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113-470: The name Armorica is a Latinized form of the Gaulish toponym Aremorica , which literally means 'place in front of the sea'. It is formed with the prefix are - ('in front of') attached to - mori - ('sea') and the feminine suffix -(i)cā , denoting the localization (or provenance). The inhabitants of the region were called Aremorici ( sing. Aremoricos ), formed with the stem are-mori - extended by

226-682: A "ten-night festival of ( Apollo ) Grannus ", decamnoctiacis Granni , is mentioned in a Latin inscription from Limoges . A similar formation is to be found in the Coligny calendar, in which mention is made of a trinox[...] Samoni "three-night (festival?) of (the month of) Samonios". As is to be expected, the ancient Gaulish language was more similar to Latin than modern Celtic languages are to modern Romance languages. The ordinal numerals in Latin are prīmus / prior , secundus / alter (the first form when more than two objects are counted,

339-405: A Christchurch-based merchant, John E. Holloway – extracted many more ironstone boulders through quarrying. Holloway brought coal from Southampton , and took the ironstone as ballast for the return journey. These boulders, known as Iron Doggers, were prized for their high quantity of iron ore (up to 30%). They form the base of Hengistbury Head, and the removal of a substantial amount of doggers over

452-758: A composite model, in which the Continental and Insular varieties are seen as part of a dialect continuum , with genealogical splits and areal innovations intersecting. Though Gaulish personal names written by Gauls in Greek script are attested from the region surrounding Massalia by the 3rd century BC, the first true inscriptions in Gaulish appeared in the 2nd century BC. At least 13 references to Gaulish speech and Gaulish writing can be found in Greek and Latin writers of antiquity. The word "Gaulish" ( gallicum ) as

565-612: A final site in a small chain of fortified earthworks, starting from Hambledon Hill , and also including Hod Hill , Spetisbury Rings, Buzbury Rings , Badbury Rings and Dudsbury Camp . John Lavender of the local Red House Museum noted evidence of small iron-ore smelting hearths on Warren Hill , while green vitreous slag has been also found on the Head. In his 1911 to 1912 excavations, Bushe-Fox found evidence for working of lead, copper and silver; two ingots discovered at this time revealed that raw materials would have been imported to

678-572: A group of women (often thought to be a rival group of witches), but the exact meaning of the text remains unclear. The Coligny calendar was found in 1897 in Coligny , France, with a statue identified as Mars . The calendar contains Gaulish words but Roman numerals, permitting translations such as lat evidently meaning days, and mid month. Months of 30 days were marked matus , "lucky", months of 29 days anmatus , "unlucky", based on comparison with Middle Welsh mad and anfad , but

791-569: A language term is first explicitly used in the Appendix Vergiliana in a poem referring to Gaulish letters of the alphabet. Julius Caesar says in his Commentarii de Bello Gallico of 58 BC that the Celts/Gauls and their language are separated from the neighboring Aquitani and Belgae by the rivers Garonne and Seine / Marne , respectively. Caesar relates that census accounts written in Greek script were found among

904-655: A late survival in Armorica and language contact of some form with the ascendant Breton language ; however, it has been noted that there is little uncontroversial evidence supporting a relatively late survival specifically in Brittany whereas there is uncontroversial evidence that supports the relatively late survival of Gaulish in the Swiss Alps and in regions in Central Gaul. Drawing from these data, which include

1017-572: A legal or magical-religious nature, the three longest being the Larzac tablet , the Chamalières tablet and the Lezoux dish . The most famous Gaulish record is the Coligny calendar , a fragmented bronze tablet dating from the 2nd century AD and providing the names of Celtic months over a five-year span; it is a lunisolar calendar trying to synchronize the solar year and the lunar month by inserting

1130-564: A manner suggesting it was scrap; a different site produced a streaked touchstone indicating use in gold testing. Thousands of bronze coins have been found from the pre-Roman period, the vast majority having been struck by the Durotriges . The abundance of coins, together with various hearths and smelting artefacts found within a close proximity suggest that the Durotrigan finds were minted here. The advanced level of metallurgy in

1243-431: A powered aircraft. There were a number of development schemes for the head including a major railway and docks scheme proposed in 1885, proposals for housing and a golf course were also put forward before World War I , though none of these schemes came to fruition. In 1919 the head was sold by Sir George Meyrick to Harry Gordon Selfridge with plans to construct a grand house. These plans also came to nothing, apart from

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1356-488: A scheme to improve the harbour. In 1693 a channel was cut out to sea, whilst ironstone boulders from the head were used to create a pier. The plans proved ineffective; the pier was poorly positioned and subsequent storms (including the Great Storm of 1703 ) soon undid most of the work although parts of the pier known as "Clarendon's Jetty" or the "Long Rocks" are still visible today. Many tons may have been removed from

1469-431: A special purpose, such as an imperative, emphasis, contrast, and so on. Also, the verb may contain or be next to an enclitic pronoun or with "and", "but", etc. According to J. F. Eska, Gaulish was certainly not a verb-second language, as the following shows: Whenever there is a pronoun object element, it is next to the verb, as per Vendryes' Restriction . The general Celtic grammar shows Wackernagel's rule , so putting

1582-484: A spoof article in the British The Independent newspaper on April Fool's Day in 1993. The opening chapter of Finnegans Wake by James Joyce also refers to North Armorica. 48°10′00″N 1°00′00″W  /  48.1667°N 1.0000°W  / 48.1667; -1.0000 Gaulish Gaulish is an extinct Celtic language spoken in parts of Continental Europe before and during

