The Iraq Petroleum Company ( IPC ), formerly known as the Turkish Petroleum Company ( TPC ), is an oil company that had a virtual monopoly on all oil exploration and production in Iraq between 1925 and 1961. It is jointly owned by some of the world's largest oil companies and headquartered in London , England. However, today it is only a paper entity with historical rights and plays no part in the modern development of Middle Eastern oil.
149-754: In June 1972, the Ba'athist government in Iraq nationalized the IPC, and its operations were taken over by the Iraq National Oil Company . The company "Iraq Petroleum Company" still remains extant, although only in paper form. One associated company – the Abu Dhabi Petroleum Company (ADPC, formerly Petroleum Development (Trucial Coast) Ltd) – also continues with its original shareholding intact. The related Iraq Petroleum Group
298-686: A 40 km (25 mi)-wide strip on either side of its proposed railway in Mesopotamia. On 28 June 1914, the Turkish grand vizier confirmed the promise of a concession to TPC, but the outbreak of World War I ended TPC's plans. When the Ottoman Empire was broken up in the aftermath of the war, the question of shareholding in TPC became a major issue at the 1920 San Remo conference , where the future of all non- Turkish and Arab -majority areas of
447-608: A General Conference of the Iraqi Ba'ath party in Syria to elect a new leadership (the faction's armed wing is The Return ). This move caused a significant amount of controversy within the party, with al-Douri issuing a statement criticizing Syria for what al-Douri claimed was an American-supported attempt to undermine the Iraqi Ba'ath party, although this statement was later downplayed. The conference elected al-Ahmed as secretary-general, and al-Ahmed issued an order expelling al-Douri from
596-629: A bank account. Outside the United States, these savings clubs can be formal and have proper legislation. In some countries, like Brazil, consórcios are an integral part of the traditional banking system, where there are clubs for purchasing real estate and cars, and even for plastic surgery costs. Over seven million people have engaged in these formal savings associations over the past years, adding to over U$ 10 billion in credit. Since these clubs have up to thousands of members, products purchased are awarded through lottery and bidding processes and
745-467: A common fund. On every installment the common fund reaches the goal value and someone is awarded this sum and from this point forward this person own the association the remaining amount, just as in a loan. This process repeats until every member is awarded the entire sum. These informal associations are specially popular among immigrants since they are a cheaper alternative to traditional financing and usually require no formal papers, credit history or even
894-646: A compromise solution but the Ba'athist government rejected the offer and, on 1 June 1972, nationalized IPC operations, which were taken over by the Iraq National Oil Company. The Kirkuk field still forms the basis for northern Iraqi oil production. Kirkuk has over 10 billion barrels (1.6 km) of remaining proven oil reserves . The Jambur, Bai Hassan, and Khabbaz fields are the only other currently producing oil fields in northern Iraq. While Iraq's northern oil industry remained relatively unscathed during
1043-466: A consortium to cooperate on areas non-strategic for their core businesses. They prefer to reduce their costs on these non-strategic areas and compete on other areas where they can differentiate better. For example, the GENIVI Alliance, now called COVESA, is a not-for-profit consortium between different car makers in order to ease building an In-Vehicle Infotainment system. Another example is
1192-456: A coup. Because of the revelations, the Iraqi government initiated a purge of thousands of public officials. The purge triggered Sunni protests, with many calling for Sunni autonomy within Iraq. Surprisingly to outside observers, al-Douri's Ba'ath party opposed Sunni autonomy and, in a statement, referred to it as "a dangerous plan to divide Iraq along sectarian lines." However this condemnation
1341-577: A drive to improve the party's internal security. In 1964, Hussein established the Jihaz Haneen, the party's secretive security apparatus, to act as a counterweight to the military officers in the party and to weaken the military's hold on the party. In contrast to the coup of 1963, the 1968 coup was led by civilian Ba'ath Party members. According to historian Con Coughlin, the President of Iraq Abdul Rahman Arif , who had taken over from his brother,
1490-410: A fee for its parent companies, based on their shares. The company itself was only allowed to refine and sell to Iraq's internal market, in order to prevent any competition with the parent companies. The agreement, known as Red Line Agreement after a red line was drawn around the former boundaries of the Ottoman Empire (with the exception of Kuwait), effectively bound the partners to act together within
1639-485: A for-profit consortium is a group of banks that collaborate to make a loan—also known as a syndicate . This type of loan is more commonly known as a syndicated loan . In England it is common for a consortium to buy out financially struggling football clubs in order to keep them out of liquidation . Alyeska Pipeline Service Company , the company that built the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System in
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#17327655837681788-462: A monthly magazine, entitled Iraq Petroleum , from August 1951 until April/May 1957. An insert in the January 1957 edition read "In the light of present circumstances it has been found necessary to restrict the production of Iraq Petroleum and... publication will be bi-monthly until further notice." An in-house company magazine, The Crescent , continued in print until the 1970s. The IPC Newsletter ,
1937-453: A new company, Airbus SAS. In return, they got 80% and 20% shares respectively. BAE would later sell its share to EADS. The Tornado was developed and built by Panavia Aircraft GmbH, a tri-national consortium consisting of British Aerospace (previously British Aircraft Corporation), MBB of West Germany, and Aeritalia of Italy. The aircraft first flew on 14 August 1974 and was introduced into service in 1979–1980. Due to its multi-role design, it
2086-488: A quarterly magazine for IPC pensioners, was issued between 1974 and 2014. Arab Socialist Ba%27ath Party %E2%80%93 Iraq Region The Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region ( Arabic : حزب البعث العربي الاشتراكي في العراق Ḥizb al-Ba‘th al-'Arabī al-Ishtirākī fī al-'Irāq ), officially the Iraqi Regional Branch , is an Iraqi Ba'athist political party founded in 1951 by Fuad al-Rikabi . It
2235-401: A segment of the regular activities of these entities, based on an unnamed contract and characterized by a temporary nature, minimization of institutionalization, and lack of separate property , the need to specify how the parties participate in the joint venture and the intention not to establish a "community" with partly own interests (the partnership as such). According to this concept, despite
2384-649: A series of ground-breaking explorations in southern Arabia during these years. The failure of IPC to secure concessions in Bahrain and Saudi Arabia should not obscure the fact that elsewhere in the Middle East the company was successful in closing the "open door" of commercial opportunity to outsiders. The principal competitors for concessions were British Oil Development Co. Ltd.(BOD), and SOCAL. When BOD became interested in concessions in northern Iraq, IPC eventually bought them out. So successful were its efforts that by
2533-538: A statement condemning sectarianism within the party, specifically criticizing al-Douri's faction. The OCES condemned the leadership's decision of creating a primary Sunni leadership and a reserve Shiite leadership. This decision by the al-Douri faction leadership was a response to complaints by Ba'athist organizations in Shiite-dominated areas on what they considered policy errors which led to marginalization and exclusion of Shiite members. The OCES rejected
2682-451: A structure simply referred to as the "consortium." In the Polish legal system, the legal nature of the consortium agreement is disputed. According to the prevailing approach, a consortium is a form of cooperation, different from a civil law partnership, undertaken between economically independent entities already operating on the market in order to implement a specific undertaking that is
