Alternative fuels , also known as non-conventional and advanced fuels , are fuels derived from sources other than petroleum . Alternative fuels include gaseous fossil fuels like propane , natural gas , methane , and ammonia ; biofuels like biodiesel , bioalcohol , and refuse-derived fuel ; and other renewable fuels like hydrogen and electricity .
144-418: Algae fuel , algal biofuel , or algal oil is an alternative to liquid fossil fuels that uses algae as its source of energy-rich oils. Also, algae fuels are an alternative to commonly known biofuel sources, such as corn and sugarcane. When made from seaweed (macroalgae) it can be known as seaweed fuel or seaweed oil . In 1942 Harder and Von Witsch were the first to propose that microalgae be grown as
288-476: A nuclear reactor to heat a working fluid such as water, which is then used to create steam pressure, which is converted into mechanical work for the purpose of generating electricity or propulsion in water. Today, more than 15% of the world's electricity comes from nuclear power, and over 150 nuclear-powered naval vessels have been built. In theory, electricity from nuclear reactors could also be used for propulsion in space, but this has yet to be demonstrated in
432-543: A "lower carbon future", and claims to be the world leader in carbon capture and storage (CCS). The company additionally plans that its Scope 1 and Scope 2 emissions will be carbon neutral by 2050. ExxonMobil additionally acquired biofuel company Biojet AS in 2022, and its Canadian subsidiary Imperial Oil is moving ahead with plans to produce a renewable diesel biofuel. In July 2023, Exxon agreed to acquire Denbury Resources for $ 4.9 billion to further its low-carbon efforts. In July 2024, ExxonMobil and CF Industries signed
576-656: A CCS agreement that will allow ExxonMobil to transport and permanently store 500,000 tonnes of CO2 per year starting in 2028. Exxon is working on low-carbon energy projects, focusing on basic research in five to ten key areas. This work spends a fraction of the $ 1 billion a year Exxon spends on research worldwide and the $ 8 billion it has spent since 2000 researching, developing and deploying low-carbon technologies Projects include: algae biofuels, biodiesel from agricultural waste, molten carbonate fuel cells , and new ways to manufacture plastic that produce less carbon dioxide. In November 2023 ExxonMobil started drilling for lithium in
720-736: A Spring post office address, and is adjacent to, but not in, the Spring census-designated place . Paul Takahashi of the Houston Chronicle described the headquarters as being in Spring. The headquarters was previously in Irving . The company decided to consolidate its Houston operations into one new campus located in northern Harris County and vacate its offices on 800 Bell St. which it had occupied since 1963. The decision came in 2022. The new operation complex includes twenty office buildings totaling 3,000,000 square feet (280,000 m ),
864-547: A campaign to promote the use of natural gas as a clean energy source and bridge fuel to renewable energy, and of intimidating journalists reporting about the companies' climate actions and of obstructing the committee's investigation, which ExxonMobil, Shell, and the American Petroleum Institute denied. In the United States, as of 2024, dozens of states and localities have sued ExxonMobil on
1008-546: A century by Exxon and other Standard Oil predecessors, a 2011 oil spill which leaked 1,500 barrels of oil into the Yellowstone River (resulting in about $ 135 million in damages), and a 2012 1,900 barrel (80,000 gallon) spill from the company's Baton Rouge Refinery in the rivers of Point Coupee Parish, Louisiana . ExxonMobil's actives in Louisiana in particular, especially its Baton Rouge Refinery , have given
1152-462: A combination of lower-emission fuels, hydrogen, and carbon capture and storage. Low Carbon Solutions conducts research on clean energy technologies, including algae biofuels , biodiesel made from agricultural waste, carbonate fuel cells , and refining crude oil into plastic by using a membrane and osmosis instead of heat. The company speculated in April 2023 that pending good economic conditions,
1296-453: A dedicated system that burns a single fuel, or in a mixed system with other fuels including traditional gasoline or diesel, such as in hybrid-electric or flexible fuel vehicles. In Canada, since 1996, Alternative Fuels Regulations SOR/96-453 Alternative Fuels Act defined alternative fuel: For the purposes of the definition alternative fuel in subsection 2(1) of the Act, the following, when used as
1440-488: A former mechanic, Paul Gill, who claimed that his cancer was caused by exposure to benzene in ExxonMobil's petroleum products while working at a Mobil gas station between 1975 and 1980. According to Fortune Global 500 , ExxonMobil was the second largest company, second largest publicly held corporation , and the largest oil company in the United States by 2017 revenue. For the fiscal year 2020, ExxonMobil reported
1584-561: A fuel for use in the SOFT cycle , (SOFT stands for Solar Oxygen Fuel Turbine), a closed-cycle power-generation system suitable for use in arid, subtropical regions. Other species used include Clostridium saccharoperbutylacetonicum , Sargassum , Gracilaria , Prymnesium parvum , and Euglena gracilis . Light is what algae primarily need for growth as it is the most limiting factor. Many companies are investing for developing systems and technologies for providing artificial light. One of them
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#17327718998051728-741: A harvesting cycle of 1–10 days, their cultivation permits several harvests in a very short time-frame, a strategy differing from that associated with annual crops. In addition, algae can be grown on land unsuitable for terrestrial crops, including arid land and land with excessively saline soil, minimizing competition with agriculture. Most research on algae cultivation has focused on growing algae in clean but expensive photobioreactors , or in open ponds, which are cheap to maintain but prone to contamination. The lack of equipment and structures needed to begin growing algae in large quantities has inhibited widespread mass-production of algae for biofuel production. Maximum use of existing agriculture processes and hardware
1872-486: A hydrotreating refinery process that breaks molecules down into shorter hydrocarbon chains used in diesel engines. It has the same chemical properties as petroleum-based diesel meaning that it does not require new engines, pipelines or infrastructure to distribute and use. It has yet to be produced at a cost that is competitive with petroleum . While hydrotreating is currently the most common pathway to produce fuel-like hydrocarbons via decarboxylation/decarbonylation, there
2016-567: A lawsuit in San Francisco County Superior Court against ExxonMobil on behalf of the state of California , alleging that the company carried out a "decades-long campaign of deception" and misled the public on the merits of plastic recycling; in response ExxonMobil said that California has an ineffective recycling system that officials have known about for decades. ExxonMobil has also been accused of human rights violations and abusing its geopolitical influence. In
2160-412: A long-term dedication to overcoming what appear to be fundamental biological limitations of wild organisms. Most researchers believe that large scale production of biofuels is either "a decade, and more likely two decades, away." Algal oil is used as a source of fatty acid supplementation in food products, as it contains mono- and polyunsaturated fats , in particular EPA and DHA . Its DHA content
2304-515: A longer fuel cycle. For a list of experimental and presently-operating thorium-fueled reactors, see Thorium fuel cycle § List of thorium-fueled reactors . In addition, radioisotopes have been used as alternative fuels, on both lands, and in space. Their use on land is declining due to the danger of theft of isotope and environmental damage if the unit is opened. The decay of radioisotopes generates both heat and electricity in many space probes, particularly probes to outer planets where sunlight
2448-522: A loss of US$ 22.4 billion, with an annual revenue of US$ 181.5 billion, a decline of 31.5% over the previous fiscal cycle. The key trends of ExxonMobil are (as at the financial year ending December 31): As per Fortune 500 Global list, ExxonMobil has been ranked #7 company in the World. ExxonMobil's headquarters are located in the Spring, Texas area, a suburb of Houston. The ExxonMobil campus has
2592-413: A much less significant land footprint due to the higher oil productivity from the microalgae than all other oil crops. Algae can also be grown on marginal lands useless for ordinary crops and with low conservation value, and can use water from salt aquifers that is not useful for agriculture or drinking. Algae can also grow on the surface of the ocean in bags or floating screens. Thus microalgae could provide
