Rožaje . Members of
7056-467: The most direct way to make contact with Sarrail's Army of the Orient. The General Headquarters had asked the commanders of these groups to keep in constant telegraphic communication, but from the first day of the operations this was found to be impossible. The geography of the country did not allow of any other means of communication, so that the commanders of these groups were left to their own devices during
7154-413: The new technology of the time, dropping bombs on the retreating columns in what has been called 'the first aerial bombardment of civilians.' Out of the 400,000 people who set out on the journey, only 120,000 soldiers and 60,000 civilians reached the Adriatic coast to be evacuated by Allied ships to the island of Corfu, where a Serbian government-in-exile headed by Prince-Regent Alexander and Nikola Pašić
7252-658: The night of 8–9 October General Mihailo Živković gave up the capital, pulling the Defence of Belgrade Group out to position south where it joined with the 2nd Timok Division. On 9 October Belgrade was occupied by Austro-Hungarian Third Army while German Eleventh Army had crossed the Danube with the III Corps at Smederevo and with the X Corps at Ram , successfully establishing two bridgeheads to serve as base for further operations. On 11 October, having mobilised but without
7350-569: The north by parts of the Eleventh German Army, now advanced against the Serbs. Following intense fighting on 23 November, Pristina and Mitrovica fell to the Central Powers and the Serbian government abandoned Prizren , its last temporary capital in Serbia. Only three possibilities were considered: capitulation and separate peace, a final honourable-but-desperate battle of annihilation, or further retreat. Only retreating and counterattacking were seriously considered, while capitulation
7448-476: The plain of Kosovo, striking the columns of refugees and blurring the lines between combatants and noncombatants in what has been called "the first-ever aerial bombardment of civilians". Albanians hostile to Serbs mounted guerrilla actions picking off weak detachments, acting in revenge for the repression they endured following the transfer of the province from Ottoman to Serbian and Montenegrin territory two years earlier. The entire Bulgarian army, supported from
7546-454: The position in the surrounding hills, and the front settled in a month and a half of trench warfare . This was highly unfavourable to the Serbs, who possessed heavy artillery that was largely obsolete, had short ammunition stocks, limited shell production (having only a single factory producing around 100 shells a day) and also a lack of proper footwear since the vast majority of infantry wore the traditional (though state-issued) opanaks , unlike
7644-708: The pressure of the Allies , Serbia conducted an offensive across the Sava river into the Austro-Hungarian region of Syrmia taking Zemun going as far as 20 miles into enemy territory. Meanwhile, the Timok First Division of the Serbian Second Army suffered heavy loss in a diversionary crossing when a bridge collapsed, causing panic, suffering around 6,000 casualties while inflicting only 2,000. With most of his forces in Bosnia, general Oskar Potiorek decided that
7742-555: The rail line between Niš and Salonika and thus prevent Allied relief forces and ammunitions from reaching the Serbs. The Bulgarian First Army first made quick progress as the Serbs had moved troops north and the border units were of "low quality" but was stopped by the Serbian Second Army which made the German general staff request reinforcements, resulting in the German Alpine Corps brought in from
7840-588: The responsibility to act as a rearguard against an attack by the Austro-Hungarians, Bulgarians, and Germans. Tracing an arc from northwest to southwest through Montenegrin territory and skirting the northern border of Albania through the snow-covered mountains, hunger, exposure, and disease killed soldiers and civilians, as well as prisoners of war travelling with them, by the thousands. The northern column began to reach Scutari on 15 December. Serbian officers and artillery crews in Montenegro handed over 30 cannons to
7938-497: The royal families, the Serbian government and members of delegations. According to the official statistics from 1919, 77,455 Serbian soldiers died, while 77,278 went missing. The worst fate befell the Southern Column, where approximately 36,000 young boys, some who would have become conscripts in 1916, but some as young as twelve, had been ordered by the Army to join the retreat; within a month about 23,000 of them died. Of
8036-610: The ruler, the government and the army are there, no matter what the strength of the army may be. The Serbian Army split into three columns heading towards the mountains of Albania and Montenegro, pursued by the Austro-Hungarian Tenth Mountain Brigade and by the German Alpine Corps . The army's rock-bottom morale was boosted by the presence of the ailing, 71-year-old King Peter I , who had stepped aside on June 14 to let his son Prince Alexander rule as Regent but now resumed his throne to face
8134-501: The same time. The sick were transported to the Greek island of Vido , to prevent epidemics. The Italians took over the majority of Habsburg prisoners, and transferred them to the uninhabited island of Asinara (off the coast of Sardinia ). Nearly 5,000 refugees, mostly women, children, and elderly people were taken to Corsica accompanied by the Serbian Relief Fund and the Scottish Women's military hospital. Most of
8232-414: The staff of the Scottish Women's military hospital who had travelled with them, an operation financed by the Serbian Relief Fund based in London. Many of the young boys who had survived the retreat were sent to France and Britain for schooling. Serbia was divided into separate Austro-Hungarian and Bulgarian military occupation zones. In the Austro-Hungarian zone of occupation (northern and central Serbia),
8330-535: The start of the war (around 225,000) and was still poorly equipped. The first Serbian Campaign had taken the lives of 100,000 soldiers and had been followed by an epidemy of typhus caused by the sick and wounded that the Austro-Hungarians had left behind. The disease claimed the lives of another 135,000 Serbs. The Serbian army was commanded by Voivode Radomir Putnik who had defeated the Austro-Hungarians in 1914, Putnik's main commanders were Voivode Živojin Mišić leading