2831-646: A successful consortium is the Five Colleges of Ohio of Ohio: Oberlin College , Ohio Wesleyan University , Kenyon College , College of Wooster and Denison University . The aforementioned Claremont Consortium (known as the Claremont Colleges) consists of Pomona College , Claremont Graduate University , Scripps College , Claremont McKenna College , Harvey Mudd College , Pitzer College , and Keck Graduate Institute . These consortia have pooled
2980-524: A third Ba'athist group. al-Douri has been considered more of a symbol, but he doesn't actually hold that much power over the party. In a discussion with the American embassy in Amman, Jordan, in 2007, retired Lieutenant General Khalid al-Jibouri stated that he believed "a powerful shadow group of personnel [was] behind him who really constitute the operational leadership of his faction". He further noted that
3129-596: A union with Syria, which was ruled by the Ba'ath Party, while the more conservative military wing supported Qasim's "Iraq first policy". Factionalism and the ill-disciplined behaviour of the National Guard led the military wing to initiate a coup against the party's leadership. Al-Sadi was forced into exile in Spain . Al-Bakr, in an attempt to save the party, called for a meeting of the National Command of
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#17327655837683278-403: A way to improve their options. After much pressure by the U.S., the policy of de-Ba'athification was addressed by the Iraqi government in January 2008 in the highly controversial "Accountability and Justice Act," which was supposed to ease the policy, but which many feared would lead to further dismissals. The new Constitution of Iraq , approved by a referendum on 15 October 2005, reaffirmed
3427-406: Is a purely contractual cooperative contract that does not entail the creation of a third party. The consortium has no legal personality or legal capacity . The contract is concluded between two or more natural or legal persons who undertake to carry out certain works in order to implement a joint project which consortium members would not be able to carry out themselves. The consortium agreement
3576-559: Is not explicitly regulated by the French legislator, but it is admissible in the light of the principle of freedom of contract interpreted from articles 6 and 1134 of the French Civil Code . Neither consortium nor joint venture have a legal definition in U.K. law . The second term is usually used to describe various types of agreements where two or more parties cooperate in conducting business activities. This manifests e.g. in
3725-519: Is such that the possibility of US–UAR collaboration with Ba'ath Party activists cannot be ruled out," concluding that "[w]hatever the validity of [Sale's] charges, at the very least currently declassified documents reveal that US officials were actively considering various plots against Qasim and that the CIA was building up assets for covert operations in Iraq." The assassins, including Saddam, escaped to Cairo , Egypt "where they enjoyed Nasser's protection for
3874-575: Is that al-Ahmed's faction, which is based in Syria, does not have exclusive Syrian support and, considering that it is based in Syria, the party is susceptible to Syrian interference in its affairs. However, despite the differences between the al-Douri and al-Ahmed factions, both of them adhere to Ba'athist thought. On 2 January 2012, the Organizations of Central Euphrates and the South (OCES), believed to be headed by Hamed Manfi al-Karafi, issued
4023-707: Is the Army of the Men of the Naqshbandi Order . According to Abu Muhammad, a Ba'ath Party spokesman from al-Douri's faction, on the eve of Saddam's death, "Comrade Izzat has been leading the [Ba'ath] party's political and resistance factions since 2003, but it is a matter of protocol and internal regulation to appoint him officially as the party's secretary-general." Al-Douri was elected the party's secretary-general in early January. Despite al-Douri's succession, another high ranking Ba'athist, Younis al-Ahmed , called for
4172-446: Is unlikely that the Ba'athists would've needed assistance in identifying Iraqi communists, it is widely believed that the CIA provided the Ba'athist National Guard with lists of communists and other leftists, who were then arrested or killed. Gibson emphasizes that the Ba'athists compiled their own lists, citing Bureau of Intelligence and Research reports. On the other hand, historians Nathan Citino and Brandon Wolfe-Hunnicutt consider
4321-591: The Iraqi Parliament's Law 28 of 1932 "Governing the Rights and Duties of Cultivators". By 1953, the party, led by al-Rikabi, was engaged in subversive activities against the government. The party initially consisted of a majority of Shia Muslims, as al-Rikabi primarily recruited his friends and family, but it slowly became Sunni -dominated. The Ba'ath Party, and others of pan-Arab orientation, found it increasingly difficult to recruit Shia members within
4470-730: The Pan-American Petroleum and Transport Company , and Atlantic Richfield Co. Shares were held in the following proportions: 23.75% each to the Anglo-Persian Oil Company , Royal Dutch/Shell, the Compagnie Française des Pétroles ( CFP ), and the NEDC; the remaining 5% went to Calouste Gulbenkian. TPC was to be organized as a nonprofit company, registered in Britain, that produced crude oil for
4619-524: The Presidential Palace by Arif, who asked them if they knew of an imminent coup against him. Both al-Naif and Daud denied knowledge of any coup. However, when the Ba'ath Party leadership obtained this information, they quickly convened a meeting at al-Bakr's house. The coup had to be initiated as quickly as possible, even if they had to concede to give al-Naif and Daud the posts of Prime Minister and Defence Minister, respectively. Hussein said at
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4768-704: The Sultan of Muscat that would cover the entire region of the Sultanate. IPC, however, failed to discover oil in the Sultanate's region, which was limited to the coastal area of Oman, and informed the Sultan that oil is more likely to exist in the interior region of Oman. The Treaty of Seeb provided autonomous rule to the Omanis who resided in the interior region of Oman, which was called the Imamate of Oman , by stating that
4917-857: The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) , which is a consortium that standardizes web technologies like HTML , XML and CSS . The Institute for Food Safety and Health is a consortium consisting of the Illinois Institute of Technology , the Food and Drug Administration 's Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition , and members of the food industry . Some of the work done at the institute includes, "assessment and validation of new and novel food safety and preservation technologies, processing and packaging systems, microbiological and chemical methods, health promoting food components, and risk management strategies." Commonly known in
5066-437: The bureaucratisation of the party, and decision-making was often cumbersome and inefficient. This inefficiency meant that Saddam could govern without fearing any rivals. The Department for Organisational and Political Affairs (DOPA) was the most important department of the secretariat. It prepared material for discussion that the secretary-general ( Arabic : amin sir ), the party's leader, personally ordered. The DOPA also
5215-412: The 1925/6 season, an international geological team, including representatives from the shareholding companies and an American contingent, conducted a comprehensive survey of Iraq. They identified drilling locations at Pulkanah (two wells), Khashm al Ahmar, Injanah, Qaiyarah, and Kirkuk. Geologist J.M. Muir located the well at Baba Gurgur, just north of Kirkuk. Drilling commenced, and on October 14, 1927, oil
5364-405: The 1970s, initially was a consortium of BP , ARCO , ConocoPhillips , Exxon , Mobil , Unocal , and Koch Alaska Pipeline Company. Airbus Industries was formed in 1970 as a consortium of aerospace manufacturers. The retention of production and engineering assets by the partner companies in effect made Airbus Industries a sales and marketing company. This arrangement led to inefficiencies due to
5513-557: The Aden Protectorates), Petroleum Development (Western Arabia) Ltd. In 1933, IPC joined negotiations for an oil concession in Al-Hasa province, Saudi Arabia, bidding against Standard Oil of California (SOCAL, later renamed Chevron). Represented by Stephen Hemsley Longrigg , the company's bid failed when it offered payment in rupees rather than the gold that King Abdul-Aziz (also known as Ibn Saud ) desired. SOCAL gained
