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93-676: Helvetic may refer to: Helvetii , Celtic tribes inhabiting most of the Swiss plateau during the Roman Empire Helvetic Republic , the precursor of the state of Switzerland Helvetic (geology) , a geologic zone in the Alps Helvetic Airways , a Swiss airline See also [ edit ] Helvetia (disambiguation) Helvetica (disambiguation) Helvete (disambiguation) Topics referred to by

186-470: A coup d'état in his own country, after which the three new kings would collaborate. When word of his aspirations to make himself king reached the Helvetii, Orgetorix was summoned to stand trial, facing execution on the pyre should he be found guilty. For the time being, he averted a verdict by arriving at the hearing set for him with ten thousand followers and bondsmen; yet before the large force mustered by

279-423: A coup d'état on the last Bonacolsi ruler, Rinaldo. Ludovico Gonzaga, who had been Podestà of Mantua since 1318, was duly elected Capitano del popolo . The Gonzagas built new walls with five gates and renovated the city in the 14th century; however, the political situation did not settle until the third ruler of Gonzaga, Ludovico III Gonzaga , who eliminated his relatives and centralised power to himself. During

372-554: A Helvetian uprising, was executed. In spite of the extensive damage and devastations the civitas had already sustained, according to Tacitus the Helvetii were saved from total annihilation owing to the pleas of one Claudius Cossus, a Helvetian envoy to Vitellius, and, as Tacitus puts it, "of well-known eloquence". Roman occupation in the aftermath of the Gallic Wars had pacified the Celtic-Germanic contact zone along

465-411: A Roman army under L. Cassius Longinus near Agendicum in 107 BC, in which the consul was killed. According to Caesar, the captured Roman soldiers were ordered to pass under a yoke set up by the triumphant Gauls, a dishonour that called for both public as well as private vengeance. Caesar is the only narrative source for this episode, as the corresponding books of Livy 's histories are preserved only in

558-414: A Roman detachment. Aulus Caecina Alienus , a former supporter of Galba who was now at the head of a Vitellian invasion of Italy, launched a massive punitive campaign, crushing the Helvetii under their commander Claudius Severus and routing the remnants of their forces at Mount Vocetius , killing and enslaving thousands. The capital Aventicum surrendered, and Julius Alpinus , head of what was now seen as

651-575: A certain inner autonomy, including the defence of certain strongholds by their own troops. In the civil war which followed Nero's death, the civitas Helvetiorum supported Galba ; unaware of his death, they refused to accept the authority of his rival, Vitellius . The Legio XXI Rapax , stationed in Vindonissa and favouring Vitellius, stole the pay of a Helvetian garrison, which prompted the Helvetians to intercept Vitellian messengers and detain

744-478: A day. Caesar himself does not appear as a triumphant victor in turn, being unable to pursue the Helvetii for three days, "both on account of the wounds of the soldiers and the burial of the slain". However, it is clear that Caesar's warning to the Lingones not to supply his enemies was quite enough to make the Helvetii leaders once again offer peace. On what terms this peace was made is debatable, but as said before,

837-441: A defensive water ring around the city, dried up at the end of the 18th century. The area and its environs are important not only in naturalistic terms, but also anthropologically and historically; research has highlighted a number of human settlements scattered between Barche di Solferino and Bande di Cavriana , Castellaro and Isolone del Mincio. These dated, without interruption, from Neolithic times (5th–4th millennium BC) to

930-533: A large number of fused Celtic coins, which are mixed with charcoal remnants. Some of the 18,000 coins originate from the Eastern Gaul , others are of the Zürich type, that were assigned to the local Helvetii , which date to around 100 BC. The find is so far unique, and the scientific research assumes that the melting down of the lump was not completed, therefore the aim was to form cultic offerings. The site of

1023-786: A man of Helvetian descent living in Mantua. Of the four Helvetian pagi or sub-tribes, Caesar names only the Verbigeni ( Bell. Gall. 1.27) and the Tigurini (1.12), Posidonius the Tigurini and the Tougeni ( Τωυγενοί ). There has been substantial debate in Swiss historiography (beginning with Felix Stähelin 1927) on whether the Tougeni may or may not be identified with the Teutones mentioned by Titus Livius . According to Caesar,

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1116-567: A peaceful passage through the Provincia . Caesar stalled them by asking for some time for consideration, which he used to assemble reinforcements and to fortify the southern banks of the Rhône . When the embassy returned on the agreed-upon date, he was strong enough to bluntly reject their offer. The Helvetii now chose the more difficult northern route through the Sequani territory, which traversed