8428-516: The terms of the treaty of alliance with Serbia, the Allies agreed to send a force to support the Serbs. After much delays imposed by Greece, the French 156th Division and the British 10th Division arrived in Salonika from Gallipoli early October. Under the command of French General Maurice Sarrail , two French divisions marched north towards Serbia, with the goal was of liberating Skopje, occupied by
8526-588: The transportation of military resources, and potentially troops, to support the Ottoman Empire . Russia posed a significant threat as an adversary, and the entry of Italy into the war on the side of the Allies further complicated the challenges faced by the Austro-Hungarian forces. On 8 September 1915, Erich von Falkenhayn and Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf signed a military convention in Pless . The conference called for an immediate attack on Serbia. Both
8624-445: The trek across the mountains 77,455 soldiers and 160,000 civilians succumbed to freezing temperatures, starvation, diseases, or enemy actions. Austrian pilots employed new aerial bombardment technology, dropping bombs on the retreating columns, marking what has been described as 'the first aerial bombardment of civilians.' Out of the initial 400,000 people who began this journey, only 120,000 soldiers and 60,000 civilians managed to reach
8722-461: The vital rail line that ran from Salonika up the Vardar and Morava River valleys, and depriving Serbia of reinforcements and artillery ammunition. Numbering nearly 300,000 men, the forces of Bulgaria quickly overwhelmed the weak Serbian units along the frontier. The Serbian Army had 250,000 men of which a large number were already battling 300,000 Germans and Austrians in the north. In addition, Austrian troops soon started marching from Dalmatia. Facing
8820-564: The whole movement. All the troops part of this group were placed under the orders of the commander of the Army of the Timok. The column left on 25 November and moved south all the way to Elbasan . Along the way it had to contend with Albanian resistance and Bulgarian attacks; on 10 December, the Bulgarians attacked Serbian positions along the crest of the Jablanica mountain range. As the Bulgarians again reached Struga before them, Serbian soldiers and civilians turned southwesterly, marching down
8918-502: Was divided by the Central Powers, between separate Austro-Hungarian and Bulgarian military occupation zones. In the northern and central part of Serbia, which fell under Austro-Hungarian control, a Military General Governorate of Serbia was established, headquartered in Belgrade. The Bulgarian-occupied territory saw the formation of a military government with its center in Niš , with the area further divided into two administrative zones. Both
9016-593: Was divided into two Austro-Hungarian occupational zones: Metohija entered the Austro-Hungarian Military Government of Montenegro, while a smaller part of Kosovo with Mitrovica and Vucitrn became part of the Austro-Hungarian Military Government of Serbia. The greater part of Kosovo – Pristina, Prizren, Gnjilane , Urosevac , Orahovac was included in the Bulgarian Military Region of Macedonia. During 1916, more than 110,000 Serbian troops were transferred to Salonika, where they joined
9114-541: Was established. Another 11,000 Serbs would later die of disease, malnutrition, or exposure sustained during the retreat. In some sources published following the conflict, the event was described as the greatest and most tragic episode of the Great War. On July 28, 1914, a month after the assassination of Austrian archduke Franz Ferdinand , Austria-Hungary, the second-largest country in Europe, declared war on Serbia marking
9212-579: Was launched when German Eleventh Army (GE Eleventh Army) and Austro-Hungarian Third Army (AH Third Army), some 300,000 men strong, started advancing towards the Danube and the Drina and Sava rivers. That day Bulgarian troops started sporadic attacks across various border crossing with Serbia. Early on 7 October crossing of the Sava by Austro-Hungarian Third Army, including the German XXII Reserve Corps, began supported by monitors from
9310-463: Was not an option on the table; the only possible avenue of escape lay to the southwest and northwest, over the towering Korab and Prokletije mountain ranges of Albania and Montenegro, part of the Dinaric Alps , a region with an altitude of over 6,000 feet (1,800 m) as the snow was beginning to fall. The Serbian government led by Prime Minister Nikola Pašić , Prince Regent Alexander and
9408-547: Was then divided between the Austro-Hungarian occupied zone and the Bulgarian occupied zone . The Serbian government, along with the remnants of its army, evacuated to the Greek island of Corfu , where they regrouped and later played a crucial role in the ultimate Allied victory in the war. Regarding the Kingdom of Serbia as a threat to their territorial integrity and the stability of their multi-ethnic empire, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on 28 July 1914, following
9506-545: Was to reach the Adriatic coast , where the Serbs could regroup and replenish. The retreat involved the remaining army forces, the King, hundreds of thousands of civilian refugees, and war prisoners. It was a perilous journey undertaken in the midst of winter, with severe weather conditions, difficult roads, and the constant threat of attacks by enemy forces and Albanian tribal bands. Between November 1915 and January 1916, during
9604-569: Was to reach the Adriatic coast, where they would reorganise and reequip the Serbian Army with assistance from the Allies. The Serbs then retreated across the mountains in three columns; the retreat took the remnants of the army, the King , hundreds of thousands of civilian refugees, and war prisoners. Between November 1915 and January 1916, during the journey across the mountains, 77,455 soldiers and 160,000 civilians froze, starved to death, died of disease, or were killed by enemy raids. Austrian pilots used
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