5662-583: The American partners broke free. During the period, IPC monopolized oil exploration inside the Red Line; excluding Saudi Arabia and Bahrain, where ARAMCO (formed in 1944 by renaming of the Saudi subsidiary of Standard Oil of California (Socal)) and Bahrain Petroleum Company (BAPCO) respectively held controlling position. The San Remo conference had stipulated that Iraqis should be allowed 20% of
5811-498: The Anglo-Persian Oil Company, Royal Dutch/Shell and Standard Oil had access to major sources of crude oil outside Iraq, and therefore wanted to hold the Iraqi concessions in reserve, whilst CFP and the other companies pushed for rapid development of Iraqi oil as they had limited crude oil supplies. These competing interests delayed the development of the Iraqi fields, and IPC's concession eventually expired because
5960-696: The Audit Department. The only non-department under the direct responsibility of the secretariat was the Saddam Institute for the Study of the Qur'an . The functions and responsibilities of the secretariat were drawn up in a detailed manner. The Office of the President issued a directive to formulate its hierarchy , and the functions of the sections and departments were clearly defined. The secretariat encompassed all party branches. This system led to
6109-424: The Ba'ath Party . The meeting exacerbated the party's problems. Aflaq, who saw himself as the leader of the pan-Arab Ba'athist movement, declared his intent to take control of the Iraqi Ba'ath Party. The "Iraq first" wing was outraged. President Arif lost patience with the Iraqi Ba'ath Party, and the party was ousted from government on 18 November 1963. The 12 Ba'ath members of the government were forced to resign, and
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6258-471: The Ba'ath Party ban, stating that "No entity or program, under any name, may adopt racism , terrorism , the calling of others infidels , ethnic cleansing , or incite, facilitate, glorify, promote, or justify thereto, especially the Saddamist Ba'ath in Iraq and its symbols, regardless of the name that it adopts. This may not be part of the political pluralism in Iraq." Some or many of its members in
6407-460: The Ba'ath Party's original ideology of secular pan-Arab nationalism which, in many cases, has proven successful in Iraq's Shi'a dominated southern provinces. However, despite his attempts, al-Ahmed has failed in his goal to overthrow al-Douri. Al-Douri's faction is the largest and the most active on the Internet, and the large majority of Ba'athist websites are aligned to al-Douri. Another failure
6556-639: The British and the Iraqis who preferred a southern route, terminating at Haifa , in what then was Palestine . The issue was settled by a compromise which provided for the construction of two pipelines, each with a throughput capacity of 2,000,000 tons a year. The length of the Northern line would be 532 miles (856 km), that of the Southern line ( Mosul-Haifa oil pipeline ) 620 miles (1,000 km). In 1934,
6705-524: The Gulf War. IPC has ceased operations, but the company "Iraq Petroleum Company Limited" still remains extant as a name on paper, and one of its surviving associated companies – Abu Dhabi Petroleum Company (ADPC), formerly Petroleum Development (Trucial Coast) Limited – continued with the original shareholding intact until January 2014. ADPC still holds 40% of the onshore concession in Abu Dhabi, with
6854-626: The Iran-Iraq War, an estimated 60% of the facilities in southern and central Iraq were damaged in the Gulf War . Post-1991 fighting between Kurdish and Iraqi forces in northern Iraq resulted in temporary sabotage of the Kirkuk field's facilities. In 1996, production capacity in northern and central Iraq was estimated at between 0.7 and 1 million barrels (110,000 to 160,000 m³) per day, down from around 1.2 million barrels (190,000 m³) per day before
7003-634: The Iraq Government tried to open up the country to competition, the company taking up the new concession was bought out by IPC and, under the name of the Mosul Petroleum Company, was duly gathered into the IPC 'family' of associated companies (see below). The company also got the concession rights to southern Iraq in 1938, and founded the Basrah Petroleum Company (BPC) as their wholly owned subsidiary to develop
7152-824: The Iraqi Ba'ath Party who were purged and dismissed went on to join Al-Qaeda in Iraq which eventually morphed into the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant . On 31 December 2006, one day after Saddam Hussein's execution by hanging, a previously unknown group called the Baghdad Citizens Gathering publicly issued a statement in Amman , Jordan, at the Jordanian Regional Branch of the Ba'ath Party endorsing Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri as
7301-613: The Iraqi Ba'ath leadership for his supporters, including Saddam. In 1962, both the Ba'ath Party and the United States Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) began plotting to overthrow Qasim. On 8 February 1963, Qasim was finally overthrown by the Ba'athists in the Ramadan Revolution ; long suspected to be supported by the CIA, however pertinent contemporary documents relating to the CIA's operations in Iraq have remained classified by
7450-617: The Iraqi Regional Branch was established by Abd ar Rahman ad Damin and Abd al Khaliq al Khudayri in 1947 after their return from the founding congress of the Ba'ath Party held in Damascus , Syria the same year. In another version, Fuad al-Rikabi established the Iraqi Regional Branch in 1948 with Sa'dun Hamadi, a Shia Muslim , but became secretary of the Regional Command in 1952. The Iraqi Regional Branch
7599-422: The Iraqi branch leadership locally or abroad, while continuing organizational activities according to the Organizations of Central Euphrates and the South leadership's decisions that were reached last year based on prior understandings with the national leadership". Despite breaking with al-Douri's faction, al-Karafi's faction has not aligned itself with either al-Ahmed's faction or Resurrection and Renewal Movement,
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#17327655837687748-456: The Iraqi government criticized the IPC and used the IPC as a central piece of their anti-western propaganda. The Soviet-Iraqi agreement of 1969 emboldened the Iraqi government and in 1970 they made a list of demands including ownership of 20% of the company's assets and more control. The IPC by this time was taking the Iraqi government very seriously and made some huge concessions. They agreed to increase oil production substantially and also increase
7897-401: The Iraqi monarch was murdered. He ruled the country as Prime Minister of Iraq until his downfall and death in 1963. Before the coup, he used the fact that the IPC was producing oil for western nations rather than for the benefit of Iraq citizens as one of his main points of contention with the Iraqi government. Once in power, he was critical of several aspects of the IPC. First, he was critical of
8046-473: The National Guard was dissolved and replaced with the Republican Guard . Some authorities believe that Aflaq supported Arif's coup against the Ba'athist government in order to weaken al-Sadi's position within the party and strengthen his own. At the time of al-Sadi's removal from the post of Interior Minister, factionalism and discontent were growing within the party. al-Sadi and Mundur al-Windawi,
8195-583: The Qur'an. The party sought to control these institutions so that no single opposition party could gain a foothold in them. Below the Regional Command were the bureau structures ( Arabic : maktab al-tandhimat ), which would gather all party activities in a single geographic area into the responsibility of a single unit. Until 1989, there were six bureau structures in the country: in Baghdad , Al-Forat,
8344-571: The Regional Command of the Iraqi Ba'ath Party, became deputy prime minister and Minister of Interior – a post he lost on 11 May. Despite not being prime minister, al-Sadi had effective control over the Iraqi Ba'ath Party. Seven out of nine members supported his leadership in the party's Regional Command. According to Coughlin, in the aftermath of the coup, the National Guard initiated an "orgy of violence" against all communist and other left-wing elements. This period led to