1695-621: A stop + s became ss , and a nasal + velar became ŋ + velar. The lenis plosives seem to have been voiceless, unlike in Latin, which distinguished lenis occlusives with a voiced realization from fortis occlusives with a voiceless realization, which caused confusions like Glanum for Clanum , vergobretos for vercobreto , Britannia for Pritannia . The alphabet of Lugano used in Cisalpine Gaul for Lepontic: The alphabet of Lugano does not distinguish voicing in stops: P represents /b/ or /p/ , T

1808-676: A thirteenth month every two and a half years. There is also a longish (11 lines) inscribed tile from Châteaubleau that has been interpreted as a curse or alternatively as a sort of wedding proposal. Many inscriptions are only a few words (often names) in rote phrases, and many are fragmentary. It is clear from the subject matter of the records that the language was in use at all levels of society. Other sources contribute to knowledge of Gaulish: Greek and Latin authors mention Gaulish words, personal and tribal names, and toponyms . A short Gaulish-Latin vocabulary (about 20 entries headed De nominib[us] Gallicis ) called " Endlicher's Glossary "

1921-487: A threat to the site, although long-term projects are intended to secure it for the future. Hengistbury Head is a sandstone headland attached to Southbourne , which is a suburb of the town of Bournemouth to the west; the nearest major settlement is Christchurch to the north. It is the most easterly part of the Borough of Bournemouth , and marks the most easterly point of Poole Bay . Historically part of Hampshire ,

2034-445: A wildlife garden. Energy-saving features include photovoltaic panels for electricity and ground source heat pump for heating. A green roof (a living roof that is partially or completely covered with vegetation and a growing medium), is used to absorb rainfall and provide insulation. The centre is constructed using timber-frame walls insulated with straw bales . According to Ian West of Southampton University , "Hengistbury Head

2147-490: Is war vor (Welsh ar fôr , "f" being voiced and pronounced like English "v"), but the older form arvor is used to refer to the coastal regions of Brittany, in contrast to argoad ( ar "on/at", coad "forest" [Welsh ar goed or coed "trees"]) for the inland regions. The cognate modern usages suggest that the Romans first contacted coastal people in the inland region and assumed that the regional name Aremorica referred to

2260-684: Is by the sea. Pliny lists the following Celtic tribes as living in the area: the Aedui and Carnuteni as having treaties with Rome ; the Meldi and Secusiani as having some measure of independence; and the Boii , Senones , Aulerci (both the Eburovices and Cenomani ), the Parisii , Tricasses , Andicavi , Viducasses , Bodiocasses , Veneti , Coriosvelites , Diablinti , Rhedones , Turones , and

2373-410: Is contiguous with the reed beds of Wick Fields . The Head contains a large variety of habitats from the heathland on Warren Hill to freshwater ponds, sand dunes , and salt marshes . The woodland (known as Withybed Wood ) is home to English oak and silver birch amongst many other trees, and is of particular interest, as it is the only such area to be shown on an 1811 Ordnance Survey map of

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2486-419: Is evidently an account or a calculation and contains quite different ordinals: Other Gaulish numerals attested in Latin inscriptions include * petrudecametos "fourteenth" (rendered as petrudecameto , with Latinized dative-ablative singular ending) and * triconts "thirty" (rendered as tricontis , with a Latinized ablative plural ending; compare Irish tríocha ). A Latinized phrase for

2599-565: Is for /d/ or /t/ , K for /g/ or /k/ . Z is probably for /t / . U /u/ and V /w/ are distinguished in only one early inscription. Θ is probably for /t/ and X for /g/ (Lejeune 1971, Solinas 1985). The Eastern Greek alphabet used in southern Gallia Narbonensis . Latin alphabet (monumental and cursive) in use in Roman Gaul : G and K are sometimes used interchangeably (especially after R). Ꟈ / ꟈ , ds and s may represent /ts/ and/or /dz/ . X, x

2712-412: Is for [x] or /ks/ . Q is only used rarely ( Sequanni, Equos ) and may represent an archaism (a retained *k ), borrowings from Latin, or, as in Latin, an alternate spelling of -cu- (for original /kuu/ , /kou/ , or /kom-u/ ). Ꟈ is the letter tau gallicum , the Gaulish affricate. The letter ꟉꟉ / ꟊꟊ occurs in some inscriptions. Gaulish had some areal (and genetic, see Indo-European and

2825-445: Is found on Isaac Taylor's 1759 map of Hampshire. In 1779, the antiquary Francis Grose mistakenly speculates in a letter to the amateur scientist Gustavus Brander , who resided at Christchurch, that the headland might be named after the legendary Jutish leader Hengist . During the period of what archaeologist Barry Cunliffe calls "antiquarian romanticism", many prehistoric sites were renamed to link them with historical figures. It

2938-542: Is not a verb-final language, it is not surprising to find other "head-initial" features: Hengistbury Head Hengistbury Head ( / ˈ h ɛ ŋ ɡ ɪ s t b ər i / ), formerly also called Christchurch Head, is a headland jutting into the English Channel between Bournemouth and Mudeford in the English county of Dorset . It is a site of international importance in terms of its archaeology and

3051-572: Is preserved in a 9th-century manuscript (Öst. Nationalbibliothek, MS 89 fol. 189v). French now has about 150 to 180 known words of Gaulish origin , most of which concern pastoral or daily activity. If dialectal and derived words are included, the total is about 400 words. This is the highest number among the Romance languages . Gaulish inscriptions are edited in the Recueil des inscriptions gauloises (RIG), in four volumes, comprising text (in

