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215-507: Total Spanish Netherlands Total Western Europe Western Europe Western Europe Western Europe Western Europe Western Europe Western Europe East Indies Western Europe European waters Americas East Indies The Spanish Armada (often known as Invincible Armada , or the Enterprise of England , Spanish: Grande y Felicísima Armada , lit.   'Great and Most Fortunate Navy')

430-490: A cholera or dysentery outbreak. They were so weakened by the illness that they decided to abandon Brunei to return to Manila on 26 June 1578, after just 72 days. Before doing so, they burned the mosque, a high structure with a five-tier roof. Pengiran Seri Lela died in August–September 1578, probably from the same illness that had afflicted his Spanish allies, although there was suspicion he could have been poisoned by

645-551: A heretic and illegitimate ruler of England. In the eyes of the Catholic Church, Henry had never officially divorced Catherine, making Elizabeth illegitimate. Philip supported plots to have Elizabeth overthrown in favour of her Catholic cousin and heir presumptive , Mary, Queen of Scots . These plans were thwarted when Elizabeth had Mary imprisoned in 1567. Mary was forced to abdicate the crown of Scotland in favour of her son James VI . The first documented suggestion of what

860-620: A tributary of Spain for help to recover the throne usurped by his brother, Saiful Rijal. The Spanish agreed that if they succeeded in conquering Brunei, Pengiran Seri Lela would indeed become the Sultan, while Pengiran Seri Ratna would be the new Bendahara . In March 1578, the Spanish fleet, led by Francisco de Sande himself, acting as Capitán General , started its journey towards Brunei. The expedition consisted of 400 Spaniards and Mexicans, 1,500 Filipino natives and 300 Borneans. The campaign

1075-661: A Catholic, and the death of the popular Dutch resistance leader was expected to bring an end to the war. However it did not happen. In 1586, Queen Elizabeth I of England , supported the Protestant cause in the Netherlands and France. Sir Francis Drake launched attacks against Spanish merchants in the Caribbean and the Pacific Ocean , along with a particularly aggressive attack on the port of Cádiz . Philip sent

1290-553: A Christian walled city over the burnt ruins of Muslim Maynila and made it as the new capital of the Spanish East Indies and renamed it Manila. Spaniards were few and life was difficult and they were often outnumbered by their Amerindian recruits and Filipino allies. They attempted to mobilize subordinated populations through the encomienda . Unlike in the Caribbean where the indigenous populations rapidly disappeared,

1505-588: A contingent of fellow Protestant militias from Germany – including 14,000 mercenary reiters led by the Calvinist Duke of Zweibrücken . After the Duke was killed in action, his troops remained under the employ of the Huguenots who had raised a loan from England against the security of Jeanne d'Albret 's crown jewels. Much of the Huguenots' financing came from Queen Elizabeth of England, who

1720-528: A convenience for historians. The marriage of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon in 1469 resulted in the union of the two main crowns, Castile and Aragon, which eventually led to the de facto unification of Spain after the culmination of the Reconquista with the conquest of Granada in 1492 and of Navarre in 1512 to 1529. Isabella and Ferdinand were bestowed the title of " Catholic King and Queen " by Pope Alexander VI in 1494. With

1935-630: A defensive policy with the construction of a series of military forts ( presidios ) and peace agreements with some of the Muslim rulers of North Africa. In the first half of the 17th century, Spanish ships attacked the Anatolian coast, defeating larger Ottoman fleets at the Battle of Cape Celidonia and the Battle of Cape Corvo . Larache and La Mamora , on the Moroccan Atlantic coast, and

2150-695: A definitive ruling by classifying "Lutherans" as heretical Zwinglians . Calvin, originally from Noyon in Picardy , went into exile in 1535 to escape persecution and settled in Basel , where he published the Institutes of the Christian Religion in 1538. This work contained the key principles of Calvinism , which became immensely popular in France and other European countries. While Lutheranism

2365-528: A direct consequence of his unwillingness to offend the Emperor and perhaps have his capital sacked a second time. The Peace of Barcelona , signed between Charles and the pope in 1529, established a more cordial relationship between the two leaders that effectively made Charles the protector of the Catholic cause and recognized Charles as King of Italy in return for Imperial-Spanish intervention in overthrowing

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2580-665: A global empire which became the source of her wealth. It championed the Catholic cause and its global possessions stretched from Europe , the Americas and to the Philippines . This was expanded further in 1580 when Portugal was annexed thus forming the Iberian Union , greatly expanding the empire. Philip became the first monarch who ruled over an empire upon which the sun did not set , and he did so from his chambers in

2795-745: A large army from the Low Countries crossing the English Channel. The appointed commander of the naval forces of the Armada was the highly experienced Marquis of Santa Cruz while Alexander Farnese would be in command of the invasion forces. Unfortunately, Santa Cruz died in February 1588 and the Duke of Medina Sidonia, a high-born courtier, took his place. While a competent soldier and distinguished administrator, Medina Sidonia had no naval experience. He wrote to Philip expressing grave doubts about

3010-752: A local aristocracy; strengthened the power of the ecclesiastical hierarchy; shored up religious orthodoxy by the establishment of the Inquisition in Lima and Mexico City (1571); and increased revenues from silver mines in Peru and in Mexico, discovered in the 1540s. Particularly important was the crown's appointment of two able viceroys, Don Francisco de Toledo as Viceroy of Peru (r. 1569–1581), and in New Spain , Martín Enríquez de Almanza (r. 1568–1580), who

3225-557: A major difficulty for the expedition, and the Spanish found themselves vulnerable as night drew on. The Dutch enjoyed an unchallenged naval advantage in these waters, even though their navy was inferior in naval armament. Because Medina Sidonia did not attempt to break the Dutch blockade and Parma would not risk attempting the passage unescorted, the Army of Flanders escaped the trap that Van Nassau had in mind for them. Late on 7 August, Howard

3440-582: A military expedition to restore order. Alba launched an ensuing reign of terror. In 1568, William the Silent led a failed attempt to drive Alba from the Netherlands. This attempt is generally considered to signal the start of the Eighty Years' War that ended with the independence of the United Provinces . The Spanish, who derived a great deal of wealth from the Netherlands and particularly from

3655-489: A number of strategic marriages to retain the alliance. There were many causes of jealousy between the two royal houses over the years, but the " French Wars of Religion " was the ultimate cause of the alliance breaking between Philip II and Elizabeth I , and this led to war between the two countries. By the mid sixteenth century Habsburg Spain under King Philip II was a dominant political and military power in Europe, with

3870-501: A peaceful solution led to the Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (8 August 1570), negotiated by Jeanne d'Albret, which once more allowed some concessions to the Huguenots. With the kingdom once more at peace, the crown began seeking a policy of reconciliation to bring the fractured polity back together. One key part of this was to be a marriage between Navarre , the son of Jeanne d'Albret and Antoine of Navarre, and Margaret of Valois ,

4085-589: A political exercise over his desire to divorce his first wife, Catherine of Aragon . Over time, England became increasingly aligned with the Protestant reformation taking place in Europe, especially during the reign of Henry's son, Edward VI . Edward died childless, and his half-sister Mary ascended the throne in 1553. Three years later Mary married Philip II, becoming queen consort of Spain and began to reassert Roman Catholic influence over church affairs. Her attempts led to more than 260 people being burned at

4300-626: A prolonged struggle for power between his widow Catherine de' Medici and powerful nobles. These included a fervently Catholic faction led by the Guise and Montmorency families, and Protestants headed by the House of Condé and Jeanne d'Albret . Both sides received assistance from external powers, with Spain and Savoy supporting the Catholics, and England and the Dutch Republic backing

4515-572: A role for Spain as protector of the Catholic Habsburg cause in the Holy Roman Empire. In 1526, Charles married Infanta Isabella , the sister of John III of Portugal . In 1556 he abdicated from his positions, giving his Spanish empire to his only surviving son, Philip II of Spain , and the Holy Roman Empire to his brother, Ferdinand . Charles retired to the monastery of Yuste ( Extremadura , Spain), and died in 1558. Spain

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4730-571: A series of civil wars between French Catholics and Protestants (called Huguenots ) from 1562 to 1598. Between two and four million people died from violence, famine or disease directly caused by the conflict, and it severely damaged the power of the French monarchy. One of its most notorious episodes was the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre in 1572. The fighting ended with a compromise in 1598, when Henry of Navarre, who had converted to Catholicism in 1593,

4945-708: A view to religious renewal and reform. Humanist scholars argued interpretation of the Bible required an ability to read the New Testament and Old Testaments in the original Greek and Hebrew , rather than relying on the 4th century Latin translation known as the " Vulgate Bible". In 1495, the Venetian Aldus Manutius began using the newly invented printing press to produce small, inexpensive, pocket editions of Greek, Latin, and vernacular literature, making knowledge in all disciplines available for

5160-516: Is evidence even marriage between Philip & Elizabeth was explored, but the question of faith, and the unequal relationship between the two Kingdoms made this extremely unlikely. Up until now Spain & England had remained in an alliance – one that had lasted for over 70 years. Mary's death in 1558 led to her half-sister Elizabeth taking the throne. Unlike Mary, Elizabeth was firmly in the reformist camp and quickly re-implemented many of Edward's reforms. Philip, no longer co-monarch, deemed Elizabeth

5375-509: Is from Spanish : armada , which is cognate with English army . It is originally derived from Latin : armāta , the past participle of armāre , 'to arm', used in Romance languages as a noun for armed force , army , navy , fleet . Armada Española is still the Spanish term for the modern Spanish Navy . England had been strategically in alliance with Spain for many decades prior to England and Spain entering into war. In

5590-412: Is generally seen as the spark which led to open hostilities between the two religions. Guyenne was the epicentre of the turn to religious violence in late 16th-century France. Many explanations have been proffered for the rise of violence. Traditional explanations focus on the influence of Jeanne d'Albret and Antoine of Navarre. Other explanations focus on the rise of seigneurialism in the 1550s and see

5805-405: Is often credited with a major transformation in crown rule in Peru. Toledo formalized the labor draft of Andean commoners, the mit'a , to guarantee a labor supply for both the silver mine at Potosí and the mercury mine at Huancavelica . He established administrative districts of corregimiento , and resettled native Andeans in reducciones to better rule them. Under Toledo, the last stronghold of