1209-546: Is a comune (municipality) in the Italian region of Lombardy , and capital of the province of the same name . In 2016, Mantua was designated as the "Italian Capital of Culture". In 2017, it was named as the "European Capital of Gastronomy", included in the Eastern Lombardy District (together with the cities of Bergamo , Brescia , and Cremona ). In 2008, Mantua's centro storico (old town) and

1302-568: Is confirmed by the Alexandrian geographer Claudius Ptolemaios (c. 90–168 AD), who tells us of an Ἐλουητίων ἔρημος (i.e. "Helvetic deserted lands") north of the Rhine . Tacitus knows that the Helvetians once settled in the swath between Rhine , Main , and the Hercynian forest . The abandonment of this northern territory is now usually placed in the late 2nd century BC, around the time of

1395-551: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Helvetii The Helvetians were subjugated after 52 BC, and under Augustus , Celtic oppida , such as Vindonissa or Basilea , were re-purposed as garrisons. In AD 68, a Helvetian uprising was crushed by Aulus Caecina Alienus . The Swiss plateau was at first incorporated into the Roman province of Gallia Belgica (22 BC), later into Germania Superior (AD 83). The Helvetians, like

1488-593: Is nonetheless outstanding, with many of Mantua's patrician and ecclesiastical buildings being uniquely important examples of Italian architecture. By car, Mantova can be reached on the A4 (Milan-Venice) Highway up to Verona, then the A22 ( Brennero - Modena ) Highway. Alternatively, the city can be reached from Milan on the State Road 415 (Milan-Cremona) to Cremona and from there State Road 10 (Cremona-Mantova), or from Verona on

1581-465: Is noted for its significant role in the history of opera ; the city is also known for its architectural treasures and artifacts, elegant palaces, and the medieval and Renaissance cityscape. It is the city where the composer Monteverdi premiered his 1607 opera L'Orfeo and to where Romeo was banished in Shakespeare 's 1597 play Romeo and Juliet . It is the nearest town to the birthplace of

1674-451: Is presented as the instigator of a new Helvetian migration, in which the entire tribe was to leave their territory and, according to Caesar, to establish a supremacy over all of Gaul. This exodus was planned over three years, in the course of which Orgetorix conspired with two noblemen from neighbouring tribes, Casticus of the Sequani and Dumnorix of the Aedui , that each should accomplish

1767-550: Is south of Verona , east of Cremona , north-east of Parma , northwest of Ferrara , and west-southwest of Padua . Mantua was an island settlement which was first established about the year 2000 BC on the banks of River Mincio , which flows from Lake Garda to the Adriatic Sea . In the 6th century BC, Mantua was an Etruscan village which, in the Etruscan tradition, was re-founded by Ocnus . The name may derive from

1860-829: The Pax Romana ended with the Crisis of the Third Century . In 260, when the Gallic Empire briefly seceded from Rome, emperor Gallienus withdrew the legions from the Rhine to fight the usurper Ingenuus , allowing the Alemanni to invade the Swiss plateau. There, cities, villages and most villae were raided or sacked by marauding bands. The numerous caches of coins recovered from the period between 250 and 280 attest to

1953-577: The Bronze Age (2nd–1st millennium BC) and the Gallic phases (2nd–1st centuries BC), and ended with Roman residential settlements, which can be traced to the 3rd century AD. In 2017, Legambiente ranked Mantua as the best Italian city for quality of life and environment. Mantua lies in the east of the region of Lombardy , halfway between Milan and Venice , on the River Mincio . It

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2046-708: The Frankish Empire . Partitions of the empire (due to the Franks' use of partible inheritance ) in the Treaties of Verdun and Prüm led to Mantua passing to Middle Francia in 843, then the Kingdom of Italy in 855. In 962 Italy was invaded by King Otto I of Germany , and Mantua thus became a vassal of the newly formed Holy Roman Empire . In the 11th century, Mantua became a possession of Boniface of Canossa , marquis of Tuscany . The last ruler of that family

2139-658: The Ghibellines , Pinamonte Bonacolsi took advantage of the chaotic situation to seize power of the podesteria in 1273. He was declared the Captain General of the People . The Bonacolsi family ruled Mantua for the next two generations and made it more prosperous and artistically beautiful. On 16 August 1328 Luigi Gonzaga, an official in Bonacolsi's podesteria, and his family staged a public revolt in Mantua and forced

2232-585: The Gonzaga-Nevers , a cadet French branch of the family. The War of the Mantuan Succession broke out, and in 1630 an Imperial army of 36,000 mercenaries under Matthias Gallas and Johann von Aldringen besieged and sacked Mantua, bringing the plague with them. Ferdinand Carlo IV , an inept ruler, whose only interest was in holding parties and theatrical shows, allied with France in the War of

