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87-752: Ashvamedhika Parva begins with an advice from Krishna and Vyasa who recommend Yudhishthira to perform the Ashvamedha ceremony. Yudhishthira discloses that the treasury is empty because of the war. Krishna suggests mining gold in Himavat, near mount Meru . He recites the story of king Muratta. Yudhishthira proceeds with the effort to mine gold, fill his treasury and perform the Ashvamedhika ceremony. The book includes Anugita parva, over 36 chapters, which Krishna describes as mini Bhagavad Gita . The chapters are recited because Arjuna tells Krishna that he

174-561: A Brahmi script inscription, was discovered by colonial era archaeologists in Besnagar ( Vidisha , in the central Indian state of Madhya Pradesh ). Based on the internal evidence of the inscription, it has been dated to between 125 and 100   BCE and is now known after Heliodorus – an Indo-Greek who served as an ambassador of the Greek king Antialcidas to a regional Indian king, Kasiputra Bhagabhadra . The Heliodorus pillar inscription

261-569: A cumulative total of between 16,000 and 18,000 verses depending on the version. The tenth book of the text, which contains about 4,000 verses (~25%) and is dedicated to legends about Krishna, has been the most popular and widely studied part of this text. Krishna is represented in the Indian traditions in many ways, but with some common features. His iconography typically depicts him with black, dark, or blue skin, like Vishnu . However, ancient and medieval reliefs and stone-based arts depict him in

348-792: A dancing child, or an innocent-looking child playfully stealing or consuming butter ( Makkan Chor ), holding Laddu in his hand ( Laddu Gopal ) or as a cosmic infant sucking his toe while floating on a banyan leaf during the Pralaya (the cosmic dissolution) observed by sage Markandeya . Regional variations in the iconography of Krishna are seen in his different forms, such as Jaganatha in Odisha, Vithoba in Maharashtra, Shrinathji in Rajasthan and Guruvayoorappan in Kerala. Guidelines for

435-416: A metaphor where each of the eight wives signifies a different aspect of him. Vaishnava texts mention all Gopis as wives of Krishna, but this is understood as spiritual symbolism of devotional relationship and Krishna's complete loving devotion to each and everyone devoted to him. In Krishna-related Hindu traditions, he is most commonly seen with Radha . All of his wives and his lover Radha are considered in

522-687: A navigable river named the Jobares. According to Edwin Bryant , a professor of Indian religions known for his publications on Krishna, "there is little doubt that the Sourasenoi refers to the Shurasenas, a branch of the Yadu dynasty to which Krishna belonged". The word Herakles, states Bryant, is likely a Greek phonetic equivalent of Hari-Krishna, as is Methora of Mathura, Kleisobora of Krishnapura, and

609-535: A poetic masterpiece, full of imagination and metaphors, with no relation to the realism of pastoral life found in the Harivamsa . Krishna's life is presented as a cosmic play ( Lila ), where his youth is set as a princely life with his foster father Nanda portrayed as a king. Krishna's life is closer to that of a human being in Harivamsa , but is a symbolic universe in the Bhagavata Purana , where Krishna

696-476: A poor herder but weaves in poetic and allusive fantasy. It ends on a triumphal note, not with the death of Krishna. Differing in some details, the fifth book of the Vishnu Purana moves away from Harivamsa realism and embeds Krishna in mystical terms and eulogies. The Vishnu Purana manuscripts exist in many versions. The tenth and eleventh books of the Bhagavata Purana are widely considered to be

783-460: A saint from Gaudiya Vaishnava school , who described Krishna theology in terms of Bhakti yoga and Achintya Bheda Abheda . Krishna theology is presented in a pure monism ( Shuddhadvaita ) framework by Vallabha Acharya , the founder of Pushti sect of Vaishnavism. Madhusudana Sarasvati, an India philosopher, presented Krishna theology in nondualism-monism framework ( Advaita Vedanta ), while Adi Shankara , credited with unifying and establishing

870-634: A student of the sage Ghora of the Angirasa family. Ghora is identified with Neminatha , the twenty-second tirthankara in Jainism , by some scholars. This phrase, which means "To Krishna the son of Devaki ", has been mentioned by scholars such as Max Müller as a potential source of fables and Vedic lore about Krishna in the Mahabharata and other ancient literature – only potential because this verse could have been interpolated into