2736-491: A net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases . To the extent that carbon neutral fuels displace fossil fuels , or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbolic acid, and their combustion is subject to carbon capture at the flue or exhaust pipe, they result in negative carbon dioxide emission and net carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere, and thus constitute a form of greenhouse gas remediation . Such carbon neutral and negative fuels can be produced by
2880-459: A nutrient for algae, with varying capacities. Nitrate was found to be the preferred source of nitrogen, in regards to amount of biomass grown. Urea is a readily available source that shows comparable results, making it an economical substitute for nitrogen source in large scale culturing of algae. Despite the clear increase in growth in comparison to a nitrogen-less medium, it has been shown that alterations in nitrogen levels affect lipid content within
3024-403: A paddle wheel. These systems have low power requirements, operating costs, and capital costs when compared to closed loop photobioreactor systems. Nearly all commercial algae producers for high value algal products utilize open pond systems. The Algae scrubber is a system designed primarily for cleaning nutrients and pollutants out of water using algal turfs. An algal turf scrubber (ATS) mimics
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#17327718998053168-454: A renewable source. Although renewable energy is used mostly to generate electricity, it is often assumed that some form of renewable energy or a percentage is used to create alternative fuels. Research is ongoing into finding more suitable biofuel crops and improving the oil yields of these crops. Using the current yields, vast amounts of land and fresh water would be needed to produce enough oil to completely replace fossil fuel usage. Biomass in
3312-566: A revival of interest in algal biofuels and US federal funding has increased, numerous research projects are being funded in Australia, New Zealand, Europe, the Middle East, and other parts of the world. In December 2022, ExxonMobil , the last large oil company to invest in algae biofuels, ended its research funding. In March 2023, researchers said that the commercialization of biofuels would require several billion dollars of funding, plus
3456-603: A rich nutritional medium, microalgae can have faster growth rates than terrestrial crops. Also, they can convert a much higher fraction of their biomass to oil than conventional crops, e.g. 60% versus 2-3% for soybeans. The per unit area yield of oil from algae is estimated to be from 58,700 to 136,900 L/ha/year, depending on lipid content, which is 10 to 23 times as high as the next highest yielding crop, oil palm, at 5 950 L/ha/year. The U.S. Department of Energy's Aquatic Species Program , 1978–1996, focused on biodiesel from microalgae. The final report suggested that biodiesel could be
3600-427: A similar manner to petroleum fuels in transportation and use, with sufficient safety measures in place at all times. Alternative fuel These fuels are intended to substitute for more carbon intensive energy sources like gasoline and diesel in transportation and can help to contribute to decarbonization and reductions in pollution . Alternative fuel is also shown to reduce non-carbon emissions such as
3744-514: A single company. On Oct. 1 2024, Nigeria approved the $ 1.28 billion sale of Exxon Mobil's onshore assets to Seplat Energy, more than two years after the deal was first agreed upon in February 2022 ExxonMobil markets products around the world under the brands of Exxon , Mobil, and Esso. Mobil is ExxonMobil's primary retail gasoline brand in California, Florida , New York , New England ,
3888-527: A single high yielding species of algae, this method focuses on naturally occurring polycultures of algae. As such, the lipid content of the algae in an ATS system is usually lower, which makes it more suitable for a fermented fuel product, such as ethanol, methane, or butanol. Conversely, the harvested algae could be treated with a hydrothermal liquefaction process, which would make possible biodiesel, gasoline, and jet fuel production. There are three major advantages of ATS over other systems. The first advantage
4032-536: A source of biofuels pump nutrient -rich water through plastic or borosilicate glass tubes (called " bioreactors " ) that are exposed to sunlight (and so-called photobioreactors or PBR). Running a PBR is more difficult than using an open pond, and costlier, but may provide a higher level of control and productivity. In addition, a photobioreactor can be integrated into a closed loop cogeneration system much more easily than ponds or other methods. Open pond systems consist of simple in ground ponds, which are often mixed by
4176-403: A source of clean energy with little impact on the provisioning of adequate food and water or the conservation of biodiversity. Algae cultivation also requires no external subsidies of insecticides or herbicides, removing any risk of generating associated pesticide waste streams. In addition, algal biofuels are much less toxic, and degrade far more readily than petroleum-based fuels. However, due to
4320-475: A source of lipids for food or fuel. Following World War II, research began in the US, Germany, Japan, England, and Israel on culturing techniques and engineering systems for growing microalgae on larger scales, particularly species in the genus Chlorella . Meanwhile, H. G. Aach showed that Chlorella pyrenoidosa could be induced via nitrogen starvation to accumulate as much as 70% of its dry weight as lipids. Since
4464-605: A space flight. Some smaller reactors, such as the TOPAZ nuclear reactor , are built to minimize moving parts and use methods that convert nuclear energy to electricity more directly, making them useful for space missions, but this electricity has historically been used for other purposes. Power from nuclear fission has been used in a number of spacecraft, all of them uncrewed. The Soviets up to 1988 orbited 33 nuclear reactors in RORSAT military radar satellites, where electric power generated
Algae fuel - Misplaced Pages Continue
4608-541: A substitute for fossil oil sources in the energy supply to transport and which have the potential to contribute to its decarbonisation and enhance the environmental performance of the transport sector. They include, inter alia: In the US, the EPA defines alternative fuel as Alternative fuel including gaseous fuels such as hydrogen, natural gas, and propane; alcohols such as ethanol, methanol, and butanol; vegetable and waste-derived oils; and electricity. These fuels may be used in
4752-433: A suburb of Houston . Founded as the largest direct successor of John D. Rockefeller 's Standard Oil , the modern company was formed in 1999 following the merger of Exxon and Mobil . It is vertically integrated across the entire oil and gas industry, and within it is also a chemicals division which produces plastic, synthetic rubber, and other chemical products. As the largest U.S.-based oil and gas company, ExxonMobil
4896-590: A water-in-oil emulsion, which are created to improve the fuels combustive properties. Diesel can also be emulsified with water to be used as a fuel. It helps in improving engine efficiency and reducing exhaust emissions. Carbon-neutral fuel is synthetic fuel —such as methane , gasoline , diesel fuel or jet fuel —produced from renewable or nuclear energy used to hydrogenate waste carbon dioxide recycled from power plant flue exhaust gas or derived from carbolic acid in seawater . Such fuels are potentially carbon neutral because they do not result in
5040-418: A wellness center, laboratory, and three parking garages. It is designed to house nearly 10,000 employees. The current chairman of the board and CEO of ExxonMobil Corp. is Darren W. Woods. Woods was elected chairman of the board and CEO effective January 1, 2017, after the retirement of former chairman and CEO Rex Tillerson . Before his election as chairman and CEO, Woods was elected president of ExxonMobil and
5184-518: Is flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion , where it can be extracted for about US $ 7.50 per ton. Automobile exhaust gas capture has also been proposed to be economical but would require extensive design changes or retrofitting. Since carbonic acid in seawater is in chemical equilibrium with atmospheric carbon dioxide, extraction of carbon from seawater has been studied. Researchers have estimated that carbon extraction from seawater would cost about $ 50 per ton. Carbon capture from ambient air