8493-485: The Sultanate "should not interfere in their [Imamate] internal affairs". IPC offered financial support to the Sultan in order to raise a military force that would occupy the Imamate's region so that IPC would gain access to the possible oil reserves. The Sultanate, backed by the British government and the financial support received from IPC, attacked the interior of Oman on 25 October 1954 triggering Jebel Akhdar War . IPC
8642-528: The Syrian Ba'ath Military Committee, represented by Salah Jadid , Muhammad Umran , Hafez al-Assad , Salim Hatum and Amin al-Hafiz ; and the Iraqi military wing, which supported Arif's presidency, represented by al-Bakr, Salih Mahdi Ammash , Tahir Yahya and Hardan Tikriti. The military wings in Syria and Iraq opposed the creation of a pan-Arab state, whereas al-Shufi and al-Sadi supported it. Aflaq officially supported it, but privately opposed it because he
8791-664: The Syrian and Iraqi military. Ammash, the Iraqi Minister of Defence , became the chairman of the Higher Military Council. The unified headquarters was in Syria. The establishment of the military union became evident on 20 October 1963, when Syrian soldiers were found fighting alongside the Iraqi military in Iraqi Kurdistan . At this stage, both Iraqi and Syrian Ba'athists feared excluding Nasser from
8940-479: The TPC, but it would take several years until the negotiations were completed. In 1925, the Turkish Petroleum Company (TPC) obtained a concession to explore for oil in Iraq. The agreement stipulated that the Iraqi government would receive royalties for each ton of oil extracted, based on the oil companies' profits and not payable for the first 20 years. The concession allowed the company to select 24 rectangular plots of 8 square miles (21 km²) each for drilling. During
9089-461: The Theatre of Operations of the Iraq Petroleum Company Limited and its Associated Companies authored by Stephen Hemsley Longrigg. The IPC Film Unit produced a number of short films, most notably The Third River , a film produced in 1952 about operations around the Iraq-Mediterranean pipeline, and Rivers of Time , produced in 1957, about the history of Mesopotamia. Ageless Iraq was an historical film made for IPC by British Pathé. The company published
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#17327655837689238-422: The U.S. government, although the Iraqi Ba'athists are documented to have maintained supportive relationships with U.S. officials before, during, and after the coup. Several army units refused to support the Ba'athist coup. The fighting lasted for two days, during which 1,500–5,000 were killed. Qasim was captured on 9 February and, an hour later, was killed by firing squad . To assure the Iraqi public that Qasim
9387-408: The United States as a rotating savings and credit association (ROSCA) and also called Savings Clubs, Christmas clubs , sousou or even money circles, they are typically informal associations of people saving money together with a commonly shared goal: buying something with the same value. In this association its members contribute by paying equal amount installments (usually monthly or weekly) towards
9536-488: The United States when the American forces had been withdrawn and when the government had been toppled. As of 2013, it has been reported that al-Douri is living in the city of Mosul , having left Syria because of the ongoing civil war . Many analysts are afraid that the Ba'ath Party has the potential power to initiate another civil war in Iraq because of al-Douri's popularity in localities with Sunni majorities. The Regional Command (RC) ( Arabic : al-qiyada al-qutriyya )
9685-481: The amount of crude oil extracted, getting more Iraqis involved in the process of producing the oil and getting more royalties. In 1952, terms that were more generous to the Iraqi government were negotiated. These terms were largely based on the far more lucrative terms of the Saudi-Aramco "50/50" agreement of December 1950 . One could argue that a determinant in these negotiations was the friendly atmosphere in which they were conducted. This atmosphere did not continue to
9834-501: The assertions plausible because the U.S. embassy in Iraq had actually compiled such lists, were known to be in contact with the National Guard during the purge, and because National Guard members involved in the purge received training in the U.S. Furthermore, Wolfe-Hunnicutt, citing contemporary U.S. counterinsurgency doctrine, notes that the assertions "would be consistent with American special warfare doctrine" regarding U.S. covert support to anti-communist "Hunter-Killer" teams "seeking
9983-446: The bilateral Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation in 1972. At the time of Saddam's fall in April 2003, the Ba'ath Party had 1.5 million members. In June 2003, the U.S. -led Coalition Provisional Authority banned the Ba'ath Party, and banned all members of the party's top four tiers from the new government and from public schools and colleges, a move which some criticised for blocking too many experienced people from participating in
10132-429: The bilateral unification process between Iraq and Syria. In the aftermath of the coup-led against the Ba'ath Party, al-Bakr became the party's dominant driving force and was elected secretary-general of the Regional Command in 1964. Saddam Hussein received full party membership and a seat in the Regional Command of the Iraqi Ba'ath Party because he was a close protege of al-Bakr. With al-Bakr's consent, Hussein initiated
10281-515: The building of the cult of personality of Saddam. From the 1990s until the fall of the Ba'ath Party in 2003, it became involved in the handling of food distribution, the pursuing and apprehension of military deserters and, by the end, it was responsible for the preparations for the 2003 invasion of Iraq . Branches and sections enjoyed powers similar to those of the police in the West . Outside of Baghdad, they were "legally authorised to incarcerate suspects using Extrajudicial procedures ". One of
10430-547: The centre, southern and northern Iraq, and one bureau for military affairs. By 2002, there were 17. Below the bureau structures was the branch ( Arabic : Fir ), which supervised the activities of the sections, divisions and cells ( Arabic : shu'ba, firqa and khaliyya) . Several of these organs were merged or split, and the number of branches had increased to 69 branches by 2002. The numbers of sections and divisions varied between provinces. As membership increased, new sections and divisions were established. In Maysan province ,
10579-456: The common fund administrators charge a fixed fee in order to take responsibility and guarantee the integrity of the process. In France , the consortium, considered a sub-type of joint venture , has important theoretical and practical significance. The French legal system does not provide a definition and does not explicitly use the concept of a joint venture or consortium ( groupements momentanés d’entreprises ). The consortium agreement in France
10728-470: The companies failed to meet certain performance requirements, such as the construction of pipelines and shipping terminals. The concession was renegotiated in 1931, however, giving the company a 70-year concession on an enlarged 83,200 square kilometres (32,100 sq mi) area east of the Tigris River . In return, the Iraqi government demanded, and received, additional payments and loans, as well as
10877-641: The company if they wanted to invest in it, but the existing shareholders successfully resisted Iraqi efforts to participate, despite pressure by the British government to accept Iraqi shareholders. In 1929 the TPC was renamed the Iraq Petroleum Company. By 1934, the NEDC comprised only two shareholders, Standard Oil of New Jersey and Socony, which had merged with the Vacuum Oil Company to form Socony-Vacuum in 1931. The original concession of 14 March 1925 covered all of Iraq, but IPC
11026-631: The concession and, joined by the Texas Oil Company in 1936, went on to discover oil at Dammam through its subsidiary, California-Arabian Standard Oil Company (Casoc) in 1938. Thereafter, IPC concentrated its efforts in Arabia in developing its Qatar oil concession (oil discovered 1939), Abu Dhabi (oil discovered in 1959), Oman (see Petroleum Development Oman ) and the Aden Protectorates (in today's Yemen ). IPC personnel carried out
11175-406: The consortium and the pool. Cooperation agreements concluded under German law are not of a uniform legal nature. There is a great wealth of legal forms of cooperation that could be cautiously qualified as consortium agreements. This is in particular a civil law partnership in its internal and occasional variants ( Gelegenheitsgesellschaft ), as well as a partnership of building contractors ( ARGE ) and