957-470: A young boy playing a flute , a young boy with Radha or surrounded by female devotees, or a friendly charioteer giving counsel to Arjuna . The name and synonyms of Krishna have been traced to 1st   millennium   BCE literature and cults. In some sub-traditions, like Krishnaism , Krishna is worshipped as the Supreme God and Svayam Bhagavan (God Himself). These sub-traditions arose in

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1044-499: Is 3.1.3–4.1–2 3.1.3–4.1–2 . They range from 24 to 58 cm (9.4 to 22.8 in) in head-to-body length, excluding the tail. In weight, they range from 320 g (11 oz) to 5 kg (11 lb). Mongooses are one of at least four known mammalian taxa with mutations in the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor that protect against snake venom . Their modified receptors prevent the snake venom α-neurotoxin from binding. These represent four separate, independent mutations. In

1131-488: Is "mongooses". Mongooses have long faces and bodies, small, rounded ears, short legs, and long, tapering tails. Most are brindled or grizzly; a few have strongly marked coats which bear a striking resemblance to mustelids . Their nonretractile claws are used primarily for digging. Mongooses, much like goats, have narrow, ovular pupils . Most species have a large anal scent gland, used for territorial marking and signaling reproductive status. The dental formula of mongooses

1218-529: Is a private religious dedication of Heliodorus to " Vāsudeva ", an early deity and another name for Krishna in the Indian tradition. It states that the column was constructed by "the Bhagavata Heliodorus" and that it is a " Garuda pillar" (both are Vishnu-Krishna-related terms). Additionally, the inscription includes a Krishna-related verse from chapter   11.7 of the Mahabharata stating that

1305-450: Is a year-long event where the horse roams any land in any direction it wishes to. The horse is followed by an army led by Arjuna, whose mission is to challenge any ruler who objects the free movement of the horse. This ceremony establishes the primacy of Yudhishthira as the emperor, and his recognition by other rulers and kingdoms. On his way Arjuna battled grandsons of Trigartas, Bhagdatta's son, Saindhavas who were able to overpower Arjuna who

1392-693: Is also known by various other names, epithets, and titles that reflect his many associations and attributes. Among the most common names are Mohan "enchanter"; Govinda "chief herdsman", Keev "prankster", and Gopala "Protector of the 'Go'", which means "soul" or "the cows". Some names for Krishna hold regional importance; Jagannatha , found in the Puri Hindu temple, is a popular incarnation in Odisha state and nearby regions of eastern India . The tradition of Krishna appears to be an amalgamation of several independent deities of ancient India,

1479-822: Is always pleasure. All associations have dissociations for their end, and life has death for its end; All action ends in destruction, and all that is born certainly dies. Everything is transient, everything ends; Only of knowledge, there is no end. Aswamedhika Parva was composed in Sanskrit. Several translations of the book in English are available. Two translations from 19th century, now in public domain, are those by Kisari Mohan Ganguli and Manmatha Nath Dutt. The translations vary with each translator's interpretations. Debroy, in 2011, notes that updated critical edition of Ashvamedhika Parva, after removing verses and chapters generally accepted so far as spurious and inserted into

1566-555: Is celebrated as Krishna Janmashtami . The legends of Krishna's childhood and youth describe him as a cow-herder, a mischievous boy whose pranks earn him the nickname Makhan Chor (butter thief), and a protector who steals the hearts of the people in both Gokul and Vrindavana. The texts state, for example, that Krishna lifts the Govardhana hill to protect the inhabitants of Vrindavana from devastating rains and floods . Other legends describe him as an enchanter and playful lover of

1653-614: Is derived from names used in India for Herpestes species: muṅgūs or maṅgūs in classical Hindi ; muṅgūs in Marathi ; mungisa in Telugu ; mungi , mungisi and munguli in Kannada . The form of the English name (since 1698) was altered to its "- goose " ending by folk etymology . It was spelled "mungoose" in the 18th and 19th centuries. The plural form