2325-526: The Jura Mountains via a very narrow pass at the site of the modern Fort l'Écluse , but bypassed the Provincia . After ravaging the lands of the Aedui tribe, who called upon Caesar to help them, they began the crossing of the Saône , which took them several days. As only a quarter of their forces were left on the eastern banks, Caesar attacked and routed them. According to Caesar, those killed had been

2418-619: The Latin terms civitas ("state" or "tribe") and magistratus ("officials"). In his Natural History (c. 77 AD), Pliny provides a foundation myth for the Celtic settlement of Cisalpine Gaul in which a Helvetian named Helico plays the role of culture hero . Helico had worked in Rome as a craftsman and then returned to his home north of the Alps with a dried fig, a grape, and some oil and wine,

2511-689: The Limmat on Zürichsee lake shore. The Germanic tribes of the Cimbri and Ambrones probably reached southern Germany around the year 111 BC, where they were joined by the Tigurini , and, probably the Teutoni-Toutonoi-Toygenoi. (The precise identity of the latter group is unclear). The tribes began a joint invasion of Gaul, including the Roman Provincia Narbonensis , which led to the Tigurini's victory over

2604-687: The Periochae , short summarising lists of contents, in which hostages given by the Romans, but no yoke, are mentioned. In 105 BC, the allies defeated another Roman army near Arausio and went on to harry Spain, Gaul, Noricum , and northern Italy. They split up in two groups in 103 BC, with the Teutones and Ambrones marching on a western route through the Provincia and the Cimbri and Tigurini crossing

2697-548: The Tigurini , on whom he had now taken revenge in the name of the Republic and his family. After the battle, the Romans quickly bridged the river, thereby prompting the Helvetii to once again send an embassy, this time led by Divico , another figure whom Caesar links to the ignominious defeat of 107 BC by calling him bello Cassio dux Helvetiorum (i.e. "leader of the Helvetii in the Cassian campaign"). What Divico had to offer

2790-559: The Turks . Under Ludovico and his heirs, the famous Renaissance painter Andrea Mantegna worked in Mantua as court painter, producing some of his most outstanding works. The first Duke of Mantua was Federico II Gonzaga , who acquired the title from the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V in 1530. Federico commissioned Giulio Romano to build the famous Palazzo Te , on the periphery of the city, and profoundly improved

2883-551: The ethnogenesis of modern Swiss people . They are mentioned as Helvetii by Cicero (mid-1st c. BC), Caesar (mid-1st c. BC) and Tacitus (early 2nd c. AD), in the genitive case as Helvetiorum by Livy (late 1st c. BC), as Helveti by Pliny (mid-1st c. AD), and as Elouḗtioi (Ἐλουήτιοι) by Ptolemy (2nd c. AD). The Gaulish ethnic name Helvetii is generally interpreted as (h)elu-ētioi ('rich in land'), from elu - ('numerous', cf. OIr. il ) attached to etu - ('grassland'; cf. OIr. iath ). The presence of

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2976-541: The Aeduan oppidum Bibracte , Caesar caught up with the Helvetii and faced them in a major battle , which ended in the Helvetii's retreat and the capture of most of their baggage by the Romans. Leaving the largest part of their supplies behind, the Helvetii covered around 60 km in four days, eventually reaching the lands of the Lingones (the modern Langres plateau). Caesar did not pursue them until three days after

3069-647: The Austrian Duchy of Mantua briefly united with the Duchy of Milan until 1791. On 4 June 1796 during the War of the First Coalition , Mantua was besieged by Napoleon Bonaparte 's French army. The first Austrian attempt to break the siege was successful and the siege was abandoned on 1 August. The Austrian army was defeated at the Battle of Castiglione on 5 August and left the area. The French resumed

3162-530: The Etruscan god Mantus . After being conquered by the Cenomani , a Gallic tribe, Mantua was subsequently fought between the first and second Punic wars against the Romans , who attributed its name to Manto , a daughter of Tiresias . This territory was later populated by veteran soldiers of Augustus . Mantua's most famous ancient citizen is the poet Virgil , or Publius Vergilius Maro ( Mantua me genuit ), who

3255-519: The Helvetians who had not participated in the raids. The Helvetii were the first Gallic tribe of the campaign to be confronted by Caesar. He narrates the events of the conflict in the opening sections of Commentarii de Bello Gallico . Due to the political nature of the Commentarii , Caesar's purpose in publicizing his own achievements may have distorted the significance of events and the motives of those who participated. The nobleman Orgetorix