3164-478: Is scheduled as an Ancient Monument . Declared a Local Nature Reserve in 1990, the head and its surroundings form part of the Christchurch Harbour Site of Special Scientific Interest . It is also a Special Area of Conservation , Special Protection Area , an Environmentally Sensitive Area and a Site of Nature Conservation Interest . The name "Hengistbury Head" refers to the whole of

3277-607: Is the best part of the Bournemouth coast for geology and geomorphology  .... [and] is geologically important for the unusual nodules of sideritic ironstone [found] in Middle Eocene strata ." The exposed and relatively untouched cliff face at the head perfectly lends itself to students of stratigraphy . Warren Hill itself is composed of Tertiary Bracklesham Beds , a mixture of clays and marls with overlying sandy and lignitic beds . One serious threat to

3390-507: The Atseui . Trade between Armorica and Britain, described by Diodorus Siculus and implied by Pliny was long-established. Because, even after the campaign of Publius Crassus in 56 BC, continued resistance to Roman rule in Armorica was still being supported by Celtic aristocrats in Britain . Julius Caesar led two invasions of Britain, in 55 BC, and again in 54 BC, in response. Some hint of

3503-603: The Balkans and Anatolia . Their precise linguistic relationships are uncertain due to fragmentary evidence. The Gaulish varieties of central and eastern Europe and of Anatolia (called Noric and Galatian , respectively) are barely attested, but from what little is known of them it appears that they were quite similar to those of Gaul and can be considered dialects of a single language. Among those regions where substantial inscriptional evidence exists, three varieties are usually distinguished. The relationship between Gaulish and

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3616-701: The Celtiberian spoken in the Iberian Peninsula , Gaulish is a member of the geographic group of Continental Celtic languages . The precise linguistic relationships among them, as well as between them and the modern Insular Celtic languages , are uncertain and a matter of ongoing debate because of their sparse attestation . Gaulish is found in some 800 (often fragmentary) inscriptions including calendars, pottery accounts, funeral monuments, short dedications to gods, coin inscriptions, statements of ownership, and other texts, possibly curse tablets . Gaulish

3729-614: The English language , through the influence of Old French . It is estimated that during the Bronze Age , Proto-Celtic started splitting into distinct languages, including Celtiberian and Gaulish. Due to the expansion of Celtic tribes in the 4th and 3rd centuries BC, closely related forms of Celtic came to be spoken in a vast arc extending from Britain and France through the Alpine region and Pannonia in central Europe, and into parts of

3842-641: The Helvetii . He also notes that as of 53 BC the Gaulish druids used the Greek alphabet for private and public transactions, with the important exception of druidic doctrines, which could only be memorised and were not allowed to be written down. According to the Recueil des inscriptions gauloises nearly three quarters of Gaulish inscriptions (disregarding coins) are in the Greek alphabet. Later inscriptions dating to Roman Gaul are mostly in Latin alphabet and have been found principally in central France. Latin

3955-625: The La Tène period, was found in Port , near Biel/Bienne , with its blade inscribed with ΚΟΡΙϹΙΟϹ ( Korisios ), probably the name of the smith. The diphthongs all transformed over the historical period. Ai and oi changed into long ī and eu merged with ou , both becoming long ō . Ei became long ē . In general, long diphthongs became short diphthongs and then long vowels. Long vowels shortened before nasals in coda . Other transformations include unstressed i became e , ln became ll ,

4068-651: The Latin , Greek , and Etruscan alphabets ) written on public monuments, private instrumentum , two calendars, and coins. The longest known Gaulish text is the Larzac tablet , found in 1983 in l'Hospitalet-du-Larzac , France. It is inscribed in Roman cursive on both sides of two small sheets of lead. Probably a curse tablet ( defixio ), it clearly mentions relationships between female names, for example aia duxtir adiegias [...] adiega matir aiias (Aia, daughter of Adiega... Adiega, mother of Aia) and seems to contain incantations regarding one Severa Tertionicna and

4181-544: The Local Government Act 1972 designated the area a part of Dorset. The northern slope of the hill tailing off towards the sea forms Mudeford spit , the sand bar closing Christchurch Harbour from the south. The spit is home to more than 300 privately owned beach-huts , which are some of the UK's most expensive. In 2015 five of the huts were put on the market for a combined asking price of £1 million. On average

4294-527: The Roman Empire , Armorica was administered as part of the province of Gallia Lugdunensis , which had its capital in Lugdunum , (modern day Lyon ). When the Roman provinces were reorganized in the 4th century, Armorica ( Tractus Armoricanus et Nervicanus ) was placed under the second and third divisions of Lugdunensis. After the legions retreated from Britannia (407 AD) the local elite there expelled

4407-579: The Solent . This 'prehistoric' connection of Cornwall and Brittany set the stage for the link that continued into the medieval era. Still farther East, however, the typical Continental connections of the Britannic coast were with the lower Seine valley instead. Archaeology has not yet been as enlightening in Iron-Age Armorica as the coinage, which has been surveyed by Philip de Jersey . Under

4520-402: The melodious warbler . The fields and reserved areas near the car park provide an ideal spot to watch and listen to a significant population of skylarks during the summer months. In 1989 a project commenced to re-introduce the country's rarest amphibian, the natterjack toad , to Hengistbury Head. The natterjack was last recorded on the headland in the 1950s before its extinction, probably as

4633-724: The "founder saints" of Brittany. The linguistic origins of Breton are clear: it is a Brythonic language descended from the Celtic British language , like Welsh and Cornish one of the Insular Celtic languages , brought by these migrating Britons. Still, questions of the relations between the Celtic cultures of Britain— Cornish and Welsh —and Celtic Breton are far from settled. Martin Henig (2003) suggests that in Armorica as in sub-Roman Britain : There