6020-706: The Santa Ana , the Nuestra Señora del Rosario collided with a number of ships, losing her bowsprit and setting in motion a series of mishaps. She began to drift, and was taken off by the current in the opposite direction to the fleet and closer to the English. Drake in the Revenge sailed to the Rosario during the night and she was taken in action; Admiral Pedro de Valdés  [ es ] (commander of

6235-748: The Aztecs and thousands of indigenous Mexican warriors, conquered the Aztec Empire in 1521. Following the pattern established in Spain during the Reconquista and in the Caribbean, the first European settlements in the Americas, conquerors divided up the indigenous population in private holdings encomiendas and exploited their labor. With Americas colonization, Spain gained vast new indigenous populations to convert to Christianity and rule as vassals of

6450-472: The Battle of Jarnac (16 March 1569), the prince of Condé was killed, forcing Admiral de Coligny to take command of the Protestant forces, nominally on behalf of Condé's 16-year-old son, Henry , and the 15-year-old Henry of Navarre , who were presented by Jeanne d'Albret as the legitimate leaders of the Huguenot cause against royal authority. The Battle of La Roche-l'Abeille was a nominal victory for

6665-669: The Bay of Biscay along the Galician coast forced four galleys commanded by Captain Diego de Medrano and one galleon to turn back, and other ships had to put in to A Coruña for repairs, leaving 137 ships that sailed for the English Channel. Nearly half of the ships were not built as warships and were used for duties such as scouting and dispatch work, or for carrying supplies, animals and troops. It included 24 purpose-built warships, 44 armed merchantmen, 38 auxiliary vessels and 34 supply ships. In

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6880-525: The Dutch Revolt against Spain, as well as funding privateers to raid Spanish ships across the Atlantic. She also negotiated an enduring trade and political alliance with Morocco . In retaliation, Philip planned an expedition to invade England to overthrow Elizabeth and, if the Armada was not entirely successful, at least negotiate freedom of worship for Catholics and financial compensation for war in

7095-738: The Edict of Nantes (13 April 1598) and the Peace of Vervins (2 May 1598) concluded the wars, while the ensuing 1620s Huguenot rebellions lead others to believe the Peace of Alès in 1629 is the actual conclusion. However, the agreed upon beginning of the wars is the Massacre of Wassy in 1562, and the Edict of Nantes at least ended this series of conflicts. During this time, complex diplomatic negotiations and agreements of peace were followed by renewed conflict and power struggles. American military historians Kiser, Drass & Brustein (1994) maintained

7310-416: The Edict of Saint-Maur revoked the freedom of Huguenots to worship. In November, William of Orange led an army into France to support his fellow Protestants, but, the army being poorly paid, he accepted the crown's offer of money and free passage to leave the country. The Huguenots gathered a formidable army under the command of Condé, aided by forces from south-east France, led by Paul de Mouvans, and

7525-736: The Elector of Saxony Maurice . In response, Charles invaded Germany at the head of a mixed Dutch-Spanish army, hoping to restore the Imperial authority. The Emperor personally inflicted a decisive defeat on the Protestants at the historic Battle of Mühlberg in 1547. In 1555, Charles signed the Peace of Augsburg with the Protestant states and restored stability in Germany on his principle of cuius regio, eius religio ("whose realm, his religion"). Charles's involvement in Germany would establish

7740-596: The Escorial Palace by means of written communication. In comparison, England was only a minor European power with no empire, and it could exercise little influence outside of its shores – although, in alliance with Spain, it had gone to war three times against France during Henry VIII 's reign. The last of these conflicts was the Siege of Boulogne . King Henry VIII began the English Reformation as

7955-563: The Habsburg territories in Germany , and was duly elected as Holy Roman Emperor that year. His mother Joanna remained titular queen of Castile until her death in 1555, but due to her mental health and worries of her being proposed as an alternative monarch by opposition (as happened in the Revolt of the Comuneros ), Charles kept her imprisoned. At that point, Emperor and King Charles was

8170-492: The Holy League against France, seeing a chance at taking both Naples (to which he held a dynastic claim) and Navarre, which was claimed through his marriage to Germaine of Foix . The war was less of a success than that against Venice, and in 1516 France agreed to a truce that left Milan under French control and recognized Spanish hegemony in northern Navarre. Ferdinand would die later that year. Ferdinand's death led to

8385-572: The Huguenots . Secrecy couldn't be maintained which made the enterprise vastly more complicated. Philip ultimately combined Parma's plan with that of Santa Cruz, initially entertaining a triple attack, starting with a diversionary raid on Scotland, while the main Armada would capture either the Isle of Wight or Southampton to establish a safe anchorage in The Solent . Farnese would then follow with

8600-542: The Low Countries . Through this endeavour, English material support for the United Provinces , the part of the Low Countries that had successfully seceded from Spanish rule, and English attacks on Spanish trade and settlements in the New World would end. Philip was supported by Pope Sixtus V , who treated the invasion as a crusade , with the promise of a subsidy should the Armada make land. Substantial support for

8815-644: The Rhine added to these fears, and political discontent grew. After Protestant troops unsuccessfully tried to capture and take control of King Charles IX in the Surprise of Meaux , a number of cities, such as La Rochelle , declared themselves for the Huguenot cause. Protestants attacked and massacred Catholic laymen and clergy the following day in Nîmes , in what became known as the Michelade . This provoked

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9030-402: The Siege of Antwerp . Three were intercepted by pataches and towed away, but the remainder bore down on the fleet. Medina Sidonia's flagship and the principal warships held their positions, but the rest of the fleet cut their anchor cables and scattered in confusion. No Spanish ships were burnt, but the crescent formation had been broken, and the fleet found itself too far leeward of Calais in

9245-573: The Spanish Armada to attack England. Numbering 130 ships and 30,000 men, it was led by Alonso de Guzmán y Sotomayor, 7th Duke of Medina Sidonia . The Armada's goal was to ferry the Army of Flanders from the Netherlands to invade England. After three days of fighting with the English fleet, the Armada withdrew and was forced to make the journey around the coast of Scotland and Ireland, many ships being wrecked by storms. Spain had invested itself in

9460-538: The Spanish Main , a severe setback in which the English suffered heavy losses in men and ships. With the conquest and settlement of the Philippines , the Spanish Empire reached its greatest extent. In 1564, Miguel López de Legazpi was commissioned by the viceroy of New Spain (Mexico), Don Luís de Velasco , to lead an expedition in the Pacific Ocean to find the Spice Islands , where earlier explorers Ferdinand Magellan and Ruy López de Villalobos had landed in 1521 and 1543, respectively. The westward sailing to reach

9675-404: The Sultanate of Aceh . In 1593, the governor-general of the Philippines, Luis Pérez Dasmariñas , set out to conquer Cambodia , igniting the Cambodian–Spanish War . Some 120 Spaniards, Japanese, and Filipinos, sailing aboard three junks, launched an expedition to Cambodia. After an altercation between the Spanish expedition members and some Chinese merchants at the port left a few Chinese dead,

9890-404: The Tondo Conspiracy of 1587–1588 failed. a planned grand alliance with the Japanese Christian-captain, Gayo, and Brunei's Sultan, would have restored the old aristocracy. Its failure resulted in the hanging of Agustín de Legaspi and the execution of Magat Salamat (the crown-prince of Tondo). Thereafter, some of the conspirators were exiled to Guam or Guerrero, Mexico. The Spanish then conducted

10105-399: The War of the League of Cognac . In 1527, due to Charles' inability to pay them sufficiently, his armies in Northern Italy mutinied and sacked Rome itself for loot, forcing Clement, and succeeding popes, to be considerably more prudent in their dealings with secular authorities. In 1533, Clement's refusal to annul Henry VIII of England 's marriage to Catherine of Aragon (Charles' aunt) was

10320-411: The 14th century in Italy and arrived in France in the early 16th, coinciding with the rise of Protestantism in France . The movement emphasised the importance of ad fontes , or study of original sources, and initially focused on the reconstruction of secular Greek and Latin texts. It later expanded into the reading, study and translation of works by the Church Fathers and the New Testament , with

10535-465: The 15-year-old Francis II lacked the ability to control. Francis, Duke of Guise , whose niece Mary, Queen of Scots, was married to the king, exploited the situation to establish dominance over their rivals, the House of Montmorency . Within days of the King's accession, the English ambassador reported "the house of Guise ruleth and doth all about the French King". On 10 March 1560, a group of disaffected nobles led by Jean du Barry, attempted to break

10750-580: The 150-ton "Bark Bond". Six other ships, of between 90 and 200 tons, were volunteered. These ships were filled with whatever pitch, brimstone and tar was immediately available. Because of the haste, the loaded guns and stores were left aboard. In the middle of the night of 7–8 August, the English set these fireships alight and cast them downwind among the closely anchored vessels of the Armada. The Spanish feared that these uncommonly large fireships were " hellburners ", specialised fireships filled with large gunpowder charges that had been used to deadly effect at

10965-415: The 1530s. The Spanish Empire abroad became the source of Spanish wealth and power in Europe. But as precious metal shipments rapidly expanded late in the century it contributed to the general inflation that was affecting the whole of Europe. Instead of fueling the Spanish economy, American silver made the country increasingly dependent on foreign sources of raw materials and manufactured goods. In 1557, Spain

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11180-434: The 1572 St. Bartholomew's Day massacre in Paris , which resulted in Catholic mobs killing between 5,000 and 30,000 Protestants throughout France. The wars threatened the authority of the monarchy and the last Valois kings, Catherine's three sons Francis II , Charles IX , and Henry III . Their Bourbon successor Henry IV responded by creating a strong central state and extending toleration to Huguenots;

11395-408: The 605 ton Maria Juan , a carrack which had been part of Don Diego Flores de Valdes' Castile Squadron which had attempted to surrender to Captain Robert Crosse of the Hope , sank off Blankenberge with the loss of 275 men – the Spanish only managing to rescue a boatload of survivors. The galleass San Lorenzo , the flagship of Don Hugo de Moncada which had been holed below the waterline,

11610-418: The Admiral. On 7 August, the Armada anchored off Calais in a tightly packed defensive crescent formation, not far from Dunkirk (Farnese only learned of this on that same afternoon) where Parma's army, reduced by disease to 16,000, was expected to be waiting, ready to join the fleet in barges sent from ports along the Flemish coast. An essential element of the plan of invasion, as it was eventually implemented,