3348-450: The Helvetians, both the historical and archaeological records are sparse. Ptolemy (2.4.11) in the 2nd century uses the term Eremus Helvetiorum (also rendered Heremus Helvetiorum ) "desolation of the Helvetians" to refer to this area (largely corresponding to modern Baden ). The term was adopted by Aegidius Tschudi in the 16th century, and remains in use in modern historiography (German: Helvetier-Einöde ). It has been proposed that

3441-493: The Helvetii in the Swiss plateau, with the Emme as being one of the gold-yielding rivers mentioned by Posidonius. This interpretation is now generally discarded, as Posidonius' narrative makes it more likely that the country some of the Helvetians left in order to join in the raids of the Teutones , Cimbri , and Ambrones was in fact southern Germany and not Switzerland . That the Helvetians originally lived in southern Germany

3534-428: The Helvetii withdrew from the battle at nightfall, abandoning, as it seemed, most of their wagons, which they had drawn up into a wagon fort ; they retreated northwards in a forced night march and reached the territory of the Lingones four days after the battle. What Caesar implies to have been a desperate flight without stopping could actually have been an ordered retreat of moderate speed, covering less than 40 km

3627-444: The Helvetii would settle on their own territory as allies in the oppidum Gorgobina . The nature of Caesar's arrangement with the Helvetii and the other tribes is not further specified by the consul himself, but in his speech Pro Balbo of 56 BC, Cicero mentions the Helvetii as one among several tribes of foederati , i.e. allied nations who were neither citizens of the Republic nor her subjects, but obliged by treaty to support

3720-681: The Italian Renaissance, the Gonzaga family softened their despotic rule and further raised the level of culture and refinement in Mantua. Mantua became a significant center of Renaissance art and humanism. Marquis Gianfrancesco Gonzaga had brought Vittorino da Feltre to Mantua in 1423 to open his famous humanist school, the Casa Giocosa. Isabella d'Este , Marchioness of Mantua, married Francesco II Gonzaga, Marquess of Mantua in 1490. When she moved to Mantua from Ferrara (she

3813-866: The Kingdom of Venetia (including the capital city, Venice ). Mantua reconnected with the region of Lombardy and was incorporated into the Kingdom of Italy . During World War II , in November 1943, Nazi Germany relocated the Stalag 337 prisoner-of-war camp from Leśna in German-occupied Poland to Mantua. The camp was dissolved in February 1944, and in April 1944 the Dulag 339 transit camp for British, Italian, American, French, Greek and Yugoslav POWs

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3906-639: The Rhine frontier against the Germans, he then allowed the Helvetii, Tulingi and Latobrigi to return to their territories and to rebuild their homes, instructing the Allobroges to supply them with a sufficient supply of grain. Caesar does not mention the Raurici , who seem to have built a new oppidum at Basel-Münsterhügel upon their return. The Aedui were granted their wish that the Boii who had accompanied

3999-634: The Rhine. The Suebi and Marcomanni who under Ariovistus had planned to invade Gaul were pushed back beyond the Black Forest , where they amalgamated into the future Alemanni . The Romans allowed Germanic tribes such as the Ubii , Triboci , Nemetes and Vangiones to settle in the deserted areas left of the Rhine. On the right bank of the Upper Rhine, which according to the testimony of Tacitus ( Germania 28) had formerly also been occupied by

4092-533: The Roman classical poet Virgil , who is commemorated by a statue at the lakeside park "Piazza Virgiliana". Mantua is surrounded on three sides by artificial lakes , created during the 12th century as the city's defence system. These lakes receive water from the River Mincio , a tributary of the River Po , which descends from Lake Garda . The three lakes are called Lago Superiore , Lago di Mezzo , and Lago Inferiore ("Upper", "Middle", and "Lower" Lakes, respectively). A fourth lake, Lake Pajolo, which once served as

4185-435: The Roman military leader. In general, numbers written down by ancient military authors have to be taken as gross exaggerations. What Caesar claims to have been 368,000 people is estimated by other sources to be rather around 300,000 ( Plutarch ), or 200,000 ( Appian ); in the light of a critical analysis, even these numbers seem far too high. Furger-Gunti considers an army of more than 60,000 fighting men extremely unlikely in

4278-600: The Romans with a certain number of fighting men. According to the victor, tablets with lists in Greek characters were found at the Helvetian camp, listing in detail all men able to bear arms with their names and giving a total number for the women, children and elderly who accompanied them. The numbers added up to a total of 263,000 Helvetii, 36,000 Tulingi , 14,000 Latobrigi , 23,000 Rauraci , and 32,000 Boii , all in all 368,000 heads, 92,000 of whom were warriors. A census of those who had returned to their homes listed 110,000 survivors, which meant that only about 30 percent of