11324-512: The country. The secretariat had the power to propose marriages and, in certain cases, to approve and disapprove marriages for the sake of the party. At the 8th Regional Congress, the leadership laid emphasis on building "a strong and central national authority." The party leadership's response to the party's apparent lack of centralisation came with a Revolutionary Command Council resolution which stated that "all correspondence between state ministries and party organisations are to be sent through
11473-522: The coups of 1958 and 1963, the 1968 coup was a "relatively civil affair". The coup begun in the early morning of 17 July, when the military and Ba'ath Party activists seized several key positions in Baghdad, such as the headquarters of the Ministry of Defence, television and radio stations and the electricity station. All the city's bridges were captured, all telephone lines were cut and at exactly 03:00,
11622-488: The decision, and considered them illegitimate. In its statement, the OCES stated that "the failure to implement [its] decisions is considered a rebellion against legitimate authority [...]" and "a conscious and explicit threat, and an attempt to impose a bitter reality through decisions that are tainted by sectarian and regional motivations." In its ending remarks, the OCES statement read "any connection or link with any member of
11771-499: The end of 1944 IPC was operating in over 467,055 square miles (1,209,670 km) of territory, an area larger in size than the states of Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, and Louisiana combined. In addition, IPC attempted, though without success, to extend further its area of operations by seeking concessions or exploration permits in Turkey and in the neutral zones of Kuwait and Saudi Arabia. In 1937, IPC signed an oil concession agreement with
11920-454: The establishment in Baghdad of several interrogation chambers. The government requisitioned several private houses and public facilities, and an entire section of Kifah Street was used by the National Guard. Many of the victims of the rout were innocent, or were victims of personal vendettas . According to Coughlin, the most notorious torture chamber was located at the "Palace of the End," where
12069-745: The former Ottoman Empire were mostly decided. A rising demand for petroleum during the war had demonstrated to the big powers the importance of having their own sources of oil. Since one of the original partners of TPC had been German , the French demanded this share as the spoils of war. This was agreed upon by the San Remo Oil Agreement , much to the annoyance of the Americans, who felt excluded from Middle Eastern oil and demanded an "open door". After prolonged and sometimes sharp diplomatic exchanges, U.S. oil companies were permitted to buy into
12218-891: The general law of contract, similar to an ordinary partnership agreement , does not create a separate entity. In Germany the view prevails that the consortium is a type of internal civil law partnership (§ 705–740 of the BGB ). In external relations, consortium members may decide on joint and several liability regulated by § 421 BGB, while internally there is sometimes a release from this liability. Joint ventures often include credit syndicates (Kreditkonsortien), securities issuing consortia, including mainly shares ( Emissionskonsortien ), construction consortia ( Baukonsortien ) also referred to as investment ( Investitionskonsortien ) and profit pools ( Ergebnispools ). Sometimes, special purpose partnerships established to jointly use construction facilities ( Planungsgesellschaften ) are listed in one category with
12367-509: The government, Qasim created an alliance with the Iraqi Communist Party , which was opposed to the notion of pan-Arabism. Qasim's policies angered several pan-Arab organisations, including the Ba'ath Party, which later began plotting to assassinate Qasim at Al-Rashid Street on 7 October 1959 and take power. One assassin was to kill those sitting in the back of the car, the rest would kill those in front. Abdul Karim al-Shaikhly,
12516-492: The idea. al-Jundi was given the task of setting up a committee to begin establishing the union. al-Jundi selected al-Sadi as Iraq's chief representative in the committee in a bid to strengthen al-Sadi's position within the Ba'ath Party. Work on the union continued with the signing of the Military Unity Charter which established the Higher Military Council, an organ which oversaw the integration and control over
12665-589: The inherent conflicts of interest that the four partner companies faced; they were both shareholders of, and subcontractors to, the consortium. The companies collaborated on development of the Airbus range, but guarded the financial details of their own production activities and sought to maximize the transfer prices of their sub-assemblies. In 2001, EADS (created by the merger of French, German and Spanish Airbus partner companies) and BAE Systems (the British partner company) transferred their Airbus production assets to
12814-433: The joint distribution of profit, sharing cash, assets, knowledge or abilities. As there are no legal provisions regulating in detail the consortium or joint venture, the relations between the parties participating in this type of agreement—when choosing a joint venture as a collaboration agreement or a special partnership —are subject to common law or the provisions of the partnership law . A consortium agreement governed by
12963-574: The leader of the Ba'ath Party's National Guard, led the civilian wing. President Arif led the military wing and Talib El-Shibib led the pro-Aflaq wing. However, a bigger schism was underway in the international Ba'athist movement. Four major factions were being created: the Old Guard led by Aflaq; a civilian alliance between the secretaries-general of the Regional Commands of Syria and Iraq, led by Hammud al-Shufi and al-Sadi respectively;
13112-601: The leader of the Free Officers Movement which overthrew the king , supported joining the UAR, but changed his position when he took power. Several members of the Free Officer Movement were also members of the Ba'ath Party. The Ba'ath Party considered the President of Egypt Gamal Abdel Nasser , the leader of the pan-Arab movement, to be the leader most likely to succeed, and supported Iraq's joining
13261-612: The leader of the assassination plot, recruited a young Saddam Hussein to join the conspiracy after one of the would-be assassins left. During the ambush, Saddam (who was only supposed to provide cover) began shooting prematurely, which disorganised the whole operation. Qasim's chauffeur was killed and Qasim was hit in the arm and shoulder. The assassins thought they had killed him and quickly retreated to their headquarters, but Qasim survived. Richard Sale of United Press International (UPI), citing former U.S. diplomat and intelligence officials, Adel Darwish , and other experts, reported that
13410-789: The majority 60% held by the Abu Dhabi National Oil Company (ADNOC) on behalf of the Abu Dhabi Government. Operations are carried out by the local operating company – the Abu Dhabi Company for Onshore Oil Operations (ADCO) – jointly owned by ADNOC, and the ADPC shareholders: BP , Royal Dutch Shell , ExxonMobil , TotalEnergies and Partex ; reflecting the historical make-up of the Iraq Petroleum Company. The Abu Dhabi onshore oil concession expired in January 2014. Abu Dhabi Petroleum Company Limited
13559-455: The meeting, "I am aware that the two officers have been imposed on us and that they want to stab the party in the back in the service of some interest or other, but we have no choice. We should collaborate with them and liquidate immediately during, or after, the revolution. And I volunteer to carry out the task". The 17 July Revolution was a military coup, not a popular revolt against the incumbent government. According to Coughlin, compared to
13708-442: The monetary arrangement between the IPC and the government. He also did not appreciate the monopoly that the IPC had been granted. However the economic situation at the time did not permit Qasim to nationalize the IPC – western nations had boycotted Iranian oil when Mossadeq nationalized its oil company and could be expected to do the same in this case. (It is likely that nationalization would have been Qasim's favored route had he had
13857-406: The necessary capabilities). Further, Iraqis lacked the technical and managerial capabilities to run the IPC. Qasim needed the oil revenues to run his government and to keep the military satisfied. Therefore, Qasim resorted to many other tactics including increasing transit rates at Basra by 1,200%. In response, the IPC stopped producing oil that used Basra as a shipping point. The ensuing confrontation