11825-419: The Armada back to open sea to avoid the Owers shoals . There were no other secure harbours further east along England's south coast, so the Armada was compelled to make for Calais , without being able to wait for word of Parma's army. Starting on 1 August, Sidonia began sending Farnese messages detailing his position and movements. It was not until the following day that Alexander received the first report from

12040-445: The Armada commanders, but it was insurmountable. Communication was more difficult than anticipated, and word came too late that Parma's army had yet to be equipped with sufficient transport or to be assembled in the port, a process that would take at least six days. As Medina Sidonia waited at anchor, Dunkirk was blockaded by a Dutch fleet of 30 flyboats under Lieutenant-Admiral Justinus van Nassau . The Dutch flyboats mainly operated in

12255-426: The Armada set sail from Lisbon and headed for the English Channel. When it left Lisbon, the fleet was composed of 141 ships, with 10,138 sailors and 19,315 soldiers. There were also 1,545 non-combatants (volunteers, officers' servants, friars, artillerists etc.) The fleet carried 1,500 brass guns and 1,000 iron guns. The full body of the fleet took two days to leave port. The Armada was delayed by bad weather. Storms in

12470-423: The Armada to sail on to the east and towards the Isle of Wight. As the tide turned, 55 English ships set out to confront the Armada from Plymouth under the command of Lord Howard of Effingham, with Sir Francis Drake as vice admiral. The rear admiral was John Hawkins. On 30 July, the English fleet was off Eddystone Rocks with the Armada upwind to the west. To execute its attack, the English tacked upwind of

12685-450: The Armada's formation by sending fireships against it. Walsingham had already sent orders to Dover that fishing smacks and faggots and pitch were to be collected for this purpose. However, the English commanders felt that they could not wait for proper fireships and therefore sacrificed eight of their own warships. Drake, who was a substantial shipowner, offered one of his own ships, the 200-ton "Thomas". Hawkins also offered one of his ships,

12900-428: The Armada, thus gaining the weather gage , a significant advantage. At daybreak on 31 July, the English fleet engaged the Armada off Plymouth near the Eddystone Rocks. The Armada was in a crescent-shaped defensive formation, convex towards the east. The galleons and great ships were concentrated in the centre and at the tips of the crescent's horns, giving cover to the transports and supply ships in between. Opposing them,

13115-437: The Catholic League after accepting the new convert to Catholicism, Henry IV, as the rightful French king. Meanwhile, Castile was ravaged by a plague that had arrived by ship from the north, losing half a million people. Yet as the 17th century began, and despite her travails, Spain was still unquestionably the dominant power. The first years of his reign, from 1556 to 1566, Philip II was concerned principally with Muslim allies of

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13330-425: The Channel; the four galleys , one nao , five pataches and the 10 Portuguese caravels had left the fleet before the first encounter with the English fleet. An additional 5 pataches, dispatched to deliver messages to Parma, should be deducted which brings the number to 117 Spanish ships facing the roughly 226-strong English fleet. The Spanish fleet outgunned that of the English with 50% more available firepower than

13545-403: The Circle of Meaux , aiming to improve the quality of preaching and religious life in general. They were joined by François Vatable , an expert in Hebrew , along with Guillaume Budé , a classicist and Royal librarian. Lefèvre's Fivefold Psalter and his commentary on the Epistle to the Romans emphasised the literal interpretation of the Bible and the centrality of Jesus Christ . Many of

13760-400: The Dutch destroyed the dykes that held back the North Sea from the low-lying provinces. In 1576, faced with the costs of his 80,000-man army of occupation in the Netherlands and the massive fleet that had won at Lepanto, Philip was forced to accept bankruptcy . The army in the Netherlands mutinied not long after, seizing Antwerp and looting the southern Netherlands, prompting several cities in

13975-563: The Dutch to reorganize their defenses. The Spanish Armada suffered defeat at the hands of the English in 1588 and the situation in the Netherlands became increasingly difficult to manage. Maurice of Nassau , William's son, recaptured Deventer , Groningen , Nijmegen and Zutphen . The Spanish were on the defensive, mainly because they had wasted too much resources on the attempted invasion of England and on expeditions in northern France. In 1595, Henry IV of France declared war on Spain, further reducing its ability to launch offensive warfare on

14190-450: The English and Spanish ships to exchange musket fire. A couple of hours into the battle, a few more Armada warships closed in to form wings on either side of the five ships already under attack. After eight hours, the English ships began to run out of ammunition, and some gunners began loading objects such as chains into their cannons. Around 4 pm, the English fired their last shots and pulled back. Five Spanish and Portuguese ships were lost:

14405-403: The English in 1562 as part of the Treaty of Hampton Court between its Huguenot leaders and Elizabeth I of England . That July, the French expelled the English. On 17 August 1563, Charles IX was declared of age at the Parlement of Rouen ending the regency of Catherine de Medici. His mother continued to play a principal role in politics, and she joined her son on a Grand Tour of

14620-399: The English were in two sections, with Drake to the north in Revenge with 11 ships, and Howard to the south in Ark Royal with the bulk of the fleet. Given the Spanish advantage in close-quarter fighting, the English kept beyond grappling range and bombarded the Spanish ships from a distance with cannon fire. The distance was too great for the manoeuvre to be effective and, at the end of

14835-458: The English who quickly left to join the rest of the fight. The next day, the severely crippled galleon San Mateo ran aground in between Sluis and Ostend; it was taken by a combination of Dutch ships and English troops led by Francis Vere . The captain, Don Diego Pimmental, surrendered along with the survivors of his crew. Later that day, the equally crippled San Felipe , commanded by Maestre de Campo Don Fransico de Toledo, drifted away as she

15050-457: The English. The English fleet consisted of the 34 ships of the Royal Fleet, 21 of which were galleons of 200 to 400 tons, and 163 other ships, 30 of which were of 200 to 400 tons and carried up to 42 guns each. Twelve of the ships were privateers owned by Lord Howard of Effingham , John Hawkins and Sir Francis Drake. In the beginning of June, Parma had sent Captain Moresin with some pilots to Admiral Sedonia. Upon Moresin's return on 22 June,

15265-464: The French nobility also generally supported the status quo and existing policies. Despite his personal opposition, Francis tolerated Martin Luther ’s ideas when they entered France in the late 1520s, largely because the definition of Catholic orthodoxy was unclear, making it hard to determine precisely what was or was not heresy . He tried to steer a middle course in the developing religious schism, but in January 1535, Catholic authorities made

15480-510: The French, and efforts in Germany to undermine the League had been rebuffed. Francis's defeat in 1544 led to the annulment of the alliance with the Protestants, and Charles took advantage of the opportunity. He first tried the path of negotiation at the Council of Trent in 1545, but the Protestant leadership, feeling betrayed by the stance taken by the Catholics at the council, went to war, led by

15695-594: The Guisard compromise of scaling back persecution but not permitting toleration . For the moment she held to the Guisard line. Before his death, Francis II had called the first Estates General held since 1484, which in December 1560 assembled in Orléans to discuss topics which included taxation and religion. It made little progress on the latter, other than agreeing to pardon those convicted of religious offences in

15910-547: The Habsburg crown. The success of colonization all around his empire improved his financial position, enabling him to show greater aggression towards his enemies. The English Armada of 1589 failed to liberate Portugal. Philip established the Council of Portugal , on the pattern of the royal councils ; the Council of Castile , Council of Aragon , and Council of the Indies , that oversaw particular jurisdictions, but all under

16125-789: The Habsburgs, the term Monarchia Catholica (Catholic Monarchy, Modern Spanish: Monarquía Católica ) remained in use. Spain continued to be one of the greatest political and military powers in Europe and the world for much of the 16th and 17th centuries. During the Habsburg's period, Spain ushered in the Spanish Golden Age of arts and literature producing some of the world's most outstanding writers and painters and influential intellectuals, including Teresa of Ávila , Pedro Calderón de la Barca , Miguel de Cervantes , Francisco de Quevedo , Diego Velázquez , El Greco , Domingo de Soto , Francisco Suárez and Francisco de Vitoria . After

16340-513: The Huguenots, but they were unable to seize control of Poitiers and were soundly defeated at the Battle of Moncontour (30 October 1569). Coligny and his troops retreated to the south-west and regrouped with Gabriel, comte de Montgomery , and in spring of 1570, they pillaged Toulouse , cut a path through the south of France, and went up the Rhone valley up to La Charité-sur-Loire . The staggering royal debt and Charles IX's desire to seek

16555-468: The Inca state was destroyed and the last Inca emperor, Túpac Amaru , was executed. Silver from Potosí flowed to coffers in Spain and paid for Spain's wars in Europe. In New Spain, Viceroy Enríquez organized the defense of the northern frontier against nomadic and bellicose indigenous groups, who attacked the transport lines of silver from the northern mines. In the religious sphere, the crown sought to bring

16770-650: The Indies, particularly by Sir Francis Drake and his cousin John Hawkins . In 1568, the Spanish defeated Hawkins' fleet at the Battle of San Juan de Ulúa in present-day Mexico. In 1585, Drake sailed for the West Indies and sacked Santo Domingo , captured Cartagena de Indias , and St. Augustine in Florida . Both Drake and Hawkins died of disease during the disastrous 1595–96 expedition against Puerto Rico ( Battle of San Juan ), Panama , and other targets in

16985-649: The Indies. Transpacific explorations had resulted in Spain claiming the Philippines and the establishment of Spanish settlements and trade with New Spain. The viceroyalty of New Spain was given jurisdiction over the Philippines, which became the entrepôt for Asian trade. Philip's succession to the crown of Portugal in 1580 complicated the situation on the ground in the Indies between Spanish and Portuguese settlers, although Brazil and Spanish America were administered through separate councils in Spain. Spain dealt with English encroachment on Spain's maritime control in

17200-719: The Islamic nations of the Sultanate of Sulu and Kingdom of Maynila. They fought against the Sultanate of Brunei and its allies, the Bruneian puppet-states of Maynila and Sulu, which had dynastic links with Brunei. The Spanish, its Mexican recruits and Filipino allies assaulted Brunei and seized its capital, Kota Batu . This was achieved partly as a result of the assistance of two noblemen , Pengiran Seri Lela and Pengiran Seri Ratna. The former had traveled to Manila to offer Brunei as