4371-515: The Spanish Succession . After the French defeat, he took refuge in Venice and carried with him a thousand pictures. At his death in 1708, the Duke of Mantua was declared deposed and his family of Gonzaga lost Mantua forever in favour of the Habsburgs of Austria. Under Austrian rule, Mantua enjoyed a revival and during this period the Royal Academy of Sciences, Letters and Arts, the Scientific Theatre, and numerous palaces were built. In 1786, ten years before Napoleon Bonaparte 's campaign of Europe,

4464-487: The State Road 62. Mantova railway station , opened in 1873, lies on the train routes of Milan - Codogno - Cremona -Mantua and Verona -Mantua- Modena . The station is a terminus for three regional lines, to Cremona and Milan , to Monselice , and to Verona Porta Nuova and Modena . Trenitalia operates a daily high-speed connection with Rome . The closest airport is Verona-Villafranca Airport. The direct shuttle bus service running to and from Mantova railway station

4557-580: The area inhabited by the Helvetians had extended beyond the Swiss plateau, far into what is now Baden-Württemberg , but had been displaced in the course of the Cimbrian War , some two generations prior to Caesar's invasion of Gaul. The Swiss plateau was gradually romanized during the 1st to 3rd centuries. The principal Roman settlements were the cities of Iulia Equestris ( Nyon ), Aventicum ( Avenches ), Augusta Raurica ( Augst ) and Vindonissa ( Windisch ). Evidence has also been found of almost twenty Roman villages ( vici ) and hundreds of villas . In

4650-433: The authorities could apprehend him, he died under unexplained circumstances, the Helvetii believed by his own hand. Nevertheless, the Helvetii did not give up their planned emigration, but burned their homes in 58 BC. They were joined by a number of tribal groups from neighbouring regions: the Raurici, the Latobrigi , the Tulingi and a group of Boii , who had besieged Noreia . They abandoned their homes completely with

4743-549: The battle, while still sending messengers to the Lingones warning them not to assist the Helvetii in any way. The Helvetii then offered their immediate surrender and agreed both to providing hostages and to giving up their weapons the next day. In the course of the night, 6000 of the Verbigeni fled from the camp out of fear of being massacred once they were defenceless. Caesar sent riders after them and ordered those who were brought back to be "counted as enemies", which probably meant being sold into slavery. In order for them to defend

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4836-406: The city. In the late 16th century, Claudio Monteverdi came to Mantua from his native Cremona. He worked for the court of Vincenzo I Gonzaga , first as a singer and violist, then as music director, marrying the court singer Claudia Cattaneo in 1599. In 1627, the direct line of the Gonzaga family came to an end with the vicious and weak Vincenzo II , and Mantua slowly declined under the new rulers,

4929-452: The conclusion of a foedus casts some doubt on the totality of the defeat. As Caesar's account is heavily influenced by his political agenda, it is difficult to determine the actual motive of the Helvetii movement of 58 BC. One might see the movement in the light of a Celtic retreat from areas which were later to become Germanic; it can be debated whether they ever had plans to settle in the Saintonge , as Caesar claims (Bell. Gall. 1,10.). It

5022-437: The country's contemporary Neo-Latin name, Confoederatio Helvetica (abbreviated CH), are derived from this tradition. In 2015, the star 51 Pegasi , the first main-sequence star found to have an exoplanet , was named Helvetios after the Helvetii as part of the IAU 's NameExoWorlds contest. The distribution of La Tène culture burials in Switzerland indicates that the Swiss plateau between Lausanne and Winterthur

5115-413: The course of River Mincio, creating what the Mantuans call "the four lakes" to reinforce the city's natural protection. Three of these lakes still remain today and the fourth one, which ran through the centre of town, was reclaimed during the 18th century. From 1215, the city was ruled under the podesteria of the Guelph poet-statesman Rambertino Buvalelli . During the struggle between the Guelphs and

5208-419: The course of Romanization, the Celtic polytheism of the Helvetians was syncretized with Roman religion . The Celtic deities came to be worshiped under the names of their Roman counterparts, and Roman gods acquired the names of local gods, such as Mars Caturix , Mercurius Cissonius and Jupiter Poeninus . A major cultic center of Gallo-Roman religion , consisting of eight chapels or small temples,

5301-496: The desirability of which caused his countrymen to invade northern Italy . The Greek historian Posidonius (c. 135–50 BC), whose work is preserved only in fragments by other writers, offers the earliest historical record of the Helvetii. Posidonius described the Helvetians of the late 2nd century BC as "rich in gold but peaceful," without giving clear indication to the location of their territory. His reference to gold washing in rivers has been taken as evidence for an early presence of