5328-400: Is wastewater from the treatment of sewage, agricultural, or flood plain run-off, all currently major pollutants and health risks. However, this waste water cannot feed algae directly and must first be processed by bacteria, through anaerobic digestion . If waste water is not processed before it reaches the algae, it will contaminate the algae in the reactor, and at the very least, kill much of
5472-480: Is OriginOil that has developed a Helix BioReactorTM that features a rotating vertical shaft with low-energy lights arranged in a helix pattern. Water temperature also influences the metabolic and reproductive rates of algae. Although most algae grow at low rate when the water temperature gets lower, the biomass of algal communities can get large due to the absence of grazing organisms. The modest increases in water current velocity may also affect rates of algae growth since
5616-457: Is a fossil fuel. New technologies such as horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing to economically access unconventional gas resources, appear to have increased the supply of natural gas in a fundamental way. Renewable natural gas or biogas is a methane-based gas with similar properties to natural gas that can be used as transportation fuel. Present sources of biogas are mainly landfills , sewage , and animal/ agri-waste . Based on
5760-502: Is a petrochemical company that was created by merging Exxon's and Mobil's chemical industries in 1999. Its principal products include basic olefins and aromatics , ethylene glycol , polyethylene , and polypropylene along with speciality lines such as elastomers , plasticizers , solvents , process fluids, oxo alcohols and adhesive resins . The company also produces synthetic lubricant base stocks as well as lubricant additives, propylene packaging films and catalysts . ExxonMobil
5904-482: Is also a by-product of the refining processes which further increase the supply of Propane to the market. Propane is stored and transported in a liquid state at roughly 5 bar (73 psi) of pressure. Fueling vehicles are similar to gasoline in the speed of delivery with modern fueling equipment. Propane filling stations only require a pump to transfer vehicle fuel and do not require expensive and slow compression systems when compared to compressed natural gas which
Algae fuel - Misplaced Pages Continue
6048-468: Is also possible with species such as Chaetomorpha linum , Ulva lactuca , and Enteromorpha compressa ( Ulva ). The following species are being investigated as suitable species from which to produce ethanol and/or butanol : Biogasoline is gasoline produced from biomass . Like traditionally produced gasoline, it contains between 6 ( hexane ) and 12 ( dodecane ) carbon atoms per molecule and can be used in internal-combustion engines . Biogas
6192-423: Is an active area of research and also is the bottleneck of this technology: the cost of extraction is higher than those obtained. One of the solutions is to use filter feeders to "eat" them. Improved animals can provide both foods and fuels. An alternative method to extract the algae is to grow the algae with specific types of fungi. This causes bio-flocculation of the algae which allows for easier extraction. Often,
6336-400: Is an alternative process offering a number of important advantages over hydrotreating. In this regard, the work of Crocker et al. and Lercher et al. is particularly noteworthy. For oil refining, research is underway for catalytic conversion of renewable fuels by decarboxylation . As the oxygen is present in crude oil at rather low levels, of the order of 0.5%, deoxygenation in petroleum refining
6480-561: Is an emissionless fuel. The byproduct of hydrogen burning is water, although some mono-nitrogen oxides NOx are produced when hydrogen is burned with air. Another fuel is formic acid. The fuel is used by converting it first to hydrogen and using that in a fuel cell . Formic acid is much more easy to store than hydrogen. HCNG (or H2CNG) is a mixture of compressed natural gas and 4–9 percent hydrogen by energy. Hydrogen could also be used as hydroxy gas for better combustion characteristics of compression-ignition engines . Hydroxy gas
6624-429: Is any nuclear technology designed to extract usable energy from atomic nuclei via controlled nuclear reactions . Currently, the only controlled method uses nuclear fission in a fissile fuel (with a small fraction of the power coming from subsequent radioactive decay ). Use of nuclear fusion for controlled power generation is not yet practical, but is an active area of research. Nuclear power generally requires
6768-469: Is being considered as a possible component for fuel cells and combustion engines through research of conversion of ammonia to nitrogen gas and hydrogen gas. Ammonia is the simplest molecule that carries hydrogen in a liquid form. It is carbon-free and can be produced using renewable energy. Ammonia can become a transitional fuel soon because of its relative easiness of storage and distribution. Emulsified fuels include multiple components that are mixed to
6912-462: Is being done into using seaweeds for biofuels, probably due to the high availability of this resource. As of 2012 researchers across various locations worldwide have started investigating the following species for their suitability as a mass oil-producers: The amount of oil each strain of algae produces varies widely. Note the following microalgae and their various oil yields: In addition, due to its high growth-rate, Ulva has been investigated as
7056-658: Is composed mainly of methane ( CH 4 ) and carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), with some traces of hydrogen sulphide , oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen . Macroalgae has high methane production rate compared to plant biomass. Biogas production from macroalgae is more technically viable compared to other fuels, but it is not economically viable due to the high cost of macroalgae feedstock. Carbohydrate and protein in microalgae can be converted into biogas through anaerobic digestion, which includes hydrolysis, fermentation, and methanogenesis steps. The conversion of algal biomass into methane can potentially recover as much energy as it obtains, but it
7200-564: Is currently in partnerships with Oracle Red Bull Racing in Formula One and Kalitta Motorsports. ExxonMobil operates 21 refineries worldwide, and the company claims 80% of its refining capacity is integrated with chemical or lube basestocks. ExxonMobil's largest refinery overall is its Beaumont Refinery and its second largest in the United States is its Baytown Refinery , located in Baytown, Texas . Its second largest refinery overall
7344-418: Is documented higher productivity over open pond systems. The second is lower operating and fuel production costs. The third is the elimination of contamination issues due to the reliance on naturally occurring algae species. The projected costs for energy production in an ATS system are $ 0.75/kg, compared to a photobioreactor which would cost $ 3.50/kg. Furthermore, due to the fact that the primary purpose of ATS
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#17327718998057488-523: Is extracted under high temperature and pressure. Anaerobic digestion is a straightforward method involved in decomposition of algae into simple components then transforming it into fatty acids using microbes like acidogenic bacteria followed by removing any solid particles and finally adding methanogenic archaea to release a gas mixture containing methane. A number of studies have successfully shown that biomass from microalgae can be converted into biogas via anaerobic digestion. Therefore, in order to improve
7632-456: Is intended to produce transportation fuel to offset LNG used in their A3 Sportback g-tron automobiles, and can keep 2,800 metric tons of CO 2 out of the environment per year at its initial capacity. Other commercial developments are taking place in Columbia, South Carolina , Camarillo, California , and Darlington, England . The least expensive source of carbon for recycling into fuel
7776-520: Is its Jurong Island facility in Singapore . ExxonMobil's global average refining capacity was 4.6 million barrels per day, with the United States producing a plurality of the company's refining capacity at about 1.77 million barrels per day. ExxonMobil's corporate website claims it refines almost 5 million barrels per day. ExxonMobil was one of few U.S. refiners to expand capacity by a significant margin following an industry downturn suffered during
7920-417: Is little evidence that using algae is a reasonable source for jet biofuels. By 2015, cultivation of fatty acid methyl esters and alkenones from the algae, Isochrysis , was under research as a possible jet biofuel feedstock . In May 2022, scientists at University of Cambridge announced they created an algae energy harvester, that uses natural sunlight to power a small microprocessor , initially powering