17415-664: The Lizard in Cornwall . The news was conveyed to London by a system of beacons that had been constructed along the south coast. The same day the English fleet was trapped in Plymouth Harbour by the incoming tide. The Spanish convened a council of war , where it was proposed to ride into the harbour on the tide and incapacitate the defending ships at anchor. From Plymouth Harbour the Spanish would attack England, but Philip explicitly forbade Medina Sidonia from engaging, leaving

17630-666: The Muslims in Southeast Asia an extension of the Reconquista , a centuries-long campaign to retake and rechristianize the Spanish homeland which was invaded by the Muslims of the Umayyad Caliphate . The Spanish expeditions into the Philippines were also part of a larger Ibero-Islamic world conflict that included a rivalry with the Ottoman Caliphate , which had a center of operations at its nearby vassal,

17845-596: The Netherlands and invaded France in 1590. Faced with wars against England, France, and the Netherlands, the Spanish government found that neither the New World silver nor steadily increasing taxes were enough to cover their expenses, and went bankrupt again in 1596. To bring finances into order, military campaigns were reduced and the over-stretched forces went into a largely defensive mode. In 1598, shortly before his death, Philip II made peace with France , withdrawing his forces from French territory and stopping payments to

18060-569: The Netherlands and particularly from the vital port of Antwerp , were committed to restoring order and maintaining their hold on the provinces. During the initial phase of the war, the revolt was largely unsuccessful. Spain regained control over most of the rebelling provinces. This period is known as the " Spanish Fury " due to the high number of massacres, instances of mass looting, and total destruction of multiple cities between 1572 and 1579. In January 1579, Friesland , Gelderland , Groningen , Holland , Overijssel , Utrecht and Zeeland formed

18275-694: The Netherlands and the Ottoman Empire at the same time, and the stalemate in the Mediterranean continued until Spain agreed to a truce in 1580. The time for rejoicing in Madrid was short-lived. In 1566, Calvinist -led riots in the Habsburg Netherlands (roughly equal to modern-day Netherlands and Belgium, inherited by Philip from Charles and his Burgundian forebears) prompted Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba to conduct

18490-601: The North African coast in 1563, but were repulsed. In 1565, the Ottomans sent a large expedition to Malta , which laid siege to several forts on the island. A Spanish relief force from Sicily drove the Ottomans (exhausted from a long siege) away from the island. The death of Suleiman the Magnificent the following year and his succession by his less capable son Selim II emboldened Philip, who resolved to carry

18705-513: The Ottoman naval threat against European territory, particularly in the western Mediterranean, and the loss of experienced sailors was to be a major handicap in facing Christian fleets. Yet the Turks succeeded in rebuilding their navy in a year, using it handily to consolidate Ottoman dominance over most of the Mediterranean's African coast and eastern islands. Philip lacked the resources to fight both

18920-543: The Peninsula, Ferdinand adopted a more aggressive policy than he had as Isabella's husband, going on to crystallize his long-running designs over Navarre into a full-blown invasion led initially by a Castilian military expedition, and supported later by Aragonese troops (1512). He also attempted to enlarge Spain's sphere of influence in Italy, strengthening it against France. As ruler of Aragon, Ferdinand had been involved in

19135-633: The Philippine archipelago. The Spanish were joined by the newly Christianized Non-Muslim Visayans of the Kedatuan of Madja-as who were Animists and Rajahnate of Cebu who were Hindus, plus the Rajahnate of Butuan (who were from northern Mindanao and were Hindus with a Buddhist Monarchy), as well as the remnants of the Kedatuan of Dapitan who were also Animists and had previously waged war against

19350-508: The Philippines' link to the larger Spanish Empire. Spanish colonization began in earnest when López de Legazpi arrived from Mexico in 1565 and formed the first settlements in Cebu . Beginning with just five ships and five hundred men accompanied by Augustinian friars, and further strengthened in 1567 by two hundred soldiers, he was able to repel the Portuguese and create the foundations for

19565-530: The Portuguese king Sebastian launched a crusade against the Saadi Sultanate of Morocco. The expedition ended in disaster and Sebastian's disappearance at the Battle of the Three Kings . His aged uncle Henry ruled until he died in 1580. Although Philip had long prepared for the takeover of Portugal, he still found it necessary to launch a military occupation led by the Duke of Alba. Philip took

19780-652: The Portuguese throne: "I inherited, I bought, I conquered," a variation on Julius Caesar and Veni, Vidi, Vici . Spanish forces led by Admiral Álvaro de Bazán captured the Azores Islands in 1583, completing the incorporation of Portugal into the Spanish Empire. Thus, Philip added to his possessions a vast colonial empire in Africa, Brazil , and the East Indies , seeing a flood of new revenues coming to

19995-470: The Protestants led by de Bèze and the Catholics by Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine , brother of the Duke of Guise. The two sides initially sought to accommodate Protestant forms of worship within the existing church but this proved impossible. By the time the Colloquy ended on 8 October, it was clear the divide between Catholic and Protestant theology was too wide to be bridged. With their options narrowing,

20210-574: The Protestants. Moderates, also known as Politiques , hoped to maintain order by centralising power and making concessions to Huguenots, rather than the policies of repression pursued by Henry II and his father Francis I . They were initially supported by Catherine de' Medici, whose January 1562 Edict of Saint-Germain was strongly opposed by the Guise faction and led to an outbreak of widespread fighting in March. She later hardened her stance and backed

20425-654: The Seventh War of Religion to 1579–1580 rather than just 1580. Holt (2005) asserted a rather different periodisation from 1562 to 1629, writing of 'civil wars' rather than wars of religion, dating the Sixth War to March–September 1577, and dating the Eight War from June 1584 (death of Anjou) to April 1598 (Edict of Nantes); finally, although he didn't put a number on it, Holt regarded the 1610–1629 period as 'the last war of religion'. Renaissance humanism began during

20640-462: The Solent and occupy the Isle of Wight , but he refused to deviate from his instructions to join with Parma. Although the Armada reached Calais largely intact, while awaiting communication from Parma, it was attacked at night by English fire ships and forced to scatter. The Armada suffered further losses in the ensuing Battle of Gravelines and was in danger of running aground on the Dutch coast when

20855-537: The Spaniards, but there is no evidence for the success of that plan. The Prince of Parma was initially consulted by Philip II in 1583. Alexander stressed that three conditions would need to be met to achieve success; absolute secrecy, secure possession and defense of the Dutch provinces, and keep the French from interfering either with a peace agreement or by sowing division between the Catholic League and

21070-481: The Spanish Netherlands, Alexander Farnese had mustered 30,000 soldiers and ordered hundreds of flyboats built to carry them across the channel while awaiting the arrival of the Armada. Since the element of surprise was long gone, the new plan was to use the cover of the warships to convey the army on barges to a place near London. In all, 55,000 men were to have been mustered, a huge army for that time. On

21285-562: The Spanish army was soundly defeated at the Battle of Ceresole , in Savoy Henry fared better, and France was forced to accept terms. The Austrians, led by Charles's younger brother Ferdinand , continued to fight the Ottomans in the east. With France defeated, Charles went to take care of an older problem: the Schmalkaldic League. Perhaps more important to the strategy of the Spanish king, the League had allied itself with

21500-474: The Spanish gunners fired once and then transferred to their main task, which was to board enemy ships, as had been the practice in naval warfare at the time. Evidence from Armada wrecks in Ireland shows that much of the fleet's ammunition was unused. Their determination to fight by boarding, rather than employing cannon fire at a distance, proved a disadvantage for the Spanish. The manoeuver had been effective in

21715-469: The Spanish were forced to confront the newly declared king, Anacaparan, burning much of his capital while defeating him. In 1599, Malay Muslim merchants defeated and massacred almost the entire contingent of Spanish troops in Cambodia, putting an end to Spanish plans to conquer it. Another expedition, one to conquer Mindanao, was also lacking in success. In 1603, during a Chinese rebellion , Pérez Dasmariñas

21930-563: The Squadron of Andalusia) surrendered along with his entire crew. On board, the English seized supplies of much-needed gunpowder and 50,000 gold ducats . Drake had been guiding the English fleet by means of a lantern, which he snuffed out to slip away from the Spanish ships, causing the rest of his fleet to become scattered and disarrayed by dawn. At one point, Howard formed his ships into a line of battle to attack at close range, bringing all his guns to bear, but he did not follow through with

22145-601: The Three Henrys (1585–1589) Coutras ; Vimory ; Auneau ; Day of the Barricades Succession of Henry IV of France (1589–1594) Arques ; Ivry ; Paris ; Château-Laudran ; Rouen ; Caudebec ; Craon ; 1st Luxembourg ; Blaye ; Morlaix ; Fort Crozon Franco-Spanish War (1595–1598) 2nd Luxembourg ; Fontaine-Française ; Ham ; Le Catelet ; Doullens ; Cambrai ; Calais ; La Fère ; Ardres ; Amiens The French Wars of Religion were

22360-474: The Turks, based in Tripoli and Algiers , the bases from which North African (Muslim) forces under the corsair Dragut preyed upon Christian shipping. In 1560, a Spanish-led Christian fleet was sent to recapture Tripoli ( captured by Spain in 1510), but the fleet was destroyed by the Ottomans at the Battle of Djerba . The Ottomans attempted to seize the Spanish military-bases of Oran and Mers El Kébir on

22575-631: The United Provinces which became the Dutch Netherlands of today. Meanwhile, Spain sent Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma with 20,000 well-trained troops into the Netherlands. Groningen, Breda , Kampen , Dunkirk , Antwerp, and Brussels, among others, were put to siege. Farnese eventually secured the Southern provinces for Spain. After the Spanish capture of Maastricht in 1579, the Dutch began to turn on William of Orange. William

22790-498: The United Provinces. Philip had been forced to declare bankruptcy in 1557, 1560, 1576 and 1596. However, by regaining control of the sea, Spain was able to greatly increase the supply of gold and silver from America, which allowed it to increase military pressure on England and France. Under financial and military pressure, in 1598 Philip ceded the Spanish Netherlands to his daughter Isabella Clara Eugenia , following