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4746-541: The Bournemouth/Christchurch area. In 2002, cattle-grazing commenced in a field near the new visitor centre known as Barn Field. This, combined with gorse eradication, has assisted in the restoration of this habitat to its ancient character. Present on the site is sea knotgrass ( Polygonum maritimum ), the rarest of the knotgrasses in Britain, and currently listed as a "schedule 8 species" under

4859-522: The Celtic god of metalwork . Furthermore, there is a statue of a seated goddess with a bear , Artio , found in Muri bei Bern , with a Latin inscription DEAE ARTIONI LIVINIA SABILLINA , suggesting a Gaulish Artiū "Bear (goddess)". Some coins with Gaulish inscriptions in the Greek alphabet have also been found in Switzerland, e.g. RIG IV Nos. 92 ( Lingones ) and 267 ( Leuci ). A sword, dating to

4972-818: The Celtic term *Litauia , meaning 'Land' or 'Country' (from an original Proto-Celtic * Litauī 'Earth', lit. 'the Vast One'), came to be used to designate the Brittany Peninsula, as in Old Irish Letha , Old Welsh Litau , Old Breton Letau , or in the Latinized form Letavia . In Breton , which belongs to the Brythonic branch of the Insular Celtic languages, along with Welsh and Cornish , "on [the] sea"

5085-632: The Gaulish language. Spindle whorls were apparently given to girls by their suitors and bear such inscriptions as: A gold ring found in Thiaucourt seems to express the wearers undying loyalty to her lover: Inscriptions found in Switzerland are rare. The most notable inscription found in Helvetic parts is the Bern zinc tablet , inscribed ΔΟΒΝΟΡΗΔΟ ΓΟΒΑΝΟ ΒΡΕΝΟΔΩΡ ΝΑΝΤΑΡΩΡ ( Dobnorēdo gobano brenodōr nantarōr ) and apparently dedicated to Gobannus ,

5198-484: The Gaulish t-preterit, formed by merging an old third-person singular imperfect ending -t - to a third-person singular perfect ending -u or -e and subsequent affixation to all forms of the t-preterit tense. Similarly, the s-preterit is formed from the extension of -ss (originally from the third person singular) and the affixation of -it to the third-person singular (to distinguish it as such). Third-person plurals are also marked by addition of -s in

5311-573: The Hengistbury Head Supporters Group, Residents' Association and Christchurch Harbour Ornithological Group. The public now have the chance to scrutinise a selection of the finds discovered at Hengistbury Head in the last century, and to interact with experienced staff, as well as providing them with the opportunity to become actively involved in the administration of the nature reserve. The surrounding area has been extensively landscaped to create outdoor learning areas and

5424-715: The Late Upper Palaeolithic to the Roman settlement of Britain , earning the site Scheduled Ancient Monument status. Interest in the site declined throughout the Dark Ages , until extensive development took place in Christchurch around 890 AD, when the Head may have been used as a lookout post. The area was heavily quarried during the Victorian period and nowadays receives over a million visitors annually. Several archaeological digs have revealed that

5537-527: The River Avon made this a more strategic place. The Head may have been used for harbour defence at this time. In the 11th century, some of the iron-ore rich stones found at the Head were used in the construction of Christchurch Castle . These reddish-coloured stones can still be seen in the base of the now ruined castle. In the late 1600s, Andrew Yarranton (with backing from the Earl of Clarendon ) commenced

5650-504: The UK since 1952. More than 300 bird species have been recorded in the area, making Hengistbury Head an important migratory point. The Balearic shearwater , considered critically endangered with extinction by the IUCN and seldom sighted in the UK, has been seen in the area. Other rare birds spotted here include the purple heron , the pink-footed goose , the European honey buzzard and

5763-502: The UK, where open air sites of this age are extremely rare. People at the Head were heavily involved with the production of blades, further excavations identified 649 tools, dominated by backed blades , endscrapers and burins . At the time the Warren Hill would have overlooked a large river valley that was to become the English Channel . Once the sea had inundated the surrounding valley, Mesolithic hunter gatherers exploited

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5876-537: The Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981. Such plants are afforded greater than usual protection against damaging activities – such as "cutting, picking, destroying or selling." The heathland is both a Special Area of Conservation and a Special Protection Area , part of a network of the best wildlife sites in Europe. The various habitats provide homes to numerous species of insects. There are 700 moth species recorded in

5989-498: The area, coupled with its ease of access from the Continent, meant that Hengistbury Head became a significant Late-Iron Age port; trading worked metal of iron, silver, and bronze in return for figs, glass, tools and other goods. Armorican coins and pottery uncovered here show links to the Brittany peninsula . Amphorae used for the transportation of North Italian wine have been found in such quantities (more than all other sites in

6102-424: The area. One ingot was of nearly pure copper, while the other, which weighed 8.6 kg, was roughly 50/50 copper-silver alloy with around one percent gold. Argentiferous (i.e. silver-bearing) copper was refined to produce silver at the Head. There are also indications that gold was worked at Hengistbury. One excavation produced part of a torc , twisted together with a small gold bracelet and another fragment in

6215-401: The authors meant by those terms), though at first these only concerned the upper classes. For Galatia (Anatolia), there is no source explicitly indicating a 5th-century language replacement: Despite considerable Romanization of the local material culture, the Gaulish language is held to have survived and coexisted with spoken Latin during the centuries of Roman rule of Gaul. The exact time of