8064-413: Is more costly, at between $ 600 and $ 1000 per ton and is considered impractical for fuel synthesis or carbon sequestration . Nighttime wind power is considered the most economical form of electrical power with which to synthesize fuel, because the load curve for electricity peaks sharply during the warmest hours of the day, but wind tends to blow slightly more at night than during the day. Therefore,
8208-467: Is more profitable when the algal lipid content is lower than 40%. Biogas production from microalgae is relatively low because of the high ratio of protein in microalgae, but microalgae can be co-digested with high C/N ratio products such as wastepaper. Another method to produce biogas is through gasification, where hydrocarbon is converted to syngas through a partial oxidation reaction at high temperature (typically 800 °C to 1000 °C). Gasification
8352-465: Is not of much concern, and no catalysts are specifically formulated for oxygenates hydrotreating. Hence, one of the critical technical challenges to make the hydrodeoxygenation of algae oil process economically feasible is related to the research and development of effective catalysts. Trials of using algae as biofuel were carried out by Lufthansa and Virgin Atlantic as early as 2008, although there
8496-459: Is obtained through electrolysis of water. The air engine is an emission-free piston engine using compressed air as fuel. Propane is a cleaner burning, high-performance fuel derived from multiple sources. It is known by many names including propane, LPG (liquified propane gas), LPA (liquid propane autogas), Autogas and others. Propane is a hydrocarbon fuel and is a member of the natural gas family. Propane as an automotive fuel shares many of
8640-491: Is one of the most essential ones as it is used in numerous metabolic processes. The microalgae D. tertiolecta was analyzed to see which nutrient affects its growth the most. The concentrations of phosphorus (P), iron (Fe), cobalt (Co), zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn) and molybdenum (Mo), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), silicon (Si) and sulfur (S) concentrations were measured daily using inductively coupled plasma (ICP) analysis. Among all these elements being measured, phosphorus resulted in
8784-427: Is produced from this chemical reaction. These raw materials can either be mixed with pure diesel to make various proportions or used alone. Despite one’s mixture preference, biodiesel will release a smaller number of pollutants ( carbon monoxide , particulates and hydrocarbons ) than conventional diesel, because biodiesel burns both cleanly and more efficiently. Even with regular diesel’s reduced quantity of sulfur from
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#17327718998058928-423: Is removing nutrients and pollutants out of water, and these costs have been shown to be lower than other methods of nutrient removal, this may incentivize the use of this technology for nutrient removal as the primary function, with biofuel production as an added benefit. After harvesting the algae, the biomass is typically processed in a series of steps, which can differ based on the species and desired product; this
9072-472: Is roughly equivalent to that of salmon based fish oil. Algae can be converted into various types of fuels, depending on the production technologies and the part of the cells used. The lipid , or oily part of the algae biomass can be extracted and converted into biodiesel through a process similar to that used for any other vegetable oil, or converted in a refinery into "drop-in" replacements for petroleum-based fuels. Alternatively or following lipid extraction,
9216-433: Is similar to that of gasoline, and when blended with gasoline, provides better performance and corrosion resistance than that of ethanol or E85 . The green waste left over from the algae oil extraction can be used to produce butanol. In addition, it has been shown that macroalgae (seaweeds) can be fermented by bacteria of genus Clostridia to butanol and other solvents. Transesterification of seaweed oil (into biodiesel)
9360-480: Is the seventh-largest by revenue in the U.S. and 13th-largest in the world . It is the largest investor-owned oil company in the world. Approximately 55.56% of the company's shares are held by institutions, the largest of which as of 2019 were The Vanguard Group (8.15%), BlackRock (6.61%), and State Street Corporation (4.83%). The company has been widely criticized and sued, mostly for environmental incidents and its history of climate change denial against
9504-779: Is the goal. Closed systems (not exposed to open air) avoid the problem of contamination by other organisms blown in by the air. The problem of a closed system is finding a cheap source of sterile CO 2 . Several experimenters have found the CO 2 from a smokestack works well for growing algae. For reasons of economy, some experts think that algae farming for biofuels will have to be done as part of cogeneration , where it can make use of waste heat and help soak up pollution. To produce micro-algae at large-scale under controlled environment using PBR system, strategies such as light guides, sparger, and PBR construction materials required should be well considered. Most companies pursuing algae as
9648-434: Is the largest producer of butyl rubber. Infineum, a joint venture with Shell plc, is manufacturing and marketing crankcase lubricant additives, fuel additives , and specialty lubricant additives, as well as automatic transmission fluids , gear oils , and industrial oils. Mobil 1 , a brand of synthetic motor oil, is a major sponsor of multiple racing teams and as the official motor oil of NASCAR since 2003. ExxonMobil
9792-646: Is usually kept at over 3,000 psi (210 bar). In a vehicle format, propane autogas can be retrofitted to almost any engine and provide fuel cost savings and lowered emissions while being more efficient as an overall system due to the large, pre-existing propane fueling infrastructure that does not require compressors and the resultant waste of other alternative fuels in well to wheel lifecycles. Compressed natural gas (CNG) and liquefied natural gas (LNG) are two cleaner combustible alternatives to conventional liquid automobile fuels. CNG vehicles can use both renewable CNG and non-renewable CNG. Conventional CNG
9936-462: Is usually performed with catalysts. Uncatalyzed gasification requires temperature to be about 1300 °C. Syngas can be burnt directly to produce energy or used a fuel in turbine engines. It can also be used as feedstock for other chemical productions. Methane , the main constituent of natural gas , can be produced from algae by various methods, namely gasification , pyrolysis and anaerobic digestion . In gasification and pyrolysis methods methane
10080-434: Is weak, and low temperatures is a problem. Radiothermal generators (RTGs) which use radioisotopes as fuels do not sustain a nuclear chain reaction, but rather generate electricity from the decay of a radioisotope. ExxonMobil ExxonMobil Corporation ( / ˌ ɛ k s ɒ n ˈ m oʊ b əl / EK -son- MOH -bəl ) is an American multinational oil and gas corporation headquartered in Spring, Texas ,
10224-547: The COVID-19 pandemic. The company completed a 250,000 barrels per day expansion at its Beaumont , Texas, refinery in early 2023. Officially formed with ExxonMobil's 2022 corporate restructuring, and currently led by former General Motors president Dan Ammann , Low Carbon Solutions is the company's alternative energy division. The division says it will lower emissions in hard-to-decarbonize sectors such as heavy industry, commercial transportation, and power generation using
10368-1151: The Kearl Oil Sands Project . In Argentina, ExxonMobil holds 0.9 million acres (3,600 km ) and 4.9 million acres (20,000 km ) in Germany. In the Netherlands ExxonMobil owns 1.5 million acres (6,100 km ), in Norway it owns 0.4 million acres (1,600 km ) offshore, and the United Kingdom 0.6 million acres (2,400 km ) offshore. In Africa, upstream operations are concentrated in Angola, where it owns 0.4 million acres (1,600 km ) offshore, Chad where it owns 46,000 acres (19,000 ha), Equatorial Guinea, where it owns 0.1 million acres (400 km ) offshore, and Nigeria, where it owns 0.8 million acres (3,200 km ) offshore. In addition, ExxonMobil plans to start exploration activities off
10512-893: The carbohydrate content of algae can be fermented into bioethanol or butanol fuel . Biodiesel is a diesel fuel derived from animal or plant lipids (oils and fats). Studies have shown that some species of algae can produce 60% or more of their dry weight in the form of oil. Because the cells grow in aqueous suspension, where they have more efficient access to water, CO 2 and dissolved nutrients, microalgae are capable of producing large amounts of biomass and usable oil in either high rate algal ponds or photobioreactors . This oil can then be turned into biodiesel which could be sold for use in automobiles. Regional production of microalgae and processing into biofuels will provide economic benefits to rural communities. As they do not have to produce structural compounds such as cellulose for leaves, stems, or roots, and because they can be grown floating in