23005-659: The aftermath of the plot, the term " Huguenot " for France's Protestants came into widespread usage. Shortly afterwards, the first instances of Protestant iconoclasm or the destruction of images and statues in Catholic churches, occurred in Rouen and La Rochelle . This continued throughout 1561 in more than 20 cities and towns, sparking attacks on Protestants by Catholic mobs in Sens , Cahors , Carcassonne , Tours and elsewhere. When Francis II died on 5 December 1560, his mother Catherine de' Medici became regent for her second son,

23220-474: The allies. With a massive effort, the Ottoman Empire rebuilt its navy. Within six months a new fleet was able to reassert Ottoman naval supremacy in the eastern Mediterranean . John captured Tunis (in present-day Tunisia ) from the Ottomans in 1573, but it was soon lost again . The Ottoman sultan agreed to a truce in the Mediterranean with Philip in 1580. In the western Mediterranean, Philip pursued

23435-522: The ascension of young Charles to both Spanish thrones as Charles I of Castile and Aragon , further solidifying the monarchy of Spain . His inheritance included all the Spanish possessions in the New World and around the Mediterranean. Upon the death of his Habsburg father in 1506, Charles had inherited the Habsburg Netherlands and Franche-Comté , growing up in Flanders. In 1519, with the death of his paternal grandfather Maximilian I , Charles inherited

23650-563: The authority of the Emperor. In 1543, Francis I , King of France, announced his unprecedented alliance with the Ottoman sultan, Suleiman the Magnificent , by occupying the Spanish-controlled city of Nice in cooperation with Turkish forces. Henry VIII of England, who bore a greater grudge against France than he held against the Emperor for standing in the way of his divorce, joined Charles in his invasion of France. Although

23865-499: The battles of Lepanto and Ponta Delgada earlier in the decade, but the English were aware of it and sought to avoid it by keeping their distance. While Medina Sidonia was gathering the Armada ships together into their traditional crescent formation the English fleet moved in, and at dawn the flagship with four other ships found themselves facing the entire English fleet. The English provoked Spanish fire while staying out of range. The English then closed, firing damaging broadsides into

24080-496: The celebrations that followed the treaty, Henry was killed by a stray splinter from a lance. France was stricken for the next forty years by civil war and unrest and was unable to effectively compete with Spain and the Habsburgs in the European power struggle. Freed from any serious French opposition, Spain saw the height of its might and territorial reach in the period 1559–1643. The Spanish Empire had grown substantially since

24295-715: The centuries long Spanish–Moro conflict against the Sultanates of Maguindanao , Lanao and Sulu. War was also waged against the Sultanate of Ternate and Tidore , in response to Ternatean slaving and piracy against Spain's allies: Bohol and Butuan . During the Spanish–Moro conflict, the Moros of Muslim Mindanao conducted piracy and slave-raids against Christian settlements in the Philippines. The Spanish fought back by establishing Christian fort-cities such as Zamboanga City on Muslim Mindanao. The Spanish considered their war with

24510-443: The city of Orléans to the siege, led Catherine de' Medici to mediate a truce, resulting in the Edict of Amboise on 19 March 1563. The Edict of Amboise was generally regarded as unsatisfactory by all concerned, and the Guise faction was particularly opposed to what they saw as dangerous concessions to heretics . The crown tried to re-unite the two factions in its efforts to re-capture Le Havre , which had been occupied by

24725-728: The colonization of the archipelago. In 1571, the Spanish, their Mexican recruits and their Filipino (Visayan) allies attacked and occupied Maynila , a vassal-state of the Sultanate of Brunei , and negotiated the incorporation of the Kingdom of Tondo which was liberated from the Bruneian Sultanate's control and of whom, their princess, Kandarapa , had a tragic romance with the Mexican-born Conquistador and grandson of Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, Juan de Salcedo . The combined Spanish-Mexican-Filipino forces also built

24940-472: The conclusion of the Treaty of Vervins with France. Under Philip II, royal power over the Indies increased, but the crown knew little about its overseas possessions. Although the Council of the Indies was tasked with oversight there, it acted without advice of high officials with direct colonial experience. Another serious problem was that the crown did not know what Spanish laws were in force there. To remedy

25155-511: The conflict escalated, the Crown revoked the Edict under pressure from the Guise faction. The major engagements of the war occurred at Rouen , Dreux , and Orléans . At the Siege of Rouen (May–October 1562), the crown regained the city, but Antoine of Navarre died of his wounds. In the Battle of Dreux (December 1562), Condé was captured by the crown, and the constable Montmorency

25370-478: The conversion to Calvinism of large sections of the nobility. Historians estimate that by the outbreak of war in 1562, there were around two million French Calvinists, including more than half of the nobility, backed by 1,200–1,250 churches. This constituted a substantial threat to the monarchy. The death of Henry II in July 1559 created a political vacuum and an internal struggle for power between rival factions, which

25585-612: The country until it was brutally put down in 1526. Charles, even as far away from Germany as he was, was committed to keeping order. After the Peasants' War the Protestants organized themselves into a defensive league to protect themselves from Emperor Charles. Under the protection of the Schmalkaldic League , the Protestant states committed a number of outrages in the eyes of the Catholic Church (the confiscation of some ecclesiastical territories, among other things) and defied

25800-519: The crown. Charles established the Council of the Indies in 1524 to oversee all of Castile's overseas possessions. Charles appointed a viceroy in Mexico in 1535, capping the royal governance of the high court, Real Audiencia , and treasury officials with the highest royal official. Officials were under the jurisdiction of the Council of the Indies. Charles promulgated the New Laws of 1542 to limit

26015-411: The day the Armada set sail, Elizabeth's ambassador in the Netherlands, Valentine Dale , met Parma's representatives in peace negotiations. The English made a vain effort to intercept the Armada in the Bay of Biscay . On 6 July, negotiations were abandoned, and the English fleet stood prepared, if ill-supplied, at Plymouth, awaiting news of Spanish movements. Only 122 ships from the Spanish fleet entered

26230-574: The days of Ferdinand and Isabella. The Aztec and Inca empires were conquered during Charles' reign, from 1519 to 1521 and 1540 to 1558, respectively. Spanish settlements were established in the New World: Mexico City , the most important colonial city established in 1524 to be the primary center of administration in the New World; Florida , colonized in the 1560s; Buenos Aires , established in 1536; and New Granada (modern Colombia , Ecuador , Panama and Venezuela ), colonized in

26445-670: The death in 1700 of Spain's last Habsburg king, Charles II, the resulting War of the Spanish Succession led to the ascension of Philip V of the Bourbon dynasty , which began a new centralising state formation, which came into being de jure after the Nueva Planta decrees that merged the multiple crowns of its former realms (except for Navarre ). In 1504, Isabella I of Castile died, and although Ferdinand II of Aragon tried to maintain his position over Castile in

26660-515: The door of his bedchamber. Having been severely criticised for his initial tolerance, he was now encouraged to punish those responsible. On 21 February 1535, a number of those implicated in the Affair were executed in front of Notre-Dame de Paris , an event attended by Francis and members of the Ottoman embassy to France . The fight against heresy intensified in the 1540s, forcing Protestants to worship in secret. In October 1545, Francis ordered

26875-621: The eastern coast of Spain did Charles personally lead attacks against holdings in North Africa (1535). In 1560, the Ottomans battled the Spanish Navy off the coast of Tunisia, but in 1565 Ottoman troops landing on the strategically vital island of Malta , defended by the Knights of St. John , were defeated. The death of Suleiman the Magnificent the following year and his succession by Selim II emboldened Philip, who resolved to carry

27090-410: The enemy ships, all the while maintaining a windward position, so the heeling Armada hulls were exposed to damage below the water line when they changed course later. Many of the Spanish gunners were killed or wounded by the English broadsides, and the task of manning the cannon often fell to foot soldiers who did not know how to operate them. The ships were close enough for sailors on the upper decks of

27305-443: The establishment of a Christianized Philippines attracted Chinese traders who exchanged their silk for Mexican silver . Indian and Malay traders also settled in the Philippines too, to trade their spices and gems for the same Mexican silver. The Philippines then became a center for Christian missionary activity that was also directed to Japan. The Philippines even accepted Christian converts from Japan after they were persecuted. Most of

27520-400: The family members, since they often emphasized their more prestigious princely titles. The dynasty was thus long known as the "House of Austria". Complementary, in some circumstances the family members were identified by their place of birth. Charles V was known in his youth after his birthplace as Charles of Ghent . When he became king of Spain he was known as Charles I of Spain, and after he

27735-423: The first day's fighting neither fleet had lost a ship in action. The English caught up with the Spanish fleet after a day of sailing. The English fleet and the Armada engaged once more on 1 August, off Portland . A change of wind gave the Spanish the weather gage , and they sought to close with the English, but were foiled by the smaller ships' greater manoeuvrability. While the Spanish center manoeuvred to support

27950-412: The first engagements and had, after the Isle of Wight, been forced to conserve their heavy shot and powder for an anticipated attack near Gravelines. During all the engagements, the Spanish heavy guns could not easily be reloaded because of their close spacing and the quantities of supplies stowed between decks, as Drake had discovered on capturing the Nuestra Señora del Rosario in the Channel. Instead,

28165-464: The first time to a wide audience. Cheap pamphlets and broadsides allowed theological and religious ideas to be disseminated at an unprecedented pace. In 1519, John Froben published a collection of works by Martin Luther and noted in his correspondence that 600 copies were being shipped to France and Spain and sold in Paris . In 1521, a group of reformers including Jacques Lefèvre and Guillaume Briçonnet , recently appointed bishop of Meaux , formed

28380-424: The following divisions, periodisations and locations: Both Kohn (2013) and Clodfelter (2017) followed the same counting and periodisation and noted that " War of the Three Henrys " was another name for the Eighth War of Religion, with Kohn adding "Lovers' War" as another name for the Seventh War. In her Michel de Montaigne biography (2014), Elizabeth Guild concurred with this chronology as well, except for dating

28595-399: The fringes of the Habsburg dominions in Austria and northwest Africa. In response Ferdinand and Isabella had sent expeditions to North Africa, capturing Melilla in 1497 and Oran in 1509. Charles had preferred to combat the Ottomans through a considerably more maritime strategy, hampering Ottoman landings on the Venetian territories in the Eastern Mediterranean . Only in response to raids on