1740-578: Is destitute of faith or his understanding is not good as that discourse is impossible to repeat, in detail, what he told him in higher state. However, out of affection, Krishna tells him other ancient stories to help know the nature of Brahman. After this, Krishna returns to Dwaraka and on his way he meets ascetic Utanka . The sage tries to curse Krishna for not doing enough to avert the war. Krishna apologizes for his act but tells him that low level curses cannot put him down and curses cause destruction of merit. He tells him that he strove his best for peace, but it

1827-416: Is impossible to transgress destiny by either intelligence or might. He then discourse him on Darkness, Passion and Goodness, saying Dharma is very dear to him, so in every yuga he took birth in diverse wombs, for restoring it, with the aid of others. He did this for protecting Righteousness and for establishing it. Whether he live among deities, Gandharvas, Nagas, Yakshas or Rakshasas, he lived & acted after

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1914-415: Is moved and says his heart will not allow him to fight and kill others. He would rather renounce the kingdom and put down his Gandiva (Arjuna's bow). Krishna then advises him about the nature of life, ethics, and morality when one is faced with a war between good and evil, the impermanence of matter, the permanence of the soul and the good, duties and responsibilities, the nature of true peace and bliss and

2001-406: Is not equal to the tiny amount of barley by an unccha-vow ascetic." Yudhishthira does not understand, so asks the mongoose for an explanation. The mongoose tells them a story: Long ago, there was a terrible famine. The ascetic and his family had nothing to eat. To find food, the ascetic would do what people on unccha vow do - go to fields already harvested, and like pigeons pick left over grains from

2088-409: Is the tree, Emancipation is the fruit, Tranquility is the shade; It has Knowledge for its resting house, Contentment for its water, and Kshetrajna for its sun. Tranquility is praised by those who are conversant with the forest of knowledge. Anugita parva, Chapter 44: Days end with the sun’s setting, and nights with the sun’s rising; the end of pleasure is always sorrow, and the end of sorrow

2175-401: Is thrashing around, and at the other end a person seemingly holding a basket over his head. The earliest text containing detailed descriptions of Krishna as a personality is the epic Mahabharata , which depicts Krishna as an incarnation of Vishnu. Krishna is central to many of the main stories of the epic. The eighteen chapters of the sixth book ( Bhishma Parva ) of the epic that constitute

2262-516: Is unable to recollect the wisdom of Bhagavad Gita in the time of peace, and would like to listen to Krishna's wisdom again. Krishna recites Anugita - literally, Subsequent Gita - as a dialogue between a Brahmin's wife and Brahma. Scholars have suggested Anugita to be a spurious addition to Ashvamedhika Parva in medieval times, and a corruption of the original Mahabharata. Ashvamedhika Parva (book) traditionally has 2 sub-parvas (parts or little books) and 96 adhyayas (sections, chapters). The following are

2349-521: Is unrelated to the later Hindu god of the Bhagavad Gita fame. For example, Archer states that the coincidence of the two names appearing together in the same Upanishad verse cannot be dismissed easily. Yāska 's Nirukta , an etymological dictionary published around the 6th   century   BCE, contains a reference to the Shyamantaka jewel in the possession of Akrura , a motif from

2436-587: Is widely revered among Hindu divinities. Krishna's birthday is celebrated every year by Hindus on Krishna Janmashtami according to the lunisolar Hindu calendar , which falls in late August or early September of the Gregorian calendar . The anecdotes and narratives of Krishna's life are generally titled as Krishna Līlā . He is a central figure in the Mahabharata , the Bhagavata Purana ,

2523-577: Is within the universe and beyond it, as well as the universe itself, always. The Bhagavata Purana manuscripts also exist in many versions, in numerous Indian languages. Chaitanya Mahaprabhu is considered as the incarnation of Krishna in Gaudiya Vaishnavism and by the ISKCON community. The date of Krishna's birth is celebrated every year as Janmashtami . According to Guy Beck, "most scholars of Hinduism and Indian history accept

2610-553: The Bhagavad Gita can be considered, according to Friedhelm Hardy , as the first Krishnaite system of theology. Ramanuja , a Hindu theologian and philosopher whose works were influential in Bhakti movement , presented him in terms of qualified monism , or nondualism (namely Vishishtadvaita school). Madhvacharya , a philosopher whose works led to the founding of Haridasa tradition of Vaishnavism, presented Krishna in