10656-771: The electrolysis of water to make hydrogen used in the Sabatier reaction to produce methane which may then be stored to be burned later in power plants as synthetic natural gas , transported by pipeline , truck , or tanker ship , or be used in gas to liquids processes such as the Fischer–Tropsch process to make traditional transportation or heating fuels . Carbon-neutral fuels have been proposed for distributed storage for renewable energy , minimizing problems of wind and solar intermittent , and enabling transmission of wind, water, and solar power through existing natural gas pipelines. Such renewable fuels could alleviate
10800-522: The single-use plastic waste in the world in 2019 (which were part of a larger group of 100 petrochemical companies that manufactured 90 percent of the waste), while in April 2022, California Attorney General Rob Bonta issued a subpoena to ExxonMobil for information related to the company's role in overstating the effectiveness of plastic recycling in reducing plastic pollution as part of an industry campaign to promote plastic usage. On September 23, 2024, California Attorney General Rob Bonta filed
10944-473: The 1930s and became the dominant oil company on the world stage. The company's lack of ownership over the Standard Oil name across the United States, however, prompted a name change to unify all of its brands under one name, choosing to name itself Exxon in 1972 over continuing to use three distinct brands of Esso , Enco , and Humble. In 1998, the two companies agreed to merge and form ExxonMobil, with
11088-531: The Aquatic Species Program was abandoned. Other contributions to algal biofuels research have come indirectly from projects focusing on different applications of algal cultures. For example, in the 1990s Japan's Research Institute of Innovative Technology for the Earth (RITE) implemented a research program with the goal of developing systems to fix CO 2 using microalgae. Although the goal
11232-749: The Arctic Circle. As of 2020, ExxonMobil has been responsible for more than 3,000 oil spills and leakages which resulted in a loss of more than one barrel of oil, with the most in a single year being 484 spills in 2011. Additionally, since 1965, ExxonMobil has released more than 40 billion tons of carbon dioxide pollution . In 2023, Science journal published a paper reporting that the global warming projections and models created by ExxonMobil's own scientists between 1977 and 2003 had "accurately" projected and "skillfully" modeled global warming due to fossil fuel burning, and had reasonably estimated how much CO 2 would lead to dangerous warming. The authors of
11376-718: The Great Lakes , and the Midwest . Exxon is the primary brand in the rest of the United States, with the highest concentration of retail outlets located in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Texas (shared with Mobil), and in the Mid-Atlantic and Southeastern states. ExxonMobil has stations in 46 states, just behind Shell USA and ahead of Phillips 66 , lacking a presence only in Alaska , Hawaii , Iowa , and Kansas . Outside of
11520-698: The LSD (ultra- low sulfur diesel ) invention, biodiesel exceeds those levels because it is sulfur-free. Methanol and ethanol fuel are primary sources of energy; they are convenient fuels for storing and transporting energy. These alcohols can be used in internal combustion engines as alternative fuels. Butane has another advantage: it is the only alcohol-based motor fuel that can be transported readily by existing petroleum-product pipeline networks, instead of only by tanker trucks and railroad cars. Ammonia (NH 3 ) can be used as fuel. Benefits of ammonia for ships include reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Nitrogen reduction
11664-671: The Longford Gas Conditioning Plant, and participates in the development of Gorgon LNG project. In Papua New Guinea, it holds 1.1 million acres (4,500 km ), including the PNG Gas project. After Russia's 2022 invasion began, though, ExxonMobil announced it was fully pulling out of both Russia and Sakhalin-I, and launched a lawsuit against Russia's federal government on August 30. ExxonMobil formed its Product Solutions division in 2022, combining its previously separate Downstream and Chemical divisions into
11808-659: The US State of Arkansas . In June 2024, a preliminary agreement to supply lithium to SK for the manufacture of lithium-ion batteries that will power electric vehicles was signed. ExxonMobil's environmental record has faced much criticism for its stance and impact on global warming. In 2018, the Political Economy Research Institute ranks ExxonMobil tenth among American corporations emitting airborne pollutants , thirteenth by emitting greenhouse gases . A 2017 report places ExxonMobil as
11952-692: The United Arab Emirates. ExxonMobil exited the West Qurna 1 oilfield in January 2024, officially ending all energy sector operations in Iraq. The share is now owned by PetroChina and Pertamina . In March 2024, ExxonMobil discovered oil at the Stabroek block off the coast of Guyana using a drillship. By the end of 2027, it plans to have 6 FPSOs at the block. Oil was discovered off
12096-472: The United States, Esso and Mobil are primarily used, with Esso operating in 14 countries and Mobil operating in 29 countries and regions. In Japan, ExxonMobil had a 22% stake in TonenGeneral Sekiyu K.K., a refining company that merged into Eneos in 2017. ExxonMobil's primary retail brands worldwide are Exxon, Esso , Mobil , with the former being used exclusively in the United States and
12240-639: The United States, ExxonMobil's petroleum exploration and production activities are concentrated in the Permian Basin , Bakken Formation , Woodford Shale , Caney Shale , and the Gulf of Mexico . In addition, ExxonMobil has several gas developments in the regions of Marcellus Shale , Utica Shale , Haynesville Shale , Barnett Shale , and Fayetteville Shale . All natural gas activities are conducted by its subsidiary, XTO Energy. As of December 31, 2014, ExxonMobil owned 14.6 million acres (59,000 km ) in
12384-467: The United States, of which 1.7 million acres (6,900 km ) were offshore, 1.5 million acres (6,100 km ) of which were in the Gulf of Mexico. In California, it has a joint venture called Aera Energy LLC with Shell Oil . In Canada, the company holds 5.4 million acres (22,000 km ), including 1 million acres (4,000 km ) offshore and 0.7 million acres (2,800 km ) of
12528-418: The ability of cells to produce lipids biosynthetically and also impact various other workings in the machinery of cells. The same is true for ocean water, but the contaminants are found in different concentrations. Thus, agricultural-grade fertilizer is the preferred source of nutrients, but heavy metals are again a problem, especially for strains of algae that are susceptible to these metals. In open pond systems
12672-419: The algae is dehydrated, and then a solvent such as hexane is used to extract energy-rich compounds like triglycerides from the dried material. Then, the extracted compounds can be processed into fuel using standard industrial procedures. For example, the extracted triglycerides are reacted with methanol to create biodiesel via transesterification . The unique composition of fatty acids of each species influences
12816-407: The algae's carbon into fuel. Other outputs include clean water, fuel gas and nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. Nutrients like nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K), are important for plant growth and are essential parts of fertilizer. Silica and iron, as well as several trace elements, may also be considered important marine nutrients as the lack of one can limit
12960-559: The algal cells. In one study nitrogen deprivation for 72 hours caused the total fatty acid content (on a per cell basis) to increase by 2.4-fold. 65% of the total fatty acids were esterified to triacylglycerides in oil bodies, when compared to the initial culture, indicating that the algal cells utilized de novo synthesis of fatty acids. It is vital for the lipid content in algal cells to be of high enough quantity, while maintaining adequate cell division times, so parameters that can maximize both are under investigation. A possible nutrient source
13104-503: The algal turfs of a natural coral reef by taking in nutrient rich water from waste streams or natural water sources, and pulsing it over a sloped surface. This surface is coated with a rough plastic membrane or a screen, which allows naturally occurring algal spores to settle and colonize the surface. Once the algae has been established, it can be harvested every 5–15 days, and can produce 18 metric tons of algal biomass per hectare per year. In contrast to other methods, which focus primarily on