28810-435: The government attempted to quell escalating disorder in the provinces by passing the Edict of Saint-Germain , which allowed Protestants to worship in public outside towns and in private inside them. On 1 March, Guise family retainers attacked a Calvinist service in Champagne , leading to what became known as the massacre of Vassy . This seemed to confirm Huguenot fears that the Guisards had no intention of compromising and

29025-454: The growth of true faith. The Italian revival of classical learning appealed to Francis I (1494-1547), who set up royal professorships in Paris to better understand ancient literature. However, this did not extend to religion, especially after the 1516 Concordat of Bologna when Pope Leo X increased royal control of the Gallican church , allowing Francis to nominate French clergy and levy taxes on church property. Unlike Germany,

29240-409: The head of a large army to restore order. In 1568, William of Orange , a German nobleman, led a failed attempt to drive Alba from the Netherlands. The Battle of Rheindalen is often seen as the unofficial start of the Eighty Years' War that led to the separation of the northern and southern Netherlands and to the formation of the United Provinces . The Spanish, who derived a great deal of wealth from

29455-430: The indigenous populations continued to be robust in the Philippines. One Spaniard described the climate as "cuatro meses de polvo, cuatro meses de lodo, y cuatro meses de todo" (four months of dust, four months of mud, and four months of everything). Legazpi built a fort in Manila and made overtures of friendship to Lakan Dula , Lakan of Tondo, who accepted. Maynila's former ruler, the Muslim rajah, Rajah Sulayman , who

29670-522: The invasion was also expected from English Catholics, including wealthy and influential aristocrats and traders. A raid on Cádiz , led by privateer Francis Drake in April 1587, had captured or destroyed about 30 ships and great quantities of supplies, setting preparations back by a year. There is also evidence that a letter from Elizabeth's security chief and spymaster, Sir Francis Walsingham , to her ambassador in Constantinople, William Harborne , sought to initiate Ottoman Empire fleet manoeuvres to harass

29885-452: The island of Alhucemas , in the Mediterranean, were taken. However, during the second half of the 17th century, Larache and La Mamora were also lost. Philip led Spain into the final phase of the Italian Wars , crushing a French army at the Battle of St. Quentin (1557) in Picardy and defeating the French again at the Battle of Gravelines . The Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis , signed in 1559, permanently recognized Spanish claims in Italy. France

30100-427: The king's sister. Albret was hesitant, worried it might lead to the abjuration of her son, and it took until March 1572 for the contract to be signed. Coligny , who had a price on his head during the third civil war, was restored to favour through the peace, and received lavishly at court in August 1571. He firmly believed that France should invade the Spanish Netherlands to unify the Catholics and Huguenots behind

30315-489: The king. Charles, however, was unwilling to provide more than covert support to this project, not wanting open war with Spain. The council was unanimous in rejecting Coligny's policy and he left court, not finding it welcoming. In August, the wedding was finally held, and all the most powerful Huguenot aristocracy had entered Paris for the occasion. A few days after the wedding, Coligny was shot on his way home from council. The outraged Huguenot nobility demanded justice which

30530-414: The kingdom between 1564 and 1566, designed to reinstate crown authority. During this time, Jeanne d'Albret met and held talks with Catherine at Mâcon and Nérac. Reports of iconoclasm in Flanders led Charles IX to lend support to the Catholics there; French Huguenots feared a Catholic re-mobilisation against them. Philip II of Spain 's reinforcement of the strategic corridor from Italy north along

30745-418: The latter policy would last until 1685, when Henry's grandson Louis XIV revoked the Edict of Nantes . Along with "French Wars of Religion" and "Huguenot Wars", the wars have also been variously described as the "Eight Wars of Religion", or simply the "Wars of Religion" (only within France). The exact number of wars and their respective dates are subject to continued debate by historians: some assert that

30960-412: The manoeuvre and little was achieved. During a lull in battle, San Salvador 's gunpowder magazine exploded, lighting a portion of the ship on fire. The Spanish attempted to scuttle the ship, but this failed when the Golden Hind came up. The Spanish evacuated the vessel and the Golden Hind promptly captured her. If the Armada could create a temporary base in the protected waters of the Solent ,

31175-405: The mid to late 15th century, France under Louis XI was the strongest power in western Europe. England still had possessions in what today is called Northern France, and Spain was under constant threat. Henry VII of England therefore formed a strategic relationship with Ferdinand II , of Spain. Whilst the threat from France remained, England & Spain enjoyed many decades of peace which included

31390-443: The most powerful man in Christendom . The accumulation of so much power by one man and one dynasty greatly concerned Francis I of France , who found himself surrounded by Habsburg territories. In 1521 Francis invaded the Spanish possessions in Italy and Navarre , which inaugurated a second round of Franco-Spanish conflict. The war was a disaster for France , which suffered defeats at Biccoca (1522), Pavia (1525, at which Francis

31605-425: The nine year old Charles IX . With the state financially exhausted by the Italian Wars, Catherine had to preserve the independence of the monarchy from a range of competing factions led by powerful nobles, each of whom controlled what were essentially private armies. To offset the Guise or "Guisard", she agreed a deal in which Antoine of Navarre renounced any claim to the regency in return for Condé's release and

31820-415: The planned campaign, but his message was prevented from reaching the King by courtiers on the grounds that God would ensure the Armada's success. Prior to the undertaking, Pope Sixtus V allowed Philip to collect crusade taxes and granted his men indulgences . The blessing of the Armada's banner on 25 April 1588, was similar to the ceremony used prior to the Battle of Lepanto in 1571. On 21 July 1588 (N.S),

32035-436: The position of Lieutenant-General of France. Catherine had several options for dealing with "heresy", including continuing Henry's II's failed policy of eradication, an approach backed by Catholic ultras such as François de Tournon , or converting the monarchy to Calvinism, as preferred by de Bèze. A middle path between these two extremes was allowing both religions to be openly practised in France at least temporarily, or

32250-406: The power of the Conquistadors to form a hereditary aristocracy that might challenge the power of the crown. Charles's victory at the Battle of Pavia (1525) surprised many Italians and Germans and elicited concerns that Charles would endeavor to gain even greater power. Pope Clement VII switched sides and now joined forces with France and prominent Italian states against the Habsburg Emperor, in

32465-401: The power of the Guise by abducting the young king. Their plans were discovered before being carried out and hundreds of suspected plotters executed, including du Barry. The Guise suspected Condé of involvement in the plot, and he was arrested and sentenced to death before being freed in the political chaos that followed the sudden death of Francis II, adding to the tensions of the period. In

32680-486: The power of the religious orders under control with the Ordenanza del Patronazgo , ordering friars to give up their Indian parishes and turn them over to the diocesan clergy, who were more closely controlled by the crown. The Spanish Inquisition expanded to the Indies in 1565 and was in place by 1570 in Lima and Mexico City. It drew many colonial Spaniards into torture chambers . Native Americans were exempt. The crown expanded its global claims and defended existing ones in

32895-468: The preparations for the expedition. On embarking on the expedition, Spain lacked maps or information to guide the King's decision to authorize the expedition. That realization subsequently led to the creation of reports from the various regions of the empire, the relaciones geográficas . The Philippines came under the jurisdiction of the viceroyalty of Mexico, and once the Manila Galleon sailings between Manila and Acapulco were established, Mexico became

33110-435: The previously peaceful southern provinces to join the rebellion. The Spanish chose the route of negotiation, and pacified most of the southern provinces again with the Union of Arras in 1579. The Arras agreement required all Spanish troops to leave the Netherlands. Meanwhile, Philip had his eye on uniting the entire Iberian Peninsula under his rule, a traditional objective of Spanish monarchs. The opportunity came in 1578 when

33325-430: The prior year. Since this was clearly unacceptable to Condé and his followers, Catherine bypassed the Estates and enacted conciliatory measures such as the Edict of 19 April 1561 and the Edict of July . This recognised Catholicism as the state religion but confirmed previous measures reducing penalties for "heresy". The Estates then approved the Colloquy of Poissy , which began its session on 8 September 1561, with

33540-426: The property of 'heretics' seizable by the crown. From his base in Geneva, Calvin provided leadership and organisational structures for the Reformed Church of France . Calvinism proved attractive to people from across the social hierarchy and occupational divides and was highly regionalised, with no coherent pattern of geographical spread. Despite persecution, their numbers and power increased markedly, driven by

33755-530: The punishment of Waldensians based in the south-eastern village of Mérindol . A long-standing Proto-Protestantism tradition dating back to the 13th century, the Waldensians had recently affiliated with the Reformed church and became increasingly militant in their activities. In what became known as the Massacre of Mérindol , Provençal troops killed numerous residents and destroyed another 22 to 28 nearby villages, while hundreds of men were forced to become Galley slaves . Francis I died on 31 March 1547 and

33970-416: The rebellious Republic of Florence . The Protestant Reformation had begun in Germany in 1517. Charles, through his position as Holy Roman Emperor, his important holdings along Germany's frontiers, and his close relationship with his Habsburg relatives in Austria, had a vested interest in maintaining the stability of the Holy Roman Empire . The German Peasants' War broke out in Germany in 1524 and ravaged

34185-404: The religious debate until the Affair of the Placards in October 1534, when Protestant radicals put up posters in Paris and other provincial towns that rejected the Catholic doctrine of the " Real presence of Christ in the Eucharist ". This allowed Protestantism to be clearly defined as heresy, while Francis was furious at the breach of security which had allowed one of the posters to be placed on

34400-417: The religious warfare in France after Henry II's death. In 1589, Henry III , the last of the House of Valois , died at the walls of Paris. His successor, Henry IV, the first king from the House of Bourbon , was a man of great ability, winning key victories against the Catholic League at Arques (1589) and Ivry (1590). Committed to stopping Henry from becoming king of France, the Spanish divided their army in

34615-450: The report he made to Farnese caused him distress. Medina Sedonia was under the impression that Farnese could simply sail out into the channel with his barges filled with troops. Parma had continually informed the king that his passage to the channel was blocked by English and Dutch ships, and the only way he could bring his boats out was if the Armada cleared the blockade. The fleet was sighted in England on 29 July (N.S), when it appeared off