6328-562: The barrows (south of where the thatched barn now stands) contained a high status cremation of a woman of about twenty years in age, accompanied by an incense cup, a halberd -style pendant made from amber and copper alloy , and two gold cones that would have covered buttons of an organic material. The burial-goods recovered are similar to those of the Wessex culture , the Wilsford and Dorset Ridgeway series in particular. An urn from one of

6441-404: The barrows likely to have been made between 1700 and 1500 B.C., has been identified as Trevisker ware , a type widely found throughout Devon and Cornwall which was transported east in lesser amounts, this find being one of the easternmost discovered. In Iron Age Britain around 700 BC, a settlement on the Head was established; also around this time, the headland was cut off from the mainland by

6554-430: The beach and the head itself to make the jetty. In 1733 a new Excise and Customs Bill was introduced, restricting imports and raising taxes on many luxury items. Christchurch rapidly became a hot-bed for smugglers , where they were known as "freetraders", and much of the town was involved in the trade. The "Double Dykes" are said to have been used to hide contraband, while Mudeford spit is rumoured to have been used in

6667-488: The cafe, but the head is also within walking distance of Southbourne and parts of Christchurch . The Quarry Pool is now a significant part of the nature reserve features of the head. While it was very acidic in the early years, since 1990 it has allowed the growth of a significant number of plant and insect species, as well as mallard and little grebe . The insects provide valuable food for migrating sand martins and swallows . A new visitor centre for Hengistbury Head

6780-942: The civilian magistrates in the following year; Armorica too rebelled in the 430s and again in the 440s, throwing out the ruling officials, as the Romano-Britons had done. At the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains in 451 a Roman coalition led by General Flavius Aetius and the Visigothic King Theodoric I clashed violently with the Hunnic alliance commanded by King Attila the Hun . Jordanes lists Aëtius' allies as including Armoricans and other Celtic or German tribes (Getica 36.191). The "Armorican" peninsula came to be settled with Britons from Britain during

6893-544: The complicated cultural web that bound Armorica and the Britanniae (the "Britains" of Pliny) is given by Caesar when he describes Diviciacus of the Suessiones as "the most powerful ruler in the whole of Gaul, who had control not only over a large area of this region but also of Britain" Archaeological sites along the south coast of England, notably at Hengistbury Head , show connections with Armorica as far east as

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7006-416: The construction of "Guinea boats" (cheaply built galleys sometimes capable of outrunning the day's steamships). One apocryphal story is that the black house acquired its distinctive black colour when customs officers tried to smoke out some holed-up smugglers by lighting fires around the base. The house was constructed in 1848 and used by shipwrights as a dwelling and workshop, smuggling was in decline with

7119-618: The construction of two banks and ditches called the Double Dykes , similar to those found at Maiden Castle . The earthworks consisted of an inner bank three metres high, with a ditch three and a half metres deep. An outer ditch six metres wide and two metres in depth is now obscured due to wind-blown deposits of sand and a gradual silting process. These defences turned Hengistbury Head into a fortified settlement area which seems to have grown over succeeding centuries until it became an important port. The Iron Age port at Hengistbury Head forms

7232-668: The controversial Italo-Celtic hypothesis) similarity to Latin grammar, and the French historian Ferdinand Lot argued that this helped the rapid adoption of Vulgar Latin in Roman Gaul. Gaulish had seven cases : the nominative , vocative , accusative , genitive , dative , instrumental and the locative case . Greater epigraphical evidence attests common cases (nominative and accusative) and common stems (-o- and -a- stems) than for cases less frequently used in inscriptions or rarer -i-, -n- and -r- stems. The following table summarises

7345-462: The determinative suffix - cos . It is glossed by the Latin antemarini in Endlicher's Glossary . The Slavs use a similar formation, Po-mor-jane ('those in front of the sea'), to designate the inhabitants of Pomerania . The Latin adjective Armoricani was an administrative term designating in particular a sector of the Roman defence line in Gaul in Late Antiquity , the Tractus Armoricani ('Armorican Tract'). In medieval Insular Celtic languages ,

7458-450: The difference between -n and -m relies on the length of the preceding vowel, with longer vowels taking -m over -n (in the case of -anom this is a result of its innovation from -a-om ). Gaulish verbs have present, future, perfect, and imperfect tenses; indicative, subjunctive, optative and imperative moods; and active and passive voices. Verbs show a number of innovations as well. The Indo-European s-aorist became

7571-413: The early 20th century. It is thought that in the last 200 years around 150 metres of land has been lost from the head. The first attempt to counteract erosion came in the 1930s when Bournemouth Council constructed a breakwater now known as "the Long Groyne". Since then, a gabion revetment has been constructed to secure the weakest point at the eastern end of the Head. In a long-term project to secure

7684-450: The enjoyment they provide to the area's residents and visitors." Hengistbury Head forms part of the Christchurch Harbour Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI), and in May 1990 was declared a Local Nature Reserve. The head supports 500 plant species (a quarter of the national flora), including eight red data book species, 14 nationally scarce, and 39 locally rare species. The main nature reserve area faces Christchurch Harbour , and

7797-426: The establishment of a nursery garden. Bournemouth Borough Council purchased the head in 1930 for £25,200; although plans for housing existed west of double dykes, the head itself was to be kept as public open space. During World War II the head was closed to the public and was occupied by the army, becoming home to a number of installations including a radar station . The area was also extensively mined . The head

7910-411: The final language death of Gaulish is unknown, but it is estimated to have been about the sixth century AD. The language shift was uneven in its progress and shaped by sociological factors. Although there was a presence of retired veterans in colonies, these did not significantly alter the linguistic composition of Gaul's population, of which 90% was autochthonous; instead, the key Latinizing class