14006-487: The negotiations held between the IPC and revolutionary governments that followed the overthrow of the Hashemite monarchy in 1958. Relations between the two can be examined on two major factors. First, oil was a vital part of the Iraqi economy. Because of this, the IPC had a huge impact on the amount of revenue that the government generated and thus had a certain amount of influence over the government. The second major factor
14155-485: The new government. Thousands were removed from their positions, including doctors, professors, school teachers and bureaucrats. Many teachers lost their jobs, causing protests and demonstrations at schools and universities. Under the Ba'ath Party, one could not reach high positions in the government or in schools without becoming a party member. Membership was also a prerequisite for university admission. While many Ba'athists joined for ideological reasons, many more joined as
14304-487: The new president of Iraq and the party's secretary-general following Saddam's death. The statement referred to Iraqis killed in the 1980–88 war with Iran , the 1991 Gulf War over Kuwait and the 13 years of sanctions afterwards, and went on to say, "We vow to liberate our country from the heinous criminals, neo-Zionists and the Persians in order to restore Iraq's unity". The party's armed wing since al-Douri's ascension
14453-448: The number of sections increased from five in 1989 to 20 in 2002, each section in turn having 93 divisions. By September 2002, there existed 4,468 party offices in the country, and there were 32,000 cells. Nationally, the Ba'ath Party functioned as an institution acting as the eyes and ears of the government. During its rule, the party gained influence over the military, the government bureaucracy, labour, professional unions and, not least,
14602-710: The objective of participating in a common activity or pooling their resources for achieving a common goal. Consortium is a Latin word meaning " partnership ", "association", or "society", and derives from consors ("shared in property"), itself from con- ("together") and sors ("fate"). The Big Ten Academic Alliance in the Midwest and Mid-Atlantic U.S., Claremont Colleges consortium in Southern California, Five College Consortium in Massachusetts, and Consórcio Nacional Honda are among
14751-651: The oldest and most successful higher education consortia in the world. The Big Ten Academic Alliance , formerly known as the Committee on Institutional Cooperation, includes the members of the Big Ten athletic conference. The participants in Five Colleges, Inc. are: Amherst College , Hampshire College , Mount Holyoke College , Smith College , and the University of Massachusetts Amherst . Another example of
14900-427: The operation and took them into custody. At the show trial , six of the defendants were sentenced to death and, for unknown reasons, the sentences were not carried out. Aflaq, the leader of the Ba'athist movement, organised the expulsion of leading Iraqi Ba'athist members, such as Fuad al-Rikabi , on the grounds that the party should not have initiated the attempt on Qasim's life. At the same time, Aflaq secured seats in
15049-508: The order was given to march on the Presidential Palace. President Arif was asleep and had no control over the situation. al-Bakr masterminded the plot, but Hussein and Saleh Omar al-Ali led operations on the ground. A power struggle began between the Ba'ath Party led by al-Naif and the military led by Daud, which al-Bakr had anticipated and planned. Daud lost his ministership during an official visit to Jordan , while al-Naif
15198-487: The party in the area. Kurds who had moved from Kurdistan would, in most instances, not be allowed back unless they were loyal Ba'ath Party members. The Military and Armament Department was responsible for coordinating the distribution of arms to party officials. Consortium A consortium ( pl. consortiums or consortia ) is an association of two or more individuals , companies , organizations , or governments (or any combination of these entities) with
15347-472: The party organisation. Most Shias saw pan-Arab as largely Sunni, since most Arabs are Sunni. As a result, more Shias joined the Iraqi Communist Party than the Ba'ath Party. In the mid-1950s, eight of 17 members of the Ba'ath leadership were Shia. According to Talib El-Shibib , the Ba'ath foreign minister in the Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr government, the sectarian background of the leading Ba'ath members
15496-618: The party secretariat." The head of the secretariat was the deputy director, who was the second in the order of precedence . The office of director of the secretariat was the leading organ within the body. The secretariat had 11 departments: the Military and Armaments Department, Vocational Schools Department, Courses Department, Finance Department, Organisational and Political Department, Party Affairs and Information Department, Personnel and Administrative Department, Technical Department, Information and Studies Department, Legal Department and
15645-473: The party was modernizing, in the sense that it recognized it would be impossible to return to power alone, while, at the same time, it returned to its old, Ba'athist ideological roots. In another note, al-Jibouri noted that the Ba'ath Party had become a major enemy of al-Qaida in Iraq . In the wake of Muammar Gaddafi 's downfall , the new Libyan government sent documents to the Iraqi government which claimed that Ba'athists, with help from Gaddafi, were planning
15794-558: The party's first secretary-general of the Regional Command. Emerging as the party strongman, Hussein used his growing power to push al-Bakr aside in 1979 and ruled Iraq until the 2003 Invasion of Iraq . Several major infrastructures were laid down to assist the country's growth, and the Iraqi oil industry was nationalised with help from the Soviet Union . Alexei Kosygin , Chairman of the USSR Council of Ministers , signed
15943-532: The party's most important functions was gathering information about its opponents. In Northern Iraq , the Ba'ath gathered information about the Kurdish Democratic Party by tracking their activities among the local population. They tried to recruit members from Kurd -dominated areas through supplying food or a literacy campaign. During the drive to Arabise Kurdistan , the party resettled several hundred loyal party officials there to strengthen
16092-603: The party, resulting in al-Douri issuing a counter order expelling al-Ahmed and 150 other party members. These events led to the existence, in effect, of two Iraqi Ba'ath Parties: the main party led by al-Douri, and a splinter party led by al-Ahmed. al-Ahmed's Ba'ath Party is based in Syria. It is believed to contain most of the remaining leading party figures who were not arrested or executed, including Mezher Motni Awad , To'ma Di'aiyef Getan, Jabbar Haddoosh, Sajer Zubair, and Nihad alDulaimi. In contrast to al-Douri's group, al-Ahmad's faction has had success in recruiting Shi'as to
16241-528: The party. While al-Ahmed and the faction's senior leaders are Sunnis, there are many Shiites who are working in the organization's middle level. Upon his election as leader, an al-Ahmed's faction statement said he was "of Shia origins and coming from Shia areas in Nineveh governorate". In contrast to al-Ahmed, al-Douri has stuck to a more conservative policy, recruiting members from a largely Sunni-dominated areas. It could be said that al-Ahmed has returned to
16390-548: The pipelines were completed from Kirkuk to Al Hadithah , and from there, to both Tripoli and Haifa; the Kirkuk Field was brought online the same year. Only in 1938, nine years after the discovery, did IPC begin to export oil in significant quantities. The Kirkuk production averaged 4 million tons per year until World War II , when restricted shipping in the Mediterranean forced down the production sharply. Although
16539-575: The price of its crude oil in certain areas. They also offered an advance payment on royalties. However this was not enough for the Iraqi government and they issued a new set of demands in November 1970 which essentially involved more Iraqi control of operations and more Iraqi profit-taking. Dissatisfied with the IPC's unwillingness to negotiate on Iraq's terms, the Iraqi government gave the IPC an ultimatum with similar demands in May 1972. The IPC tried to offer