34830-562: The rest of Iberia, although Spain continued to attempt to crush the revolt until 1668. The Council of Portugal was subsequently dissolved. French Wars of Religion Second; 1567–1568 Saint-Denis ; Chartres Third; 1568–1570 Jarnac ; La Roche-l'Abeille ; Poitiers ; Orthez ; Moncontour ; Saint-Jean d'Angély ; Arney-le-Duc Fourth; 1572–1573 Mons ; Sommières ; Sancerre ; La Rochelle Fifth; 1574–1576 Dormans Sixth; 1577 La Charité-sur-Loire ; Issoire ; Brouage Seventh; 1580 La Fère War of

35045-407: The rising southwesterly wind to recover its position. The English closed in for battle. Farnese learned of this the following day. The small port of Gravelines was part of Flanders in the Spanish Netherlands close to the border with France, and was the closest Spanish territory to England. Before dawn on 8 August, Medina Sidonia struggled to regather his fleet after the fireships scattered it, and

35260-410: The ruling Sultan. Seri Lela's daughter, the Bruneian princess, left with the Spanish and went on to marry a Christian Tagalog , named Agustín de Legazpi of Tondo, and had children in the Philippines. In 1587, Magat Salamat , one of the children of Lakan Dula, along with Lakan Dula's nephew and lords of the neighboring areas of Tondo, Pandacan, Marikina, Candaba, Navotas and Bulacan, were executed when

35475-471: The same monarch. As a result of the Iberian Union , Phillip II's enemies became Portugal's enemies, such as the Dutch in the Dutch–Portuguese War , England or France . War with the Dutch led to invasions of many countries in Asia, including Ceylon and commercial interests in Japan, Africa ( Mina ), and South America. During the reign of Philip IV (Philip III of Portugal) in 1640, the Portuguese revolted and fought successfully for their independence from

35690-421: The second war and its main military engagement, the Battle of Saint-Denis , where the crown's commander-in-chief and lieutenant general, the 74-year-old Anne de Montmorency, died. The war was brief, ending in another truce, the Peace of Longjumeau (March 1568), which was a reiteration of the Peace of Amboise of 1563 and once again granted significant religious freedoms and privileges to Protestants. News of

35905-433: The shallow waters off Zeeland and Flanders where larger warships with a deeper draught, like the Spanish and English galleons, could not safely enter. Parma expected the Armada to send its light pataches to drive away the Dutch, but Medina Sidonia would not send them because he feared he would need these ships for his own protection. There was no deep-water port where the fleet might shelter, which had been acknowledged as

36120-401: The side of the Catholic League , winning battles, but failing to prevent Henry of Navarre from becoming king as Henry IV. To Spain's dismay, Pope Clement VIII accepted Henry into the Catholic Church. To keep the Netherlands under control required an extensive occupation force, and Spain was still financially strapped since the 1576 bankruptcy. In 1584, William the Silent was assassinated by

36335-401: The situation, Philip appointed Juan de Ovando, who was named president of the council, to give advice. Ovando appointed a "chronicler and cosmographer of the Indies", Juan López de Velasco, to gather information about the crown's holdings, which resulted in the Relaciones geográficas in the 1580s. The crown sought greater control over encomenderos, who had attempted to establish themselves as

36550-458: The soldiers and settlers sent by the Spanish to the Philippines were either from Mexico or Peru and very little people directly came from Spain. At one point, the royal officials in Manila complained that most of the soldiers who were being sent from New Spain were black, mulatto or Native American, with almost no Spaniards among the contingents. In 1578, the Castilian War erupted between the Christian Spaniards and Muslim Bruneians over control of

36765-442: The sources of spices continued to be a necessity with the Ottomans still controlled major choke points in central Asia. It was unclear how the agreement between Spain and Portugal dividing the Atlantic world affected finds on the other side of the Pacific. Spain had ceded its rights to the "Spice Islands" to Portugal in the Treaty of Saragossa in 1529, but the appellation was vague as was their exact delineation. The Legazpi expedition

36980-513: The sovereignty of Philip II of Spain and his successors after the Spanish victory in the War of Portuguese Succession . In 1580, King Philip saw the opportunity to strengthen his position in Iberia when the last member of the Portuguese royal family , Henry, King of Portugal , died. Philip asserted his claim to the Portuguese throne and in June sent Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba with an army to Lisbon to assure his succession. Philip famously remarked upon his acquisition of

37195-480: The stake , earning her the nickname "Bloody Mary". Philip now persuaded Mary to enter into a disastrous war against France. England landed forces in the Low Countries and with the failing support of Spain, won the Battle of St. Quentin . Though this brought victory for Spain, England had neglected her French defenses, and France took English Calais in the Siege of Calais (1558) . Thus England lost her last possession in France, which she had held for over 500 years. This

37410-417: The strait separating the Isle of Wight from the English mainland, it could wait there for word from Parma's army; Farnese did not get news of this until 6 August. However, in a full-scale attack, the English fleet broke into four groups with Martin Frobisher of the ship Aid given command over a squadron, and Drake coming with a large force from the south. Medina Sidonia sent reinforcements south and ordered

37625-425: The struggle against France and the Republic of Venice for control of Italy. These conflicts became the center of Ferdinand's foreign policy as king. Ferdinand's first investment of Spanish forces came in the War of the League of Cambrai against Venice, where the Spanish soldiers distinguished themselves on the field alongside their French allies at the Battle of Agnadello (1509). Only a year later, Ferdinand joined

37840-536: The tenets behind Lutheranism first appeared in Luther's lectures, which in turn contained many of the ideas expressed in the works of Lefèvre. Other members of the Circle included Marguerite de Navarre , sister of Francis I and mother of Jeanne d'Albret , as well as Guillaume Farel , who was exiled to Geneva in 1530 due to his reformist views and persuaded John Calvin to join him there. Both men were banished from Geneva in 1538 for opposing what they viewed as government interference with religious affairs; although

38055-435: The title of King of Portugal, but otherwise the country remained autonomous, retaining its own laws, currency, and institutions. However, Portugal surrendered all independence in foreign policy, and relations between the two countries were never warm. France formed the cornerstone of Spanish foreign policy. For 30 years after Cateau-Cambrésis, it was engulfed in civil war. After 1590, the Spanish intervened directly in France on

38270-505: The truce reached Toulouse in April, but such was the antagonism between the two sides that 6,000 Catholics continued their siege of Puylaurens , a notorious Protestant stronghold in the Lauragais , for another week. In reaction to the Peace, Catholic confraternities and leagues sprang up across the country in defiance of the law throughout the summer of 1568. Huguenot leaders such as Condé and Coligny fled court in fear for their lives, many of their followers were murdered, and in September,

38485-476: The turn to violence as a response of the peasant class. The murder of the baron of Château de Fumel  [ fr ] by a Protestant mob in 1561 is often cited as an example. Recent analyses, on the other hand, have turned the focus on religious explanations. Denis Crouzet fingers the fiery eschatological preaching of the Franciscan Thomas Illyricus , who toured the region in the 1510s and 1520s. Stuart Carroll, however, argues for politicization: "the violence

38700-468: The two fell out over the nature of the Eucharist , Calvin's return to Geneva in 1541 allowed him to forge the doctrine of Calvinism . A key driver behind the Reform movement was corruption among the clergy which Luther and others attacked and sought to change. Such criticisms were not new but the printing press allowed them to be widely shared, such as the Heptameron by Marguerite, a collection of stories about clerical immorality. Another complaint

38915-409: The vital port of Antwerp , were committed to restoring order and maintaining their hold on the provinces. In 1572, a band of rebel Dutch privateers known as the watergeuzen ("Sea Beggars") seized a number of Dutch coastal towns, proclaimed their support for William and denounced the Spanish leadership. In 1574, the Spanish army under Luis de Requeséns was repulsed from the Siege of Leiden after

39130-411: The wake of her death, the Castilian Cortes Generales (the parliament) chose to crown Isabella's daughter Joanna of Castile as queen. Her husband, Philip I of Castile , was the Habsburg son of Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor and Mary of Burgundy . Shortly thereafter Joanna began to lapse into insanity, although the extent of her mental illness remains the topic of some debate. In 1506, Philip I

39345-419: The war to the Ottoman homelands. In 1571, a mixed naval expedition of Spanish, Venetian, and Papal ships led by Charles' illegitimate son Don John of Austria annihilated the Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Lepanto , in the largest naval battle fought in European waters since Actium in 31 BC. The fleet included Miguel de Cervantes , future author of the historic Spanish novel Don Quixote . The victory curbed

39560-463: The war to the Sultan himself. In 1571, a Christian fleet, led by Philip's half-brother John of Austria , annihilated the Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Lepanto in the waters off southwestern Greece. Despite the significant victory, however, the Holy League 's disunity prevented the victors from capitalizing on their triumph. Plans to seize the Dardanelles as a step towards recovering Constantinople for Christendom, were ruined by bickering amongst

39775-420: The wind changed, allowing it to escape into the North Sea . Pursued by the English, the Spanish ships returned home via Scotland and Ireland . Up to 24 ships were wrecked along the way before the rest managed to get home. Among the factors contributing to the defeat and withdrawal of the Armada were bad weather conditions and the better employment of naval guns and battle tactics by the English. The expedition

39990-399: Was a Spanish fleet that sailed from Lisbon in late May 1588, commanded by Alonso de Guzmán, Duke of Medina Sidonia , an aristocrat without previous naval experience appointed by Philip II of Spain . His orders were to sail up the English Channel , join with the Duke of Parma in Flanders , and escort an invasion force that would land in England and overthrow Elizabeth I . Its purpose

40205-429: Was a vassal to the Sultan of Brunei, refused to submit to Legazpi but failed to get the support of Lakan Dula or of the Pampangan and Pangasinan settlements to the north. When Tarik Sulayman and a force of Kapampangan and Tagalog Muslim warriors attacked the Spaniards in the Battle of Bangkusay , he was finally defeated and killed. The Spanish also repelled an attack by Chinese pirate warlord Limahong . Simultaneously,

40420-457: Was assassinated by a supporter of Philip in 1584. After the Fall of Antwerp , the Queen of England began to aid the Northern provinces and sent troops there in 1585. English forces under Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester and then Peregrine Bertie, 13th Baron Willoughby de Eresby , faced the Spanish in the Netherlands under Farnese in a series of largely indecisive actions that tied down significant numbers of Spanish troops and bought time for