5394-414: The eastern Alps (probably by the Brenner Pass ). While the Teutones and Ambrones were slaughtered in 102 BC by Gaius Marius near Aquae Sextiae , the Cimbri and the Tigurini wintered in the Padan plain . The following year, Marius virtually destroyed the Cimbri in the battle of Vercellae . The Tigurini, who had planned on following the Cimbri, turned back over the Alps with their booty and joined those of

5487-462: The emigrants had survived the war. Caesar's report has been partly confirmed by excavations near Geneva and Bibracte . However, much of his account has not yet been corroborated by archaeology, whilst his narrative must in wide parts be considered as biased and, in some points, unlikely. For a start, only one out of the fifteen Celtic oppida in the Helvetii territory so far has yielded evidence for destruction by fire. Many other sites, for example

5580-406: The find was at that time at least 50 metres (164 ft) from the lake shore, and probably 1 metre (3 ft) to three meters deep in the water. There's also an island sanctuary of the Helvetii in connection with the settlement at the preceding Oppidi Uetliberg on the former Grosser Hafner island, as well as the settlement Kleiner Hafner at the Sechseläuten square on the effluence of

5673-485: The first Germanic incursions into the Roman world, when the Tigurini and Toygenoi/Toutonoi are mentioned as participants in the great raids. At the later Vicus Turicum , probably in the first 1st century BC or even much earlier, the Celts settled at the Lindenhof Oppidium . In 1890, so-called Potin lumps were found, whose largest weights 59.2 kilograms (131 lb) at the Prehistoric pile dwelling settlement Alpenquai in Zürich, Switzerland. The pieces consist of

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5766-402: The former territories of the Helvetii and their inhabitants were as thoroughly romanised as the rest of Gaul. What seems to have been the last action of the Helvetii as a tribal entity happened shortly after the death of emperor Nero in 68 AD. Like the other Gallic tribes, the Helvetii were organised as a civitas ; they even retained their traditional grouping into four pagi and enjoyed

5859-399: The giving of hostages by the defeated Romans at Agen . In the cavalry battle that followed, the Helvetii prevailed over Caesar's Aedui allies under Dumnorix ' command, and continued their journey, while Caesar's army was being detained by delays in his grain supplies, caused by the Aedui on the instigations of Dumnorix , who had married Orgetorix ' daughter. A few days later, however, near

5952-422: The initial h -, remnant of a previous p - ( PIE *pelh 1 u- > Celt. helu- > elu- ), attests of an archaic formation. The earliest attestation of the name is found in a graffito on a vessel from Mantua , dated to c. 300 BC. The inscription in Etruscan letters reads eluveitie, which has been interpreted as the Etruscan form of the Celtic elu̯eti̯os ("the Helvetian"), presumably referring to

6045-424: The insurrection in the County of Tyrol against Napoleon. After the brief period of French rule, Mantua returned to Austria in 1814, becoming one of the Quadrilatero fortress cities in northern Italy. Under the Congress of Vienna (1815) , Mantua became a province in the Austrian Empire's Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia . Agitation against Austria, however, culminated in a revolt which lasted from 1851 to 1855, but it

6138-454: The intention of settling among the Santones ( Saintonge ). The easiest route would take them through the Rhône valley , and thus through the Roman Provincia Narbonensis . When they reached the boundaries of the Allobroges , the northernmost tribe of the Provincia , they found that Caesar had already dismantled the bridge of Geneva to stop their advance. The Helvetians sent "the most illustrious men of their state" to negotiate, promising

6231-418: The nearby comune of Sabbioneta were declared by UNESCO to be a World Heritage Site . Mantua's historic power and influence under the Gonzaga family between 1328 and 1708 made it one of the main artistic, cultural , and especially musical hubs of Northern Italy and of Italy as a whole. It had one of the most splendid courts of Europe of the fifteenth, sixteenth, and early seventeenth centuries. Mantua

6324-415: The numerous creditors he owed money to, but also to further strengthen his position within the late Republic. In this sense, even the character of Divico , who makes his appearance in the Commentarii half a century after his victory over L. Cassius Longinus, seems more like another hackneyed argument stressing Caesar's justification to attack, than like an actual historical figure. That the victor of Agen

6417-471: The rest of Gaul, were largely Romanized by the 2nd century. In the later 3rd century, Roman control over the region waned, and the Swiss plateau was exposed to the invading Alemanni . The Alemanni and Burgundians established permanent settlements in the Swiss plateau in the 5th and 6th centuries, resulting in the early medieval territories of Alemannia (Swabia) and Upper Burgundy . The Helvetii were largely assimilated by their new rulers, contributing to