2697-445: The Bhagavad Gita contain the advice of Krishna to Arjuna on the battlefield. During the ancient times that the Bhagavad Gita was composed in, Krishna was widely seen as an avatar of Vishnu rather than an individual deity , yet he was immensely powerful and almost everything in the universe other than Vishnu was "somehow present in the body of Krishna". Krishna had "no beginning or end", "fill[ed] space", and every god but Vishnu

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2784-475: The Brahma Vaivarta Purana , and the Bhagavad Gita , and is mentioned in many Hindu philosophical , theological , and mythological texts. They portray him in various perspectives: as a god-child, a prankster, a model lover, a divine hero, and the universal supreme being. His iconography reflects these legends and shows him in different stages of his life, such as an infant eating butter,

2871-659: The Mahābhārata , the Harivamsa , the Bhagavata Purana , and the Vishnu Purana . The scenes from the narrative are set in ancient India, mostly in the present states of Uttar Pradesh , Bihar, Rajasthan , Haryana, Delhi, and Gujarat . The legends about Krishna's life are called Krishna charitas ( IAST : Kṛṣṇacaritas). In the Krishna Charitas , Krishna is born to Devaki and her husband, Vasudeva , of

2958-639: The Yadava clan in Mathura . Devaki's brother is a tyrant named Kamsa . At Devaki's wedding, according to Puranic legends, Kamsa is told by fortune tellers that a child of Devaki would kill him. Sometimes, it is depicted as an akashvani announcing Kamsa's death. Kamsa arranges to kill all of Devaki's children. When Krishna is born, Vasudeva secretly carries the infant Krishna away across the Yamuna, and exchanges him with Yashoda 's daughter. When Kamsa tries to kill

3045-758: The family Herpestidae . This family has two subfamilies, the Herpestinae and the Mungotinae . The Herpestinae comprises 23 living species that are native to southern Europe , Africa and Asia , whereas the Mungotinae comprises 11 species native to Africa. The Herpestidae originated about 21.8  ± 3.6 million years ago in the Early Miocene and genetically diverged into two main genetic lineages between 19.1 and 18.5  ± 3.5 million years ago . The name

3132-802: The 2nd century BCE with the coinage of Agathocles and the Heliodorus pillar, but the name of Krishna appears rather later in epigraphy. At the Chilas II archaeological site dated to the first half of the 1st-century CE in northwest Pakistan, near the Afghanistan border, are engraved two males, along with many Buddhist images nearby. The larger of the two males held a plough and club in his two hands. The artwork also has an inscription with it in Kharosthi script, which has been deciphered by scholars as Rama-Krsna , and interpreted as an ancient depiction of

3219-577: The Hindu tradition to be the avatars of the goddess Lakshmi , the consort of Vishnu. Gopis are considered as Lakshmi's or Radha's manifestations. According to the epic poem Mahabharata , Krishna becomes Arjuna's charioteer for the Kurukshetra War , but on the condition that he personally will not raise any weapon. Upon arrival at the battlefield and seeing that the enemies are his family, his grandfather, and his cousins and loved ones, Arjuna

3306-532: The Jobares of Jamuna . Later, when Alexander the Great launched his campaign in the northwest Indian subcontinent , his associates recalled that the soldiers of Porus were carrying an image of Herakles. The Buddhist Pali canon and the Ghata-Jâtaka (No.   454) polemically mention the devotees of Vâsudeva and Baladeva. These texts have many peculiarities and may be a garbled and confused version of

3393-655: The Krishna legends. The texts of Jainism mention these tales as well, also with many peculiarities and different versions, in their legends about Tirthankaras . This inclusion of Krishna-related legends in ancient Buddhist and Jaina literature suggests that Krishna theology was existent and important in the religious landscape observed by non-Hindu traditions of ancient India . The ancient Sanskrit grammarian Patanjali in his Mahabhashya makes several references to Krishna and his associates found in later Indian texts. In his commentary on Pāṇini's verse 3.1.26, he also uses

3480-549: The Mahabharata discovered in India in early to mid 19th century, show inconsistencies in the 36 Chapters of Anugita, including the name itself. The so-called Bombay manuscripts further splits the Anugita into Anugita, Vasudevagamana, Brahma Gita, Brahmana Gita, Gurusishya samvada and Uttankopakhyana. The Madras, Calcutta and Ahmedabad manuscripts give different names. Hall suggests Anugita may have been composed and inserted into