8023-403: The first international aviation meeting ever held in Britain took place on a specially laid out aerodrome consisting of a mile of grassland between the "Double Dykes" and the nearby village of Tuckton . About twenty pioneer aviators from around the world participated in various competitions including spot landing, altitude tests and speed trials (both for the fastest and slowest circuit). On

8136-407: The future of the Head is erosion of the exposed southern cliff face from wind and rain, as well as erosion caused by the sea primarily through the process of Longshore drift . A comparison of Ordnance Survey maps reveals that 25 metres of cliff was washed away between 1915 and 1962, a process accelerated by the Bournemouth cliff's concreted promenade and groynes , construction of which started in

8249-411: The head wheelchair accessible . For example, it is now possible to gain wheelchair access to Quarry Pool. Regular field trips to the site are made by students of all ages and there are occasional guided tours or meetings around the head covering a wide variety of subjects. There is a cafe at the bottom of the head on the Bournemouth side. Hengistbury Head Outdoor Education centre is located near here on

8362-487: The head's future, from 2005 to 2008 Poole Bay was replenished with 1.8 million cubic metres of beach material, drawing ire from some surfers and beach lovers owing to the increase in sharp stones on Southbourne beach in particular. The project's organizers, the Poole Bay Partnership, state that: "The resulting wide beaches have been a success in terms of their function as a coast protection structure and for

8475-519: The headland area; the elevated portion is called Warren Hill . There has been human activity on the site since the Upper Palaeolithic . During the Victorian era , it was heavily quarried , and in recent years tourism has become significant – it receives more than one million visitors annually. The various habitats on the Head provide a home for many plants, birds and insects, some of them rare and critically endangered. Erosion remains

8588-426: The huts measure around five by three metres, have no running water, and staying overnight is only permitted from March through October. Despite the relative lack of amenities, the area has become one of the UK's most desirable; huts are rented out for up to £600 a week. The Black House, a local landmark, stands at the end of the spit, opposite Mudeford Quay , site of the Battle of Mudeford in 1784. Built in 1848, it

8701-447: The inherited genitive singular -as is attested but was subsequently replaced by -ias as in Insular Celtic. The expected genitive plural -a-om appears innovated as -anom (vs. Celtiberian -aum ). There also appears to be a dialectal equivalence between -n and -m endings in accusative singular endings particularly, with Transalpine Gaulish favouring -n , and Cisalpine favouring -m . In genitive plurals

8814-697: The introduction of a free-trade policy and more effective measures being implemented by the Coast Guard by this time, so the house may not in fact have had much involvement in smuggling. The spit has a long association with shipbuilding with two large ships being built in the mid-19th century, the Viscountess Canning of 193 tons and the Enterprise 253 tons. From 1848 to 1872, the Hengistbury Mining Company – formed by

8927-725: The mapping of substrate vocabulary as evidence, Kerkhof argues that we may "tentatively" posit a survival of Gaulish speaking communities "at least into the sixth century" in pockets of mountainous regions of the Central Massif , the Jura , and the Swiss Alps . According to Recueil des inscriptions gauloises more than 760 Gaulish inscriptions have been found throughout France, with the notable exception of Aquitaine , and in northern Italy. Inscriptions include short dedications, funerary monuments, proprietary statements, and expressions of human sentiments, but also some longer documents of

9040-499: The meaning could here also be merely descriptive, "complete" and "incomplete". The pottery at La Graufesenque is the most important source for Gaulish numerals. Potters shared furnaces and kept tallies inscribed in Latin cursive on ceramic plates, referring to kiln loads numbered 1 to 10: The lead inscription from Rezé (dated to the 2nd century, at the mouth of the Loire , 450 kilometres (280 mi) northwest of La Graufesenque )

9153-579: The name Armorica fell out of use in the area. With western Armorica having already evolved into Brittany , the east was recast from a Frankish viewpoint as the Breton March under a Frankish margrave . The home village of the fictional comic-book hero Asterix was located in Armorica during the Roman Republic ; there, "indomitable Gauls" hold out against Rome. The unnamed village was reported as having been discovered by archaeologists in

9266-413: The nature reserve, again a quarter of the national total. At different spots across the site butterflies (including the green hairstreak ), damselflies (like the large red ), and dragonflies (such as the hairy dragonfly ) can be observed. According to a 2005 report, the exceedingly rare thirteen-spotted ladybird ( Hippodamia 13-punctata ) was recently observed at the head, the first sighting in

9379-497: The other Celtic languages is also debated. Most scholars today agree that Celtiberian was the first to branch off from other Celtic. Gaulish, situated in the centre of the Celtic language area, shares with the neighboring Brittonic languages of Britain, as well as the neighboring Italic Osco-Umbrian languages , the change of the Indo-European labialized voiceless velar stop /kʷ/ > /p/ , while both Celtiberian in

9492-771: The period of the Roman Empire . In the narrow sense, Gaulish was the language of the Celts of Gaul (now France, Luxembourg, Belgium, most of Switzerland, Northern Italy, as well as the parts of the Netherlands and Germany on the west bank of the Rhine ). In a wider sense, it also comprises varieties of Celtic that were spoken across much of central Europe (" Noric "), parts of the Balkans , and Anatolia (" Galatian "), which are thought to have been closely related. The more divergent Lepontic of Northern Italy has also sometimes been subsumed under Gaulish. Together with Lepontic and