6510-413: The same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Helvetic . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helvetic&oldid=1159541547 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description

6603-513: The same time. For most of them, we do not have any idea as to what their Gaulish names might have been, with one or two possible exceptions. Where a pre-Roman name is preserved, it is added in brackets. Those marked with an asterisk (*) were most likely occupied by neighbouring tribes ( Raurici , Veragri , etc.) rather than the Helvetii. Mantua Mantua ( / ˈ m æ n tj u ə / MAN -tew-ə ; Italian : Mantova [ˈmantova] ; Lombard and Latin : Mantua )

6696-455: The sanctuary at Mormont , do not exhibit any signs of damage for the period in question, and Celtic life continued seemingly undisturbed for the rest of the 1st century BC up to the beginning of the Roman era, with an accent rather on an increase in prosperity than on a "Helvetic twilight". With the honourable status as foederati taken into account, it is hard to believe that the Helvetii ever sustained casualties quite as heavy as those given by

6789-539: The severity of the crisis. The Helvetii were re-discovered as the forebears of the Swiss in the early historiography of Switzerland , in the late 15th to early 16th century. Their name was adopted as the Latin equivalent of the designation Switzer , and the Swiss Confederacy was given the Latin name of Republica Helvetiorum . The name of the national personification of Switzerland , Helvetia , and

6882-552: The siege on August 27 and accepted surrender of the city on 2 February 1797. The city was recaptured by the Austrians in the War of the Second Coalition after a siege lasting from 8 April to 28 July 1799. Later, the city again passed into Napoleon's control and became a part of Napoleon's Kingdom of Italy. In 1810 Andreas Hofer was shot by Porta Giulia, a gate of the town at Borgo di Porto (Cittadella) for leading

6975-566: The site of the Helvetian settlement Noviodunum (modern Nyon ), and around 44 BC the Colonia Raurica on Rauracan territory. These colonies were probably established as a means of controlling the two most important military access routes between the Helvetian territory and the rest of Gaul , blocking the passage through the Rhône valley and Sundgau . In the course of Augustus ' reign, Roman dominance became more concrete. Some of

7068-457: The size of the baggage train that an exodus of 368,000 people would have required: Even for the reduced numbers that Furger-Gunti uses for his calculations, the baggage train would have stretched for at least 40 km, perhaps even as far as 100 km. In spite of the now much more balanced numerical weight we have to assume for the two opposing armies, the battle seems far less glorious a victory than Caesar presented it to be. The main body of

7161-480: The territory abandoned by the Helvetii had comprised 400 villages and 12 oppida (fortified settlements). His tally of the total population taken from captured Helvetian records written in Greek is 263,000 people, including fighting men, old men, women and children. However, the figures are generally dismissed as too high by modern scholars (see hereafter ). Like many other tribes, the Helvetii did not have kings at

7254-431: The time of their clash with Rome but instead seem to have been governed by a class of noblemen (Lat. equites ). When Orgetorix , one of their most prominent and ambitious noblemen, was making plans to establish himself as their king, he faced execution at the stake if found guilty. Caesar does not explicitly name the tribal authorities prosecuting the case and gathering men to apprehend Orgetorix, but he refers to them by

7347-614: The traditional Celtic oppida were now used as legionary garrisons, such as Vindonissa or Basilea (modern Basel ); others were relocated, such as the hill-fort on the Bois de Châtel, whose inhabitants founded the new "capital" of the civitas at nearby Aventicum . First incorporated into the Roman province of Gallia Belgica , later into the Germania Superior and finally into the Diocletian province of Maxima Sequanorum ,

7440-441: The view of the tactics described, and assumes the actual numbers to have been around 40,000 warriors out of a total of 160,000 emigrants. Delbrück suggests an even lower number of 100,000 people, out of which only 16,000 were fighters, which would make the Celtic force about half the size of the Roman body of c. 30,000 men. The real numbers will never be determined exactly. Caesar's specifications can at least be doubted by looking at

7533-521: Was a vociferous collector and such was her reputation that Niccolò da Corregio called her 'la prima donna del mondo'. Through a payment of 120,000 golden florins in 1433, Gianfrancesco I was appointed Marquis of Mantua by the Emperor Sigismund , whose niece Barbara of Brandenburg married his son, Ludovico. In 1459, Pope Pius II held the Council of Mantua to proclaim a crusade against

7626-484: Was almost a surrender, namely to have the Helvetii settle wherever Caesar wished them to, although it was combined with the threat of an open battle if Caesar should refuse. Caesar demanded hostages to be given to him and reparations to the Aedui and Allobroges. Divico responded by saying that "they were accustomed to receive, not to give hostages; a fact the Roman people could testify to", this once again being an allusion to