13248-597: The area the nickname of Cancer Alley . The company's activities, along with other operations and refineries in the area, have been the source of increased cancer infections, lower air quality, and as seen by some, potential environmental racism committed by the company. In May 2021, ExxonMobil topped the Plastic Waste Makers Index report published by the Minderoo Foundation of 20 petrochemical companies that manufactured 55 percent of
13392-424: The base of its climate change denial. ExxonMobil's operations have been subject to numerous oil spills both before and after the 1999 merger. The most widely publicized oil spill was the 1989 Valdez oil spill , where an Exxon tanker discharged approximately 11 million U.S. gallons (42,000 m3) of oil into Prince William Sound , oiling 1,300 miles (2,100 km) of the remote Alaskan coastline. The spill remains
13536-572: The book Private Empire by Steve Coll , ExxonMobil is described as extremely powerful "corporate state within the American state" in dealing with the countries in which it drills, going to the point as describing such countries' governments as "constrained". The company's corporate ancestors are also blamed for the outbreak of the 1954 Jebel Akhdar War , which was sparked by the Iraq Petroleum Company 's activities. Beginning in
13680-469: The butane/propane ratios of the mixture. Propane autogas in a liquid injection format captures the phase change from liquid to gas state within the cylinder of the combustion engine producing an "intercooler" effect, reducing the cylinder temperature and increasing air density. The resultant effect allows more advance on the ignition cycle and a more efficient engine combustion. Propane lacks additives, detergents or other chemical enhancements further reducing
13824-625: The case dismissed nine times, dragging the lawsuit out for over 20 years. In July 2022, a US District Court denied ExxonMobil's motions to dismiss the case, clearing the way for the lawsuit to go to trial, although no trial date was set. In 2023, ExxonMobile settled the case a week before trial. During a 2022 surge in profits among ExxonMobil and other large oil companies, partly due to the war in Ukraine , U.S. President Joe Biden criticized ExxonMobil. In June 2022, amid record oil prices, he said that "Exxon made more money than God this year". When
13968-846: The coast of Angola in May 2024 in a well drilled from February to April in the Kizomba B development area. Until the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine , ExxonMobil held 85,000 acres (34,000 ha) in the Sakhalin-I project through its subsidiary Exxon Neftegas . Together with Rosneft , it has developed 63.6 million acres (257,000 km ) in Russia, including the East-Prinovozemelsky field . In Australia, ExxonMobil held 1.7 million acres (6,900 km ), including 1.6 million acres (6,500 km ) offshore. It also operates
14112-1180: The coast of Liberia and the Ivory Coast. In the past, ExxonMobil had exploration activities in Madagascar, however these operations were ended due to unsatisfactory results. In Asia, it holds 9,000 acres (3,600 ha) in Azerbaijan, 1.7 million acres (6,900 km ) in Indonesia, of which 1.3 million acres (5,300 km ) are offshore, 0.7 million acres (2,800 km ) in Iraq, 0.3 million acres (1,200 km ) in Kazakhstan, 0.2 million acres (810 km ) in Malaysia, 65,000 acres (26,000 ha) in Qatar, 10,000 acres (4,000 ha) in Yemen, 21,000 acres (8,500 ha) in Thailand, and 81,000 acres (33,000 ha) in
14256-416: The committee's investigation into the fossil fuel industry disinformation campaign to obscure the role of fossil fuels in causing global warming. Upon reviewing internal company documents, they accused ExxonMobil along with BP , Chevron , and Shell of greenwashing their Paris Agreement carbon neutrality pledges while continuing long-term investment in fossil fuel production and sales, for engaging in
14400-454: The company accountable for various climate-related incidents. ExxonMobil has used its own website to attack Exxon Knew , claiming that it is a coordinated effort to defame the company. In December 2022, U.S. House Oversight and Reform Committee Chair Carolyn Maloney and U.S. House Oversight Environment Subcommittee Chair Ro Khanna sent a memorandum to all House Oversight and Reform Committee members summarizing additional findings from
14544-544: The company also has several standalone divisions, such as Coal & Minerals. It also owns hundreds of smaller subsidiaries such as XTO Energy and SeaRiver Maritime . ExxonMobil also has a majority ownership stake in Imperial Oil . The upstream division makes up the majority of ExxonMobil's revenue, accounting for approximately 70% of it. In 2021, ExxonMobil had about 30 billion barrels of oil and oil equivalents, as well as 38.1 billion cubic feet of natural gas . In
14688-482: The costs and dependency issues of imported fossil fuels without requiring either electrification of the vehicle fleet or conversion to hydrogen or other fuels, enabling continued compatible and affordable vehicles. Germany has built a 250-kilowatt synthetic methane plant which they are scaling up to 10 megawatts. Audi has constructed a carbon neutral liquefied natural gas (LNG) plant in Werlte, Germany . The plant
14832-408: The deal closing on November 30, 1999. The two companies cited lower oil prices and a better ability to compete with other state-owned oil companies outside of the United States like Pemex and Aramco . With the deal, the two companies practically merged, with the new company's name containing both of the trade names of its immediate predecessors. However, the structure of the merger provided that Exxon
14976-529: The desired algae strain. In biogas facilities, organic waste is often converted to a mixture of carbon dioxide, methane , and organic fertilizer. Organic fertilizer that comes out of the digester is liquid, and nearly suitable for algae growth, but it must first be cleaned and sterilized. The utilization of wastewater and ocean water instead of freshwater is strongly advocated due to the continuing depletion of freshwater resources. However, heavy metals, trace metals, and other contaminants in wastewater can decrease
15120-473: The disbanding of the Aquatic Species Program in 1996, there was a relative lull in algal biofuel research. Still, various projects were funded in the US by the Department of Energy , Department of Defense , National Science Foundation , Department of Agriculture , National Laboratories , state funding, and private funding, as well as in other countries. More recently, rising oil prices in the 2000s spurred
15264-681: The energy production industry is living and recently dead biological material which can be used as fuel or for industrial production. It has become popular among coal power stations, which switch from coal to biomass in order to convert to renewable energy generation without wasting existing generating plant and infrastructure. Biomass most often refers to plants or plant-based materials that are not used for food or feed, and are specifically called nitrocellulose biomass. As an energy source, biomass can either be used directly via combustion to produce heat, or indirectly after converting it to various forms of biofuel. Algae-based biofuels have been promoted in
15408-444: The exhaust output from the tailpipe. The cleaner combustion also has fewer particulate emissions, lower NO x due to the complete combustion of the gas within the cylinder, higher exhaust temperatures increasing the efficiency of the catalyst and deposits less acid and carbon inside the engine which extends the useful life of the lubricating oil. Propane autogas is generated at the well alongside other natural gas and oil products. It
15552-517: The fifth largest contributor to greenhouse gas emissions from 1988 to 2015. As of 2005 , ExxonMobil had committed less than 1% of their profits towards researching alternative energy, which, according to the advocacy organization Ceres , is less than other leading oil companies. According to the 2021 Arctic Environmental Responsibility Index (AERI), ExxonMobil is ranked as the sixth most environmentally responsible company among 120 oil, gas, and mining companies involved in resource extraction north of
15696-440: The flammable nature of any combustible fuel, there is potential for some environmental hazards if ignited or spilled, as may occur in a train derailment or a pipeline leak. This hazard is reduced compared to fossil fuels , due to the ability for algal biofuels to be produced in a much more localized manner, and due to the lower toxicity overall, but the hazard is still there nonetheless. Therefore, algal biofuels should be treated in