3567-533: The Sanskrit canon". Some scholars believe that, among others, the detailed description of Krishna's peace mission in the 5th Book of the Mahabharata (Udyogaparvan) is likely to be based on real events. The epic's translator J.A.B. van Buitenen in this context assumes “that there was some degree of verisimilitude in the Mahabharata’s depictions of life.” A wide range of theological and philosophical ideas are presented through Krishna in Hindu texts. The teachings of

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3654-522: The Sanskrit word kṛṣṇa , which means "black", "dark" or "dark blue". The waning moon is called Krishna Paksha , relating to the adjective meaning "darkening". Some Vaishnavas also translate the word as "All-Attractive", though it lacks that meaning in Sanskrit. As a name of Vishnu , Krishna is listed as the 57th name in the Vishnu Sahasranama . Based on his name, Krishna is often depicted in idols as black- or blue-skinned. Krishna

3741-567: The Yadavas to the newly built city of Dwaraka . Thereafter Pandavas rise. Krishna befriends Arjuna and the other Pandava princes of the Kuru kingdom. Krishna plays a key role in the Mahabharata . The Bhagavata Purana describes eight wives of Krishna that appear in sequence as Rukmini , Satyabhama , Jambavati , Kalindi , Mitravinda , Nagnajiti (also called Satya), Bhadra and Lakshmana (also called Madra). This has been interpreted as

3828-524: The air to "steal" butter or buttermilk, spilling it all over the group. Krishna legends then describe his return to Mathura. He overthrows and kills the tyrant king, his maternal uncle Kamsa/Kansa after quelling several assassination attempts by Kamsa. He reinstates Kamsa's father, Ugrasena , as the king of the Yadavas and becomes a leading prince at the court. In one version of the Krishna story, as narrated by Shanta Rao, Krishna after Kamsa's death leads

3915-572: The coins appear to be Saṃkarṣaṇa - Balarama with attributes consisting of the Gada mace and the plow , and Vāsudeva-Krishna with attributes of the Shankha (conch) and the Sudarshana Chakra wheel. According to Bopearachchi , the headdress of the deity is actually a misrepresentation of a shaft with a half-moon parasol on top ( chattra ). The Heliodorus Pillar , a stone pillar with

4002-653: The context of the medieval era Bhakti movement . Krishna-related literature has inspired numerous performance arts such as Bharatanatyam , Kathakali , Kuchipudi , Odissi , and Manipuri dance . He is a pan-Hindu god, but is particularly revered in some locations, such as Vrindavan in Uttar Pradesh, Dwarka and Junagadh in Gujarat; the Jagannatha aspect in Odisha , Mayapur in West Bengal; in

4089-440: The court of Chandragupta Maurya towards the end of 4th   century   BCE, made reference to Herakles in his famous work Indica . This text is now lost to history, but was quoted in secondary literature by later Greeks such as Arrian , Diodorus , and Strabo . According to these texts, Megasthenes mentioned that the Sourasenoi tribe of India, who worshipped Herakles, had two major cities named Methora and Kleisobora, and

4176-580: The different types of yoga to reach this state of bliss and inner liberation. This conversation between Krishna and Arjuna is presented as a discourse called the Bhagavad Gita . It is stated in the Indian texts that the legendary Kurukshetra War led to the death of all the hundred sons of Gandhari. After Duryodhana's death, Krishna visits Gandhari to offer his condolences when Gandhari and Dhritarashtra visited Kurukshetra, as stated in Stree Parva. Feeling that Krishna deliberately did not put an end to

4263-642: The earliest to be attested being Vāsudeva . Vāsudeva was a hero-god of the tribe of the Vrishnis , belonging to the Vrishni heroes , whose worship is attested from the 5th–6th century BCE in the writings of Pāṇini , and from the 2nd century BCE in epigraphy with the Heliodorus pillar . At one point in time, it is thought that the tribe of the Vrishnis fused with the tribe of the Yadavas , whose own hero-god

4350-433: The events that led to the Bhagavad Gita  – a scripture of Hinduism. In these popular depictions, Krishna appears in the front as the charioteer, either as a counsel listening to Arjuna or as the driver of the chariot while Arjuna aims his arrows in the battlefield of Kurukshetra . Alternate icons of Krishna show him as a baby ( Bala Krishna , the child Krishna), a toddler crawling on his hands and knees,