7719-795: Was born in the year 70 BC at a village near the city which is now known as Virgilio. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire at the hands of Odoacer in 476 AD, Mantua was, along with the rest of Italy, conquered by the Ostrogoths . It was retaken by the Eastern Roman Empire in the middle of the 6th century following the Gothic war but was subsequently lost again to the Lombards . They were in turn conquered by Charlemagne in 774, thus incorporating Mantua into

7812-478: Was canceled on 1 January 2015. Public connection is now provided by the airport bus running to and from Verona Porta Nuova railway station, and the Verona-Mantova railway line. Local bus services, urbano (within the city area and suburbs) and interurbano (within the surrounding towns and villages) are provided by APAM. Since local government political reorganization in 1993, Mantua has been governed by

7905-587: Was ceded to France, who transferred Lombardy to Piedmont-Sardinia in return for Nice and Savoy . Mantua, although a constituent province of Lombardy, still remained under the Austrian Empire along with Venetia. In 1866, Prussia-led North German Confederation sided with the newly established, Piedmont-led Kingdom of Italy against the Austrian Empire in the Third Italian War of Independence . The quick defeat of Austria led to its withdrawal of

7998-539: Was certainly in the latter's personal interest to emphasise any kind of parallel between the traumatic experience of the Cimbrian and Teutonic incursions and the alleged threat that the Helvetii were to the Roman world. The Tigurini 's part in the destruction of L. Cassius Longinus and his army was a welcome pretext to engage in an offensive war in Gaul whose proceeds permitted Caesar not only to fulfil his obligations to

8091-419: Was established in its place, and remained operational until April 1945. The Gonzagas protected the arts and culture, and were hosts to several important artists such as Leone Battista Alberti , Andrea Mantegna , Giulio Romano , Donatello , Peter Paul Rubens , Pisanello , Domenico Fetti , Luca Fancelli and Nicolò Sebregondi. Though many of the masterworks have been dispersed, the cultural value of Mantua

8184-748: Was finally suppressed by the Austrian army. One of the most famous episodes of the Italian Risorgimento took place in the valley of the Belfiore, where a group of rebels was hanged by the Austrians. At the Battle of Solferino ( Second Italian War of Independence ) in 1859, the House of Savoy 's Piedmont-Sardinia sided with the French Emperor Napoleon III against the Austrian Empire. Following Austria's defeat, Lombardy

8277-671: Was found in Allmendingen near Thun . Deities worshipped at the site included Mars (presumably in lieu of Caturix ) and Rosmerta as well as Mithras . Although the Gaulish language had mostly been ousted by Latin by the 3rd century, many Celtic toponyms have survived in Switzerland. Of the ten largest present-day Swiss cities, at least six have Celtic placename etymologies, and most major Swiss rivers have either Celtic or pre-Celtic names. The order and prosperity of

8370-549: Was relatively densely populated. Settlement centres existed in the Aare valley between Thun and Bern , and between Lake Zurich and the river Reuss . The Valais and the regions around Bellinzona and Lugano also seem to have been well-populated; however, those lay outside the Helvetian borders. Almost all the Helvetic oppida were built in the vicinity of the larger rivers of the Swiss midlands. Not all of them existed at

8463-499: Was still alive in 58 BC or, if yes, that he was physically still capable of undertaking such a journey at all, seems more than doubtful. The Helvetii and Rauraci most likely lost their status as foederati only six years after the battle of Bibracte, when they supported Vercingetorix in 52 BC with 8,000 and 2,000 men, respectively. Sometime between 50 and 45 BC, the Romans founded the Colonia Iulia Equestris at

8556-528: Was the countess Matilda of Canossa (d. 1115), who, according to legend, ordered the construction of the precious Rotonda di San Lorenzo (or St. Lawrence's Roundchurch) in 1082. The Rotonda still exists today and was renovated in 2013. After the death of Matilda of Canossa, Mantua became a free commune and strenuously defended itself from the influence of the Holy Roman Empire during the 12th and 13th centuries. In 1198, Alberto Pitentino altered

8649-600: Was the daughter of Duke Ercole the ruler of Ferrara ) she created her famous studiolo firstly in Castello di San Giorgio for which she commissioned paintings from Mantegna , Perugino and Lorenzo Costa . She later moved her studiolo to the Corte Vecchia and commissioned two paintings from Correggio to join the five from Castello di San Giorgio. It was unusual for a woman to have a studiolo in 15th century Italy given they were regarded as masculine spaces. Isabella

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