15840-498: The goal of developing liquid transportation fuel from algae that would be price competitive with petroleum-derived fuels. The research program focused on the cultivation of microalgae in open outdoor ponds, systems which are low in cost but vulnerable to environmental disturbances like temperature swings and biological invasions. 3,000 algal strains were collected from around the country and screened for desirable properties such as high productivity, lipid content, and thermal tolerance, and
15984-458: The growth of, or productivity in, an area. Bubbling CO 2 through algal cultivation systems can greatly increase productivity and yield (up to a saturation point). Typically, about 1.8 tonnes of CO 2 will be utilised per tonne of algal biomass (dry) produced, though this varies with algae species. The Glenturret Distillery in Perthshire percolate CO 2 made during
16128-498: The ideal species might vary with place and season. Although it was successfully demonstrated that large-scale production of algae for fuel in outdoor ponds was feasible, the program failed to do so at a cost that would be competitive with petroleum, especially as oil prices sank in the 1990s. Even in the best case scenario, it was estimated that unextracted algal oil would cost $ 59–186 per barrel, while petroleum cost less than $ 20 per barrel in 1995. Therefore, under budget pressure in 1996,
16272-585: The late 1980s, ExxonMobil (through predecessor Mobil) hired military units of the Indonesian National Army to provide security for their gas extraction and liquefaction project in Aceh , Indonesia, and these military units were accused of committing human rights violations, including sexual assault, battery and unlawful detention. ExxonMobil eventually pulled out from Indonesia completely in 2001, while denying any wrongdoing. Exxon attempted to have
16416-435: The latter two being used in most other countries where ExxonMobil operates. Esso is the only one of its brands not used widely in the United States. Since 2008, Mobil is the only brand for the company lubricants. Since 2018, ExxonMobil has operated a loyalty program , ExxonMobil Rewards+, where customers earn rewards points when filling up at its stations in the United States and later the United Kingdom. ExxonMobil Chemical
16560-465: The low-carbon solutions business could eclipse the value of its oil and gas operations. As of 2023 , the company was in the process of designing its inaugural large-scale plant dedicated to producing low-carbon hydrogen, situated within its refining and petrochemical complex in Baytown, Texas . This project is set to become the world's largest low-carbon hydrogen project. ExxonMobil publicly announced it would be investing $ 15 billion in what it deemed
16704-401: The mass-production of oil focuses mainly on microalgae (organisms capable of photosynthesis that are less than 0.4 mm in diameter, including the diatoms and cyanobacteria ) as opposed to macroalgae, such as seaweed . The preference for microalgae has come about due largely to their less complex structure, fast growth rates, and high oil-content (for some species). However, some research
16848-707: The media as a potential panacea to crude oil-based transportation problems. Algae could yield more than 2000 gallons of fuel per acre per year of production. Algae based fuels are being successfully tested by the U.S. Navy Algae-based plastics show potential to reduce waste and the cost per pound of algae plastic is expected to be cheaper than traditional plastic prices. Biodiesel is made from animal fats or vegetable oils, renewable resources that come from plants such as atrophy, soybean, sunflowers, corn, olive, peanut, palm, coconut, safflower, canola, sesame, cottonseed, etc. Once these fats or oils are filtered from their hydrocarbons and then combined with alcohol like methanol, diesel
16992-429: The miners, thorium is taken from open pits. Monazite is present in countries such as Australia, the United States and India, in quantities large enough to power the earth for thousands of years. As an alternative to uranium-fuelled nuclear reactors, thorium has been proven to add to proliferation, produces radioactive waste for deep geological repositories like technetium-99 (half-life over 200,000 years), and has
17136-491: The most dramatic decrease, with a reduction of 84% over the course of the culture. This result indicates that phosphorus, in the form of phosphate, is required in high amounts by all organisms for metabolism. There are two enrichment media that have been extensively used to grow most species of algae: Walne medium and the Guillard's F/ 2 medium. These commercially available nutrient solutions may reduce time for preparing all
17280-721: The most promising strains were included in the SERI microalgae collection at the Solar Energy Research Institute (SERI) in Golden, Colorado and used for further research. Among the program's most significant findings were that rapid growth and high lipid production were "mutually exclusive", since the former required high nutrients and the latter required low nutrients. The final report suggested that genetic engineering may be necessary to be able to overcome this and other natural limitations of algal strains, and that
17424-607: The need for alternative transportation fuel had subsided after World War II, research at this time focused on culturing algae as a food source or, in some cases, for wastewater treatment. Interest in the application of algae for biofuels was rekindled during the oil embargo and oil price surges of the 1970s, leading the US Department of Energy to initiate the Aquatic Species Program in 1978. The Aquatic Species Program spent $ 25 million over 18 years with
17568-536: The nutrients required to grow algae. However, due to their complexity in the process of generation and high cost, they are not used for large-scale culture operations. Therefore, enrichment media used for mass production of algae contain only the most important nutrients with agriculture-grade fertilizers rather than laboratory-grade fertilizers. Algae grow much faster than food crops, and can produce hundreds of times more oil per unit area than conventional crops such as rapeseed, palms, soybeans, or jatropha . As algae have
17712-545: The oil giant reported its second quarter earnings in 2022, CNN reported that Exxon made US$ 2,245.62 per second in profit across the 92-day long second quarter. In May 2024, a Pennsylvania jury found ExxonMobil liable for negligently failing to warn about the health risks of benzene , which is classified by the US Environmental Protection Agency as a known carcinogen , and ordered the company to pay $ 725.5 million in compensatory damages to
17856-661: The only viable method by which to produce enough fuel to replace current world diesel usage. If algae-derived biodiesel were to replace the annual global production of 1.1bn tons of conventional diesel then a land mass of 57.3 million hectares would be required, which would be highly favorable compared to other biofuels. Butanol can be made from algae or diatoms using only a solar powered biorefinery . This fuel has an energy density 10% less than gasoline, and greater than that of either ethanol or methanol . In most gasoline engines, butanol can be used in place of gasoline with no modifications. In several tests, butanol consumption
18000-742: The overall energy balance of microalgae cultivation operations, it has been proposed to recover the energy contained in waste biomass via anaerobic digestion to methane for generating electricity. The Algenol system which is being commercialized by BioFields in Puerto Libertad , Sonora , Mexico utilizes seawater and industrial exhaust to produce ethanol. Porphyridium cruentum also have shown to be potentially suitable for ethanol production due to its capacity for accumulating large amount of carbohydrates. Algae can be used to produce ' green diesel ' (also known as renewable diesel, hydrotreating vegetable oil or hydrogen-derived renewable diesel) through
18144-502: The paper concluded: "Yet, whereas academic and government scientists worked to communicate what they knew to the public, ExxonMobil worked to deny it." Between the 1980s and 2014, ExxonMobil was a notable denier of climate change, though the company officially changed its position in 2014 to acknowledge the existence of climate change. ExxonMobil's prolonged response incited the creation of the Exxon Knew movement, which aims to hold
18288-407: The physical attributes of gasoline while reducing tailpipe emissions and well to wheel emissions overall. Propane is the number one alternative fuel in the world and offers an abundance of supply, liquid storage at low pressure, an excellent safety record and large cost savings when compared to traditional fuels. Propane delivers an octane rating between 104 and 112 depending on the composition of