4437-524: The family as "Mungotidae". Genetic research based on nuclear and mitochondrial DNA analyses revealed that the Galidiinae are more closely related to Madagascar carnivores, including the fossa and Malagasy civet . Galidiinae is considered a subfamily of Eupleridae . Phylogenetic research of 18 mongoose species revealed that the solitary and social mongooses form different clades . The phylogenetic relationships of Herpestidae are shown in

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4524-406: The figural sculpture on 17th–19th century terracotta temples of Bengal. In many temples, the stories of Krishna are depicted on a long series of narrow panels along the base of the facade. In other temples, the important Krishnalila episodes are depicted on large brick panels above the entrance arches or on the walls surrounding the entrance. This summary is an account based on literary details from

4611-2075: The following cladogram: Bdeogale jacksoni ( Jackson's mongoose ) Bdeogale nigripes ( Black-footed mongoose ) Bdeogale crassicauda ( Bushy-tailed mongoose ) Rhynchogale melleri ( Meller's mongoose ) [REDACTED] Paracynictis selousi ( Selous's mongoose ) Cynictis penicillata ( Yellow mongoose ) Ichneumia albicauda ( White-tailed mongoose ) Herpestes ichneumon ( Egyptian mongoose ) Herpestes sanguinea ( Slender mongoose ) Herpestes pulverulenta ( Cape gray mongoose ) Herpestes ochracea ( Somalian slender mongoose ) Herpestes flavescens ( Angolan slender mongoose ) (including black mongoose ) Atilax paludinosus ( Marsh mongoose ) Xenogale naso ( Long-nosed mongoose ) † " Herpestes lemanensis " Urva brachyura ( Short-tailed mongoose ) Urva semitorquata ( Collared mongoose ) Urva urva ( Crab-eating mongoose ) Urva smithii ( Ruddy mongoose ) Urva vitticolla ( Stripe-necked mongoose ) Urva fusca ( Indian brown mongoose ) Urva edwardsii ( Indian gray mongoose ) Urva javanica ( Small Asian mongoose ) [REDACTED] Helogale parvula ( Common dwarf mongoose ) Helogale hirtula ( Ethiopian dwarf mongoose ) Dologale dybowskii ( Pousargues's mongoose ) Crossarchus alexandri ( Alexander's kusimanse ) Crossarchus ansorgei ( Angolan kusimanse ) Crossarchus platycephalus ( Flat-headed kusimanse ) Crossarchus obscurus ( Common kusimanse ) [REDACTED] Liberiictis kuhni ( Liberian mongoose ) Mungos gambianus ( Gambian mongoose ) Mungos mungo ( Banded mongoose ) [REDACTED] Suricata suricatta ( Meerkat ) [REDACTED] Atilax Cuvier , 1826 Herpestes Illiger , 1811 Leptoplesictis Major, 1903 Mongooses mostly feed on insects , crabs , earthworms , lizards , birds , and rodents . However, they also eat eggs and carrion . Some species can learn simple tricks. They can be tamed and are kept as pets to control vermin . In ancient Mesopotamia , mongooses were sacred to

4698-869: The form of Vithoba in Pandharpur , Maharashtra, Shrinathji at Nathdwara in Rajasthan, Udupi Krishna in Karnataka , Parthasarathy in Tamil Nadu and in Aranmula , Kerala, and Guruvayoorappan in Guruvayoor in Kerala. Since the 1960s, the worship of Krishna has also spread to the Western world and to Africa, largely due to the work of the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON). The name "Krishna" originates from

4785-423: The form of the god Dharma . The god gives the family a boon and fills their home with food, saying that it is not the quantity of a sacrifice that matters, but rather the quality of care and love in the sacrifice, given one's circumstances. The mongoose asks if Yudhishthira is confident that his animal sacrifice would please the deity Dharma . Before Yudhishthira can answer, the mongoose disappears. The Rishis at

4872-471: The framework of dualism ( Dvaita ). Bhedabheda  – a group of schools, which teaches that the individual self is both different and not different from the ultimate reality – predates the positions of monism and dualism. Among medieval Bhedabheda thinkers are Nimbarkacharya , who founded the Kumara Sampradaya (Dvaitadvaita philosophical school), and Jiva Goswami ,