9605-549: The plural instrumental had begun to encroach on the dative plural (dative atrebo and matrebo vs. instrumental gobedbi and suiorebe ), and in the modern Insular Languages , the instrumental form is known to have completely replaced the dative. For o-stems, Gaulish also innovated the pronominal ending for the nominative plural -oi and genitive singular -ī in place of expected -ōs and -os still present in Celtiberian ( -oś, -o ). In a-stems,

9718-584: The poorly documented period of the 5th–7th centuries. Even in distant Byzantium Procopius heard tales of migrations to the Frankish mainland from the island, largely legendary for him, of Brittia . These settlers, whether refugees or not, made the presence felt of their coherent groups in the naming of the westernmost, Atlantic-facing provinces of Armorica, Cornouaille (" Cornwall ") and Domnonea (" Devon "). These settlements are associated with leaders like Saints Samson of Dol and Pol Aurelian , among

9831-654: The prestige language of their urban literate elite. Bonnaud maintains that Latinization occurred earlier in Provence and in major urban centers, while Gaulish persisted longest, possibly as late as the tenth century with evidence for continued use according to Bonnaud continuing into the ninth century, in Langres and the surrounding regions, the regions between Clermont , Argenton and Bordeaux , and in Armorica . Fleuriot, Falc'hun, and Gvozdanovic likewise maintained

9944-424: The preterit. Most Gaulish sentences seem to consist of a subject–verb–object word order: Some, however, have patterns such as verb–subject–object (as in living Insular Celtic languages) or with the verb last. The latter can be seen as a survival from an earlier stage in the language, very much like the more archaic Celtiberian language . Sentences with the verb first can be interpreted, however, as indicating

10057-650: The reconstructed endings for the words * toṷtā "tribe, people", * mapos "boy, son", * ṷātis "seer", * gutus "voice", and * brātīr "brother". In some cases, a historical evolution is attested; for example, the dative singular of a-stems is -āi in the oldest inscriptions, becoming first * -ăi and finally -ī as in Irish a -stem nouns with attenuated ( slender ) consonants: nom. lámh "hand, arm" (cf. Gaul. lāmā ) and dat. láimh (< * lāmi ; cf. Gaul. lāmāi > * lāmăi > lāmī ). Further,

10170-526: The result of a lack of suitable ponds. The project has been a great success, and today there are thriving populations at various locations. The ideal time to witness their mating rituals is in May as dusk approaches, when the distinctive call of the natterjack can be heard for miles around. Hengistbury Head is part of the Bournemouth East parliamentary constituency . Hengistbury Head is also part of

10283-548: The same." According to C. E. V. Nixon , the collapse of Roman power and the depredations of the Visigoths led Armorica to act "like a magnet to peasants, coloni , slaves and the hard-pressed" who deserted other Roman territories, further weakening them. Vikings settled in the Cotentin peninsula and the lower Seine around Rouen in the ninth and early tenth centuries and, as these regions came to be known as Normandy ,

10396-413: The second day of the meeting, co-founder of Rolls-Royce and pioneer aviator Charles Rolls was thrown from his plane, which disintegrated beneath him. Despite the fact that the first-ever powered flight had occurred only seven years previously, Rolls had been attempting a precision landing. He died from his injuries shortly after his fall. The event was Britain's earliest fatal flying accident involving

10509-406: The second form only when two, alius , like alter means "the other", the former used when more than two and the latter when only two), tertius, quārtus, quīntus, sextus, septimus, octāvus, nōnus , and decimus . An inscription in stone from Alise-Sainte-Reine (first century AD) reads: A number of short inscriptions are found on spindle whorls and are among the most recent finds in

10622-474: The site was occupied during the Upper Palaeolithic . There is evidence of an open settlement of the Creswellian culture on the hill in the middle of the headland dating to around 14,100 years ago. With over 13,000 lithic artefacts it is probably the largest site of the period. Most interesting were several blades typically found at Upper Paleolithic sites across Europe, but rarely seen outside of caves in

10735-686: The site. Pollen analysis of peat from the Solent bed suggest a lightly wooded headland free of close-knit undergrowth during this period, an ideal habitat for game . In Bronze Age Britain this was an important seaport. Eleven Bronze Age Britain round barrows sit on the promontory with two more a little further inland. Eleven of the round barrows were excavated; three by Bushe Fox in 1911–12 and eight by Harold St George Gray in 1919 and 1922. Two appear to be undisturbed. Numerous finds including Early Bronze Age axes and cremation urns were recovered from these tumuli, which have been consistently found to be between 3500 and 4000 years old. One of

10848-526: The south and Goidelic in Ireland retain /kʷ/ . Taking this as the primary genealogical isogloss , some scholars divide the Celtic languages into a " q-Celtic " group and a " p-Celtic " group, in which the p-Celtic languages Gaulish and Brittonic form a common "Gallo-Brittonic" branch. Other scholars place more emphasis on shared innovations between Brittonic and Goidelic and group these together as an Insular Celtic branch. Sims-Williams (2007) discusses

10961-430: The south of England put together), that it is clear that the Head was a main port of entry into the country. However, no similar amphorae have been unearthed in Armorica, hinting at a more direct trade route between Hengistbury Head and Italy. Most of these vessels date from before 50 B.C., while later styles are absent despite being common in other parts of Britain, indicating the wine trade seems to have declined at about

11074-549: The south shore of the harbour. Run by Brockenhurst College , the centre offers a variety of water and outdoor activities. A scenic land train (known as "the Noddy train") makes regular journeys from the cafe to the end of the spit, a journey of ten or so minutes. On the head itself is a H. M. Coastguard radio relay station, a nature reserve and a triangulation pillar , shown on Ordnance Survey maps as 36 metres above sea level. Ample parking (subject to charges) can be found near