18432-616: The price of nighttime wind power is often much less expensive than any alternative. Off-peak wind power prices in high wind penetration areas of the U.S. averaged 1.64 cents per kilowatt-hour in 2009, but only 0.71 cents/kWh during the least expensive six hours of the day. Typically, wholesale electricity costs 2 to 5 cents/kWh during the day. Commercial fuel synthesis companies suggest they can produce fuel for less than petroleum fuels when oil costs more than $ 55 per barrel. The U.S. Navy estimates that shipboard production of jet fuel from nuclear power would cost about $ 6 per gallon. While that
18576-877: The process type, biogas can be divided into the following: biogas produced by anaerobic digestion, landfill gas collected from landfills, treated to remove trace contaminants, and synthetic natural gas (SNG). CNG powers more than 5 million vehicles worldwide, and just over 150,000 of these are in the U.S. American usage is growing at a dramatic rate. Because natural gas emits less smog-forming pollutants than other fossil fuels when combusted, cleaner air has been measured in urban localities switching to natural gas vehicles. Tailpipe CO 2 can be reduced by 15–25% compared to gasoline, diesel. The greatest reductions occur in medium and heavy duty, light duty and refuse truck segments. CO 2 reductions of up to 88% are possible by using biogas. Natural gas and hydrogen are both lighter than air and can be mixed together. Nuclear power
18720-482: The processor for six months, and then kept going for a full year. The device, which is about the size of AA battery , is a small container with water and blue green algae. The device does not generate a huge amount of power, but it can be used for Internet of Things devices, eliminating the need for traditional batteries such as lithium-ion batteries. The goal is to have more a environmentally friendly power source that can be used in remote areas. Research into algae for
18864-554: The quality of the resulting biodiesel and thus must be taken into account when selecting algal species for feedstock. An alternative approach called Hydrothermal liquefaction employs a continuous process that subjects harvested wet algae to high temperatures and pressures—350 °C (662 °F) and 3,000 pounds per square inch (21,000 kPa). Products include crude oil, which can be further refined into aviation fuel, gasoline, or diesel fuel using one or many upgrading processes. The test process converted between 50 and 70 percent of
19008-423: The rate of nutrient uptake and boundary layer diffusion increases with current velocity. Other than light and water, phosphorus, nitrogen, and certain micronutrients are also useful and essential in growing algae. Nitrogen and phosphorus are the two most significant nutrients required for algal productivity, but other nutrients such as carbon and silica are additionally required. Of the nutrients required, phosphorus
19152-701: The release of nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide , as well as sulfur dioxide and other harmful gases in the exhaust. This is especially important in industries such as mining , where toxic gases can accumulate more easily. In the European Union , alternative fuel is defined by Directive 2014/94/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 October 2014 on the deployment of alternative fuels infrastructure. 'alternative fuels' means fuels or power sources which serve, at least partly, as
19296-587: The scientific consensus that fossil fuels significantly contribute to global warming . The company is responsible for many oil spills, the largest and most notable of which was the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska and itself considered to be one of the world's worst oil spills in terms of environmental damage. The company has been the target of accusations of human rights violations, excessive influence on American foreign policy , and its impact on developing countries. ExxonMobil traces its roots to Vacuum Oil Company , founded in 1866. Vacuum Oil later
19440-406: The second largest in American history, only trailing BP's Deepwater Horizon spill in the Gulf of Mexico . ExxonMobil was also responsible for various other oil spills across the world. Some of Exxon's largest and most notable oil spills in the United States include long-lasting oil leaks totaling into an estimated 30 million gallon spill into New York City's Newtown Creek over the course of
19584-580: The sole source of direct propulsion energy of a motor vehicle, are prescribed to be alternative fuels: In China, alternative fuel vehicles should comply with technical guidelines for the local production of alternative-fuel vehicles: they should have a shelf life of more than 100,000 kilometres (62,000 mi), and a complete charge should take less than seven hours. Up to 80% of a charge must be available after less than 30 minutes of charging. In addition, pure-electric vehicles must consume electric energy of less than 0.16 kWh/km . Biofuels are also considered
19728-420: The use of strains of algae that can deal with high concentrations of heavy metals could prevent other organisms from infesting these systems. In some instances it has even been shown that strains of algae can remove over 90% of nickel and zinc from industrial wastewater in relatively short periods of time. In comparison with terrestrial-based biofuel crops such as corn or soybeans, microalgal production results in
19872-454: The whisky distillation through a microalgae bioreactor. Each tonne of microalgae absorbs two tonnes of CO 2 . Scottish Bioenergy, who run the project, sell the microalgae as high value, protein-rich food for fisheries . In the future, they will use the algae residues to produce renewable energy through anaerobic digestion . Nitrogen is a valuable substrate that can be utilized in algal growth. Various sources of nitrogen can be used as
20016-540: The world is heading for a climate catastrophe unless we develop adequate energy sources to replace fossil fuels . Safer, cleaner and cheaper nuclear power can replace coal and is desperately needed as an essential part of the solution". Thorium is 3–4 times more abundant within nature than uranium , and its ore, monazite , is commonly found in sands along bodies of water. Thorium has also gained interest because it could be easier to obtain than uranium. While uranium mines are enclosed underground and thus very dangerous for
20160-568: Was about twice the petroleum fuel cost in 2010, it is expected to be much less than the market price in less than five years if recent trends continue. Moreover, since the delivery of fuel to a carrier battle group costs about $ 8 per gallon, shipboard production is already much less expensive. However, U.S. civilian nuclear power is considerably more expensive than wind power. The Navy's estimate that 100 megawatts can produce 41,000 gallons of fuel per day indicates that terrestrial production from wind power would cost less than $ 1 per gallon. Hydrogen
20304-510: Was acquired by Standard Oil in 1879, divested from Standard in 1911 with its breakup , and merged by the Standard Oil Company of New York (Socony), later known as Mobil , in 1931. After the 1911 breakup, Standard Oil continued to exist through its New Jersey subsidiary, sometimes shortened to Jersey Standard, and retained the Standard Oil name in much of the eastern United States. Jersey Standard grew by acquiring Humble Oil in
20448-434: Was not energy production, several studies produced by RITE demonstrated that algae could be grown using flue gas from power plants as a CO 2 source, an important development for algal biofuel research. Other work focusing on harvesting hydrogen gas, methane, or ethanol from algae, as well as nutritional supplements and pharmaceutical compounds, has also helped inform research on biofuel production from algae. Following
20592-495: Was the surviving company and bought Mobil, rather than a new company being created. Following the merger, Exxon's NYSE ticker symbol was changed from "XON" to "XOM". ExxonMobil is the largest non-government-owned company in the energy industry and produces about 3% of the world's oil and about 2% of the world's energy. ExxonMobil is vertically integrated into a number of global operating divisions. These divisions are grouped into three categories for reference purposes, though
20736-570: Was used to power a radar unit that located ships on the Earth's oceans. The U.S. also orbited one experimental nuclear reactor in 1965, in the SNAP-10A mission. Thorium-based nuclear power reactors have also become an area of active research in recent years. It is being backed by many scientists and researchers, and Professor James Hansen, the former Director at NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies has reportedly said, "After studying climate change for over four decades, it's clear to me that
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