4959-558: The gopis (milkmaids) of Vrindavana, especially Radha . These metaphor-filled love stories are known as the Rasa lila and were romanticized in the poetry of Jayadeva , author of the Gita Govinda . They are also central to the development of the Krishna bhakti traditions worshiping Radha Krishna . Krishna's childhood illustrates the Hindu concept of Lila , playing for fun and enjoyment and not for sport or gain. His interaction with

5046-475: The gopis at the rasa dance or Rasa-lila is an example. Krishna plays his flute and the gopis come immediately, from whatever they were doing, to the banks of the Yamuna River and join him in singing and dancing. Even those who could not physically be there join him through meditation. He is the spiritual essence and the love-eternal in existence, the gopis metaphorically represent the prakṛti matter and

5133-411: The harvested field to find food. One day, after many hours of harsh work, the ascetic finds a handful of barley grains. He brings the grains home and his wife cooks them. Just when his son and daughter-in-law, his wife and he are about to eat their first meal in few days, a guest arrives. The ascetic washes the guest's feet and inquires how he is doing. The guest says he is hungry. The ascetic, explains

5220-401: The historicity of Krishna – that he was a real male person, whether human or divine, who lived on Indian soil by at least 1000 BCE and interacted with many other historical persons within the cycles of the epic and puranic histories." Yet, Beck also notes that there is an "enormous number of contradictions and discrepancies surrounding the chronology of Krishna's life as depicted in

5307-457: The horse. On his return he battled Sahadeva, Chedis, Gandharas and bested them. At the end of the year, victorious Arjuna's army and the horse return to the emperor's capital. When all the people were made gift, a half-golden mongoose came there who spoke to their amaze and compared that sacrifice inferior to that of a Brahmana family with just powdered barley, without any wealth & animal sacrifice, and then disappears. The various manuscripts of

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5394-501: The impermanent body. This Lila is a constant theme in the legends of Krishna's childhood and youth. Even when he is battling with a serpent to protect others, he is described in Hindu texts as if he were playing a game. This quality of playfulness in Krishna is celebrated during festivals as Rasa-Lila and Janmashtami , where Hindus in some regions such as Maharashtra playfully mimic his legends, such as by making human gymnastic pyramids to break open handis (clay pots) hung high in

5481-459: The location where Krishna is believed to have died. It is also known as Dehotsarga , states Diana L. Eck , a term that literally means the place where Krishna "gave up his body". The Bhagavata Purana in Book 11, Chapter 31 states that after his death, Krishna returned to his transcendent abode directly because of his yogic concentration. Waiting gods such as Brahma and Indra were unable to trace

5568-554: The main currents of thought in Hinduism , mentioned Krishna in his early eighth-century discussions on Panchayatana puja . The Bhagavata Purana synthesizes an Advaita, Samkhya, and Yoga framework for Krishna, but it does so through loving devotion to Krishna. Bryant describes the synthesis of ideas in Bhagavata Purana as: Mongoose A mongoose is a small terrestrial carnivorous mammal belonging to

5655-409: The manner of that order. Born he is now in the order of humanity, he must act as a human being. And later shows him his true form with a boon. Krishna on returning to Dwaraka when asked, narrates the battle to Vasudeva and others. And later with his power revives the deadborn Parikshit. The royal ceremony of the Ashvamedha was initiated by Yudhishthira , after recommendations of Krishna . The ceremony

5742-436: The mongoose, gives his guest his own share of cooked barley. The guest eats it, but says it was too little, he is still hungry. The wife of the ascetic hears the guest and offers her own share of cooked barley, even though she too is starving. The guest eats that too, but says he still feels hungry. The ascetic's son and daughter-in-law give all their share of cooked barley too. The guest finishes all, then smiles and re-appears in

5829-476: The mongoose, this change is effected, uniquely, by glycosylation . Herpestina was a scientific name proposed by Charles Lucien Bonaparte in 1845 who considered the mongooses a subfamily of the Viverridae . In 1864, John Edward Gray classified the mongooses into three subfamilies: Galidiinae , Herpestinae and Mungotinae. This grouping was supported by Reginald Innes Pocock in 1919, who referred to