11187-580: The time Caesar began his Gaulish campaigns . After the Roman conquest, the south-east of England started to develop into a more urban economy, while the socio-economic system of the south-west remained little changed. Hengistbury would still have served as an important hub for the Dumnonii of Cornwall and Devon, and the Durotriges of Wiltshire and Dorset; since transport by water was more efficient at

11300-511: The time, and the Head offered both a coastal route, and freshwater options via the Stour and Avon rivers. No evidence of Saxon use has been found at the Head. The area was not substantially reoccupied until Alfred the Great decided to rebuild the harbour as a defence against raiders. He built the town that later became Christchurch , on the north side of the harbour. Access to Salisbury up

11413-504: The upper reaches of Christchurch Harbour (including the meadows at Wick) are recognised as an Environmentally Sensitive Area . The head today is used for a variety of reasons. First, it is a tourist spot where country walks can be taken all over the head due to the well-defined gravel paths, some of which form part of the Bournemouth Coast Path . In 2008, many paths were resurfaced, making more (though not all) parts of

11526-538: The verb at the beginning of the clause or sentence. As in Old Irish and traditional literary Welsh, the verb can be preceded by a particle with no real meaning by itself but originally used to make the utterance easier. According to Eska's model, Vendryes' Restriction is believed to have played a large role in the development of Insular Celtic verb-subject-object word order. Other authorities such as John T. Koch , dispute that interpretation. Considering that Gaulish

11639-525: The whole area, both coastal and inland. Pliny the Elder , in his Natural History (4.17.105), claims that Armorica was the older name for Aquitania and states Armorica's southern boundary extended to the Pyrenees . Taking into account the Gaulish origin of the name, that is perfectly correct and logical, as Aremorica is not a country name but a word that describes a type of geographical region, one that

11752-414: The years has weakened the headland. These and earlier excavations resulted in a loss of up to a third of the head, caused mainly by erosion after the quarry's closure. The silt washed down also threatened the ecology of the saltmarsh below. This has been reduced by the building of a dam, in 1976, to create a pool. Many "doggers" can still be seen lining the route of the land-train and at the quarry. In 1910

11865-520: Was a fair amount of creation of identity in the migration period . We know that the mixed, but largely British and Frankish population of Kent repackaged themselves as ' Jutes ', and the largely British populations in the lands east of Dumnonia (Devon and Cornwall) seem to have ended up as 'West Saxons'. In western Armorica, the small élite which managed to impose an identity on the population happened to be British rather than 'Gallo-Roman' in origin, so they became Bretons. The process may have been essentially

11978-508: Was finally cleared of the military defences by the 1950s. Hengistbury Head Local Nature Reserve is currently owned and managed by BCP Council . In 1990, the land was declared a Local Nature Reserve, as a commitment by the town of Bournemouth to conserve and enhance the environment. The heathland forms part of the Dorset Heaths and is internationally protected as a Special Area of Conservation and Special Protection Area . Nearby,

12091-466: Was first written in Greek script in southern France and in a variety of Old Italic script in northern Italy. After the Roman conquest of those regions, writing shifted to Latin script . During his conquest of Gaul, Caesar reported that the Helvetii were in possession of documents in the Greek script, and all Gaulish coins used the Greek script until about 50 BC. Gaulish in Western Europe

12204-547: Was once a boatbuilders' house, but is now rented out to holidaymakers. It has served a variety of functions over the years, and is commonly (but inaccurately) associated with the area's smuggling past. Recorded as Hedenesburia in an early 12th century deed in the Christchurch Priory cartulary . In the mid-17th century it was referred to as Hynsebury in State Papers . The modern spelling of Hengistbury

12317-564: Was opened in December 2013. The extant thatched barn was upgraded in an eco-friendly way and the new addition cost over a million pounds. Funds were provided by developer contributions , the Heritage Lottery Fund and £300,000 from landfill tax . The centre houses a display area which documents the site's archaeology, ecology and geology, while work space has been created for volunteers and other community groups such as

12430-506: Was quickly adopted by the Gaulish aristocracy after Roman conquest to maintain their elite power and influence, trilingualism in southern Gaul being noted as early as the 1st century BC. Early references to Gaulish in Gaul tend to be made in the context of problems with Greek or Latin fluency until around AD 400, whereas after c.  450 , Gaulish begins to be mentioned in contexts where Latin has replaced "Gaulish" or "Celtic" (whatever

12543-499: Was supplanted by Vulgar Latin . It is thought to have been a living language well into the 6th century. The legacy of Gaulish may be observed in the modern French language and the Gallo-Romance languages , in which 150–400 words , mainly referring to pastoral and daily activities, are known to be derived from the extinct Continental Celtic language. Following the 1066 Norman Conquest , some of these words have also entered

12656-516: Was the coopted local elite, who sent their children to Roman schools and administered lands for Rome. In the fifth century, at the time of the Western Roman collapse, the vast majority (non-elite and predominantly rural) of the population remained Gaulish speakers, and acquired Latin as their native speech only after the demise of the Empire, as both they and the new Frankish ruling elite adopted

12769-467: Was thought at the time that Hengist could be buried at Hengistbury as he was said to have been laid to rest in an unlocated mound. However, 20th century excavations have established that the tumuli on Hengistbury Head date to the Bronze Age . Linguist Richard Coates speculates that the name is derived from Heddin's Fort. Hengistbury Head is home to a plethora of nationally and internationally significant archaeological sites, with features dating from

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