16688-521: The promise that IPC would complete two oil pipelines to the Mediterranean by 1935—something CFP had demanded for a long time, in order to get its share of the oil quickly to France. Different routes and terminal locations on the Mediterranean coast were sought by the French, who favored a northern route through Syria and Lebanon terminating at the city of Tripoli on the Lebanese coast, and
16837-438: The red line. The writer Stephen Hemsley Longrigg, a former IPC employee, noted, "[T]he Red Line Agreement, variously assessed as a sad case of wrongful cartelization or as an enlightened example of international co‑operation and fair-sharing, was to hold the field for twenty years and in large measure determined the pattern and tempo of oil development over a large part of the Middle East". The Agreement lasted until 1948 when two of
16986-488: The region ( University of Kentucky , University of North Carolina , University of Tennessee , West Virginia University , University of Virginia , and Virginia Tech ) are affiliated with the ACA. These institutions assist the ACA in reviewing grant and fellowship applications, conducting workshops, and providing technical assistance. The ACA works to serve higher education in the rural regions of these five states. An example of
17135-425: The remainder of Qasim's tenure in power." At the time of the attack, the Ba'ath Party had less than 1,000 members, however the failed assassination attempt led to widespread exposure for Saddam and the Ba'ath within Iraq, where both had previously languished in obscurity, and later became a crucial part of Saddam's public image during his tenure as president of Iraq . The Iraqi government arrested some members of
17284-650: The remoter parts of its concession areas. During the Hashemite Monarchy (1932–58) , there were no serious issues between the IPC and the Iraqi government as the Hashemites were extremely pro-west. In fact, they had been installed by the British, and therefore tensions were minimized. They were dependent on the British militarily and had essentially pledged allegiance to them through the Baghdad Pact . The Hashemites' main disputes centered on increasing
17433-789: The resources of their member colleges and the universities to share human and material assets as well as to link academic and administrative resources. An example of a non-profit consortium is the Appalachian College Association (ACA) located in Richmond, Kentucky . The association consists of 35 private liberal arts colleges and universities spread across the central Appalachian mountains in Kentucky , North Carolina , Tennessee , Virginia , and West Virginia . Collectively these higher education institutions serve approximately 42,500 students. Six research universities in
17582-463: The royal family was killed in 1958. Nadhim Kazzer, who became director of the Directorate of General Security , was responsible for the acts committed there. The party was ousted from government in November 1963, due to factionalism. The question within the Ba'ath Party was whether or not it would pursue its ideological goal of establishing a union with Syria, Egypt or both. Al-Sadi supported
17731-515: The southern region of Iraq. Three issues caused protracted negotiations among the partner groups of IPC: As the Red Line Agreement defined the company's sphere of operations well beyond the boundaries of Iraq, IPC's shareholders were keen to look for oil elsewhere in the Middle East. They created associated companies, one for each territory to be explored. These companies were collectively known as "The IPC Group". They would obtain from
17880-643: The sovereign power an exploration licence covering simple exploration over a defined geographical area, or a concession permitting exploration and the production of oil. By 1948, the company had created 12 companies with concessions or exploration licences: Petroleum Development (Cyprus Ltd), Lebanon Petroleum Company Ltd, Petroleum Development (Palestine) Ltd, Syrian Petroleum Company Ltd, Trans-Jordan Petroleum Company Ltd, Mosul Petroleum Company Ltd, Basrah Petroleum Company Ltd, Petroleum Development (Qatar) Ltd, Petroleum Development (Trucial Coast) Ltd, Petroleum Development (Oman and Dhofar) Ltd, Petroleum Concessions Ltd (for
18029-528: The three factions within the Ba'ath Party, two out of three faction leaders were Shia. By the end of 1951, the party had at least 50 members. With the collapse of the pan-Arabist United Arab Republic (UAR), several leading Ba'ath members, including al-Rikabi, resigned from the party in protest. In 1958, the year of the 14 July Revolution that overthrew the Hashemite monarchy , the Ba'ath Party had 300 members nationwide. Brigadier Abd al-Karim Qasim ,
18178-428: The union talks since he had a large following. The Syrian state and its Ba'ath Party criticised the fall of al-Bakr's first government but relented when they discovered that some members of the Iraqi cabinet were Ba'ath Party members. However, the remaining Ba'athists were slowly removed from office. The Syrian Revolutionary Command Council responded by abrogating the Military Unity Charter on 26 April 1964, ending
18327-507: The union. Of the 16 members of Qasim's cabinet, 12 were Ba'ath Party members. However, the Ba'ath Party supported Qasim on the grounds that he would join Nasser's UAR. Qasim, reluctant to tie himself too closely to Nasser's Egypt, sided with various groups within Iraq (notably the social democrats ) that told him such an action would be dangerous. Instead Qasim adopted a wataniyah policy of "Iraq First". To strengthen his own position within
18476-409: The unsuccessful 7 October 1959 assassination attempt on Qasim involving a young Saddam Hussein and other Ba'athist conspirators was a collaboration between the CIA and Egyptian intelligence . Pertinent contemporary records relating to CIA operations in Iraq have remained classified or heavily redacted, thus "allow[ing] for plausible deniability." It is generally accepted that Egypt, in some capacity,
18625-468: The violent overthrow of a communist dominated and supported government", and draws parallels to other CIA operations in which lists of suspected communists were compiled, such as Guatemala in 1954 and Indonesia in 1965–66 . Abdul Salam Arif became the president of Iraq and Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr became prime minister after taking power in February 1963 . Ali Salih al-Sa'di , secretary-general of
18774-403: Was Arab nationalist and vague in its socialist orientation. Al-Rikabi, expelled from the party in 1961 for being a Nasserist , was an early follower of Michel Aflaq , the founder of Ba'athism . During the party's early days, members discussed topics regarding Arab nationalism, the social inequalities that had grown out of the British " Tribal Criminal and Civil Disputes Regulation ", and
18923-464: Was (in practice) a tool in control of the Regional Command. The Ba'ath Party had its own secretariat ( Arabic : maktab amanat sir al-qutr ), through which every major decision in the country was channelled. According to Joseph Sassoon, the secretariat functioned as the "party's board of directors ," overseeing the running of the party branches which, in turn, controlled and collected information about civilian and military life throughout
19072-546: Was Gulbenkian, and the largest single shareholder was the British government-controlled Anglo-Persian Oil Company , which by 1914 held 50% of the shares. TPC received a promise of a concession from the Ottoman government, but the outbreak of World War I in 1914 stopped all exploration plans. Deutsche Bank brought a concession granted to the Anatolian Railway Company to explore for minerals and oil along
19221-503: Was a weak leader. Before the coup, Hussein, through the Jihaz Haneen, contacted several military officers who either supported the Ba'ath Party or wanted to use it as a vehicle to power. Some officers, such as Hardan al-Tikriti , were already members of the party, while Abdul Razzak al-Naif , the deputy head of military intelligence, and Colonel Ibrahim Daud, the commander of the Republican Guard , were neither party members nor sympathisers. On 16 July 1968, al-Naif and Daud were summoned to
19370-471: Was able to replace several different fleets of aircraft in the adopting air forces. The Royal Saudi Air Force (RSAF) became the only export operator of the Tornado in addition to the three original partner nations. Including all variants, 992 aircraft were built. Coopetition , deriving from a portmanteau of cooperation and competition, is the word used when companies otherwise competitors collaborate in