40635-407: Was beheaded, and his head was mounted in Manila along with those of several other Spanish soldiers. Despite the fact that during the Iberian Union a certain degree of autonomy and the cultural identity of Portugal was maintained, many historians agree that the dynastic union was in fact a Spanish conquest by keeping Portugal and the Portuguese Empire as part of the Spanish colonial empire under

40850-422: Was called the Enterprise of England was in the summer of 1583 when, flushed with pride of his victory in the Azores, Álvaro de Bazán, Marquis of Santa Cruz addressed the suggestion to Philip II of taking advantage of it to attack England. Elizabeth finally had Mary executed in February 1587, due to constant plots against the queen carried out in Mary's name. Elizabeth also retaliated against Philip by supporting

41065-401: Was captured by those opposing the crown. In February 1563, at the Siege of Orléans, Francis, Duke of Guise , was shot and killed by the Huguenot Jean de Poltrot de Méré . As he was killed outside of direct combat, the Guise considered this an assassination on the orders of the duke's enemy, Admiral Coligny . The popular unrest caused by the assassination, coupled with the resistance by

41280-464: Was captured), and Landriano (1529) before Francis relented and abandoned Milan to Spain once more. Spain's overseas possessions in the New World were based in the Caribbean and the Spanish Main and consisted of a rapidly decreasing indigenous population, few resources of value to the crown, and a sparse Spanish settler population. The situation changed dramatically with the expedition of Hernán Cortés , who, with alliances with city-states hostile to

41495-418: Was declared jure uxoris king, but he died later that year under mysterious circumstances, possibly poisoned by his father-in-law, Ferdinand II. Since their oldest son Charles was only six, the Cortes reluctantly allowed Joanna's father Ferdinand II to rule the country as the regent of Queen Joanna and Charles. Spain was now in personal union under Ferdinand II of Aragon . As undisputed ruler in most of

41710-474: Was directly caused by politicized factions and was not the result of a spontaneous intercommunal eruption." Although the Huguenots had begun mobilising for war before the Vassy massacre , many claimed that the massacre confirmed claims that they could not rely on the Edict of Saint Germain . In response, a group of nobles led by Condé proclaimed their intention of "liberating" the king from "evil" councillors and seized Orléans on 2 April 1562. This example

41925-474: Was elected emperor, as Charles V (in French, Charles Quint ). In Spain, the dynasty was known as the Casa de Austria , including illegitimate sons such as John of Austria and John Joseph of Austria . The arms displayed in their simplest form were those of Austria, which the Habsburgs had made their own, at times impaled with the arms of the Duchy of Burgundy (ancient), as seen on the arms of John of Austria. Calling this era "Habsburg", is, to some extent,

42140-445: Was forced to run aground at Calais to avoid sinking. On sight of this, Howard ordered a flotilla of ship's boats to carry her by boarding. Moncada was killed during an exchange of small arms fire, a shot to his head from an arquebus. The ship was then taken after murderous fighting between the crew, galley slaves and the English. The French meanwhile could do little except to watch as the ship was plundered, but they opened fire to ward off

42355-504: Was forced, for the first of many times, to declare a sovereign default , requiring it to partially repudiate its debt through consolidation and conversion . The Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis in 1559 concluded the war with France, leaving Spain at a considerable advantage. However, the government was still mired in debt, and declared bankruptcy that year. Most of the government's revenues came from taxes and excise duties, not imported silver and other goods. The Ottoman Empire had long menaced

42570-423: Was likely influenced in the matter by Sir Francis Walsingham . The Catholics were commanded by the Duke d'Anjou  – later King Henry III – and assisted by troops from Spain, the Papal States , and the Grand Duchy of Tuscany . The Protestant army laid siege to several cities in the Poitou and Saintonge regions (to protect La Rochelle ), and then Angoulême and Cognac . At

42785-487: Was not yet at peace, as the aggressive Henry II of France came to the throne in 1547 and renewed the conflict between the two countries four years later. Charles' successor, Philip II, aggressively conducted the war against France, crushing a French army at the Battle of St. Quentin in Picardy in 1557 and defeating Henry again at the Battle of Gravelines the following year. The Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis , signed in 1559, permanently recognized Spanish claims in Italy. In

43000-430: Was one of many, which also included action in Mindanao and Sulu . The Spanish succeeded in invading the capital on 16 April 1578, with the help of Pengiran Seri Lela and Pengiran Seri Ratna. Sultan Saiful Rijal and Paduka Seri Begawan Sultan Abdul Kahar were forced to flee to Meragang then to Jerudong . In Jerudong, they made plans to chase the conquering army away from Brunei. The Spanish suffered heavy losses due to

43215-403: Was ordered by King Philip II, after whom the Philippines had earlier been named by Ruy López de Villalobos, when Philip was heir to the throne. The King stated that "the main purpose of this expedition is to establish the return route from the western isles, since it is already known that the route to them is fairly short." The Viceroy died in July 1564, but the Audiencia and de Legazpi completed

43430-474: Was proclaimed King Henry IV of France and issued the Edict of Nantes , which granted substantial rights and freedoms to the Huguenots. However, Catholics continued to disapprove of Protestants and of Henry, and his assassination in 1610 triggered a fresh round of Huguenot rebellions in the 1620s. Tensions between the two religions had been building since the 1530s, exacerbating existing regional divisions. The death of Henry II of France in July 1559 initiated

43645-605: Was quickly followed by Protestant groups around France, who seized and garrisoned Angers , Blois and Tours along the Loire and assaulted Valence in the Rhône River . After capturing Lyon on 30 April, the attackers first sacked, then demolished all Catholic institutions in the city. Hoping to turn Toulouse over to Condé, local Huguenots seized the Hôtel de ville but met resistance from angry Catholic mobs which resulted in street battles and over 3,000 deaths, mostly Huguenots. On 12 April 1562, there were massacres of Huguenots at Sens, as well as at Tours in July. As

43860-459: Was reinforced by a squadron under Lord Edward Seymour and William Wynter , which had been stationed in the Downs as a reinforcement for the Dutch should Parma make any independent move. His arrival gave Howard a total of 140 ships. He also received a small amount of powder and shot, which the Earl of Sussex had collected from fortresses and garrisons on the South Coast, and some victuals. The wind and currents were favourable for an attempt to break

44075-447: Was reluctant to sail further east than Gravelines, knowing the danger of running aground on the shoals off Flanders, from which his Dutch enemies had removed the sea marks . The English learned of the Armada's weaknesses during the skirmishes in the English Channel, and concluded it was possible to close in to within 100 yards (90 m) to be able to penetrate the oak hulls of the Spanish warships. They had spent most of their gunpowder in

44290-408: Was sinking and ran aground on the island of Walcheren . The English troops sortied from Flushing to the wreck, attacked the stricken vessel, and took the crew prisoners. A Dutch force of flyboats led by Justinus van Nassau then took possession of the ship. A pinnace was also run aground by her crew to prevent her from sinking. Habsburg Spain The Habsburg name was not continuously used by

44505-429: Was stricken for the next thirty years by chronic civil war and unrest. During this period, it was removed from effectively competing with Spain and the Habsburg family in European power games. Freed from effective French opposition, Spain attained the apogee of its might and territorial reach in the period 1559–1643. In 1566, Calvinist -led riots in the Netherlands prompted the Duke of Alba to march into Brussels at

44720-443: Was subsequently appointed viceroy to replace Toledo in Peru. In Peru, after decades of political unrest, with ineffective viceroys and encomenderos wielding undue power, weak royal institutions, a renegade Neo-Inca State existing in Vilcabamba , and waning revenue from the Cerro Rico silver mine of Potosí , Toledo's appointment was a major step forward for royal control. He built on reforms attempted under earlier viceroys, but he

44935-400: Was succeeded by his son Henry II , who continued the religious repression pursued by his father in the last years of his reign. His policies were even more severe since he sincerely believed all Protestants were heretics; on 27 June 1551, the Edict of Châteaubriant sharply curtailed their right to worship. Prohibitions were placed upon the distribution of 'heretical' literature, with

45150-405: Was the largest engagement of the undeclared Anglo-Spanish War . The following year, England organized a similar large-scale campaign against Spain, known as the " English Armada ", and sometimes called the "counter-Armada of 1589", which failed. Three further Spanish armadas were sent against England and Ireland in 1596 , 1597 , and 1601 , but these likewise ended in failure. The word armada

45365-410: Was the reduction of Salvation to a business scheme based on the sale of Indulgences , which added to general unrest and increased the popularity of works such as Farel's translation of the Lord's Prayer, The True and Perfect Prayer . This focused on Sola fide , or the idea salvation was a free gift from God, emphasised the importance of understanding in prayer and criticised the clergy for hampering

45580-441: Was the transportation of a large part of Parma's Army of Flanders as the main invasion force in unarmed barges across the English Channel. These barges would be protected by the large ships of the Armada. However, to get to the Armada, they would have to cross the zone dominated by the Dutch navy, where the Armada could not go due to the ongoing Eighty Years' War with the Dutch Republic. This problem seems to have been overlooked by

45795-439: Was to reinstate Catholicism in England, end support for the Dutch Republic , and prevent attacks by English and Dutch privateers against Spanish interests in the Americas . The Spanish were opposed by an English fleet based in Plymouth . Faster and more maneuverable than the larger Spanish galleons , its ships were able to attack the Armada as it sailed up the Channel. Several subordinates advised Medina Sidonia to anchor in

46010-596: Was undoubtedly a huge blow to Mary's prestige, who is reported as stating "When I am dead and opened, you shall find 'Calais' lying in my heart." England's wealth further suffered, not just from the cost of the war, but also from the reduced revenues from Alum and the Antwerp Cloth Trade, caused by the loss of the port. The Kingdom of Spain had strengthened its hold on the Low Countries, weakening France with no cost to itself, but at great cost to England. Just before Mary's death, Philip and Elizabeth looked to come to an alliance & settlement, between England & Spain, and there

46225-539: Was widespread within the French commercial class, the rapid growth of Calvinism was driven by the nobility. It is believed to have started when Condé passed through Geneva while returning home from a military campaign and heard a Calvinist sermon. Jeanne d'Albret, Queen of Navarre, converted to Calvinism in 1560, possibly due to the influence of Theodore de Beze . Along with Condé and her husband Antoine of Navarre , she and their son Henry of Navarre became Huguenot leaders. The crown continued efforts to remain neutral in

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