19519-521: Was afraid al-Sadi would challenge his position as secretary-general of the National Command of the Ba'ath Party, the leader of the international Ba'athist movement. Both Syria and Iraq were under Ba'athist rule in 1963. When President Arif visited Syria on a state visit, Sami al-Jundi , a Syrian cabinet minister, proposed the creation of a bilateral union between the two countries. Both Arif and Amin al-Hafiz , President of Syria , supported
19668-701: Was also interested in other ventures apart from oil, such as potash mining in Trans-Jordan , asphalt in Syria (for which it set up a company, Société Industrielle des Asphaltes et Pétroles de Lattique ) and salt mining in the Aden Protectorates - although this latter venture was never developed. The company created air transport companies, the Iraq Petroleum Transport Company and Transports du Proche Orient, to operate aircraft and vessels to ferry people and equipment to
19817-476: Was an Ottoman possession , early negotiations for an oil concession centered in the empire's capital, Constantinople . The first interest was shown by Imperial German banks and companies, already involved in building the Berlin-Baghdad railway . In 1911, in an attempt to bring together the competing British and German interests in the region, a British company known as African and Eastern Concession Ltd,
19966-550: Was an association of companies that played a major role in the discovery and development of oil resources in areas of the Middle East outside Iraq. The forerunner of the Iraq Petroleum Company (IPC) was the Turkish Petroleum Company (TPC), which was established in the early 20th century in the belief that Mesopotamia (Iraq and parts of Syria) contained substantial reservoirs of oil. Since Mesopotamia
20115-468: Was considered of little importance because most Ba'athists did not know each other's sectarian denominations . Between 1952 and 1963, 54% of the members of the Ba'ath Regional Command were Shia Muslims, largely because of al-Rikabi's effective recruitment drive in Shia areas. Between 1963 and 1970, after al-Rikabi's resignation, Shia representation in the Regional Command had fallen to 14 percent. However, of
20264-619: Was dead, as well as to terrorize his supporters, the Ba'athists broadcast a five minute long propaganda video called The End of the Criminals of Qasim's corpse being desecrated. Upon the Ba'athist ascension to power, Saddam would return to Iraq after spending nearly three years living in exile, becoming a key organizer within the Ba'ath Party's civilian wing. In its ascension to power, the Ba'athists "methodically hunted down Communists" thanks to "mimeographed lists [...] complete with home addresses and auto license plate numbers," and while it
20413-467: Was dissolved on 4 October 2018, while Iraq Petroleum Company Limited still exists, now using company number 09646587 instead of 00113948. "New" Iraq Petroleum Company Limited was incorporated on 18 June 2015 as " BP Newco 1 Limited" and succeeded operations of "old" Iraq Petroleum Company, Limited, which dissolved on 30 December 2015. In 1948, IPC published its Handbook of the Territories which Form
20562-526: Was exiled after Hussein threatened him and his family with death. At the time of the 1968 coup, only 5,000 people were members; by the late 1970s, membership had increased to 1.2 million. In 1974, the Iraqi Ba'athists formed the National Progressive Front to broaden support for the government's initiatives. Wrangling within the party continued, and the government periodically purged its dissident members, including Fuad al-Rikabi ,
20711-605: Was formed. In 1912, this company became the Turkish Petroleum Company (TPC), formed with the purpose of acquiring concessions from the Ottoman Empire to explore for oil in Mesopotamia. The owners were a group of large European companies – Deutsche Bank , the Anglo Saxon Oil Company (a subsidiary of Royal Dutch Shell ), the National Bank of Turkey (a British concern) – and Armenian businessman Calouste Gulbenkian . The driving force behind its creation
20860-413: Was inability of the Iraqi government at that time to source the technical knowledge and skill necessary to take over oil operations in the country. Beginning in the early 1950s, as the strength of nationalism in Iraq grew, the focus came to bear on foreign control over the oil production of the country. Abd al-Karim Qasim was a nationalist Iraqi Army general who seized power in a 1958 coup d'état in which
21009-460: Was involved in the assassination attempt, and that "[t]he United States was working with Nasser on some level." Sale and Darwish's account has been disputed by historian Bryan R. Gibson who concludes that available U.S. declassified documents show that "while the United States was aware of several plots against Qasim, it had still adhered to [a] nonintervention policy." On the other hand, historian Kenneth Osgood writes that "the circumstantial evidence
21158-423: Was mostly symbolic as Al-Douri's group participated in protests where calls for Sunni Autonomy were present and allied with groups that believed in and agitated for autonomy. In July 2012, the Ba'ath Party published a videotaped speech of al-Douri, in which he condemned the existing government and American interference in Iraq. However, in a change of tone, al-Douri stated he wished to establish good relations with
21307-563: Was reluctant to develop it quickly and production was restricted to fields constituting only one-half of 1 percent of the country's total area. During the Great Depression , the world was awash with oil and greater output from Iraq would simply have driven the price down to even lower levels. Delaying tactics were employed not only in actual drilling and development, but also in conducting negotiations on such matters as pipeline rights-of-way. The owners of IPC had conflicting interests:
21456-459: Was responsible for following up on political matters in party branches. One of DOPA's sections was responsible for gathering information for candidates for important positions within the party or the government. Some departments had a similar job to the DOPA section, and were responsible for admissions to the military colleges , institutions for higher education and the Saddam Institute for the Study of
21605-596: Was struck. The initial uncontrolled gushing spilled many tons of oil, but the oil field was soon brought under control and proved to be extensive. The discovery hastened the negotiations over the composition of TPC, and on 31 July 1928 the shareholders signed a formal partnership agreement to include the Near East Development Corporation (NEDC), an American consortium of five large US oil companies that included Standard Oil of New Jersey , Standard Oil Company of New York (Socony), Gulf Oil ,
21754-507: Was the Iraqi Regional Branch highest decision-making organ. Throughout its history, the RC has normally had 19-21 members. When in power, the Directorate of Security Affairs was responsible for the security of the president and the senior members of the Regional Command. The Regional Congress was (in theory) the de jure decision-making organ on Iraqi regional affairs when in session, but
21903-564: Was the Iraqi regional branch of the original Ba'ath Party , before changing its allegiance to the Iraqi-dominated Ba'ath movement following the 1966 split within the original party. The party was officially banned following the American invasion of Iraq in 2003, but despite this it still continues to function underground. The Iraqi Regional Branch of the Ba'ath Party was established in 1951 or 1952. Some historians claim that
22052-504: Was the lowest point in relations between the two up to this point. On 12 December 1961, the Iraqi government enacted Law No. 80, which expropriated 99.5 per cent of the IPC group's concession areas without compensation and put an immediate stop on oil exploration. Law 80 did not impact the IPC's ongoing production at Az Zubair and Kirkuk, but all other territories, including North Rumaila , were returned to Iraqi state control. One major difference between these negotiations and those of 1952,
22201-403: Was the stance of the Iraqi government. Whereas it had been more willing to accommodate the IPC in 1952, the government's positions under Qasim were largely non-negotiable. However this should not be surprising because it was expected that Qasim would take advantage of growing Arab nationalism and a sense amongst many ordinary Iraqis that they were being exploited by the west. Throughout the 1960s,
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