5916-400: The natural color of the material out of which he is formed, both in India and in southeast Asia. In some texts, his skin is poetically described as the color of Jambul ( Jamun , a purple-colored fruit). Krishna is often depicted wearing a peacock-feather wreath or crown, and playing the bansuri (Indian flute). In this form, he is usually shown standing with one leg bent in front of

6003-464: The newborn, the exchanged baby appears as the Hindu goddess Yogamaya , warning him that his death has arrived in his kingdom, and then disappears, according to the legends in the Puranas. Krishna grows up with Nanda and his wife, Yashoda , near modern-day Mathura . Two of Krishna's siblings also survive, namely Balarama and Subhadra , according to these legends. The day of the birth of Krishna

6090-432: The original sometime during the 16th or 17th century AD. Aswamedhika Parva includes the philosophical treatise Anûgîta, as well as many tales and fables such as the mongoose at the sacrifice. A mongoose with blue eyes and colored gold on one side, appears during the final Aswamedhika stages of the fire yajna by Yudhishthira and other kings. The mongoose, in a thundering human voice, says, "O kings, this animal sacrifice

6177-432: The original, has 1 parts, 96 adhyayas (chapters) and 2,741 shlokas (verses). Krishna Traditional Krishna ( / ˈ k r ɪ ʃ n ə / ; Sanskrit : कृष्ण, IAST : Kṛṣṇa [ˈkr̩ʂɳɐ] ) is a major deity in Hinduism . He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme God in his own right. He is the god of protection, compassion, tenderness, and love; and

6264-557: The other in the Tribhanga posture. He is sometimes accompanied by cows or a calf, which symbolise the divine herdsman Govinda . Alternatively, he is shown as a romantic young boy with the gopis (milkmaids), often making music or playing pranks. In other icons, he is a part of battlefield scenes of the epic Mahabharata . He is shown as a charioteer, notably when he is addressing the Pandava prince Arjuna , symbolically reflecting

6351-439: The path Krishna took to leave his human incarnation and return to his abode. There are numerous versions of Krishna's life story, of which three are most studied: the Harivamsa , the Bhagavata Purana , and the Vishnu Purana . They share the basic storyline but vary significantly in their specifics, details, and styles. The most original composition, the Harivamsa is told in a realistic style that describes Krishna's life as

6438-447: The path to immortality and heaven is to correctly live a life of three virtues: self- temperance ( damah ), generosity ( cagah or tyaga ), and vigilance ( apramadah ). The Heliodorus pillar site was fully excavated by archaeologists in the 1960s. The effort revealed the brick foundations of a much larger ancient elliptical temple complex with a sanctum, mandapas , and seven additional pillars. The Heliodorus pillar inscriptions and

6525-551: The preparation of Krishna icons in design and architecture are described in medieval-era Sanskrit texts on Hindu temple arts such as Vaikhanasa agama , Vishnu dharmottara , Brihat samhita , and Agni Purana . Similarly, early medieval-era Tamil texts also contain guidelines for sculpting Krishna and Rukmini. Several statues made according to these guidelines are in the collections of the Government Museum, Chennai . Krishna iconography forms an important element in

6612-536: The sub-parvas: The Parva starts with Yudhishthira overwhelmed with grief again sighing on the death of his relatives. Dhritrashtra, Vyasa and Vasudeva consoles him with narration of stories to give up affliction and perform a sacrifice with presents for fame. The Anugita sub-parva recites a restatement of Bhagavad Gita teachings by Krishna to Arjuna . Arjuna asks Krishna to repeat the holy discourse, what he told to him in time of battle as that has been forgotten by him. Krishna shows his disagreement and says that either he

6699-693: The supreme deity Narayana . These four inscriptions are notable for being some of the oldest-known Sanskrit inscriptions. A Mora stone slab found at the Mathura-Vrindavan archaeological site in Uttar Pradesh , held now in the Mathura Museum , has a Brahmi inscription. It is dated to the 1st   century   CE and mentions the five Vrishni heroes , otherwise known as Saṃkarṣaṇa, Vāsudeva, Pradyumna , Aniruddha , and Samba . The inscriptional record for Vāsudeva starts in

6786-435: The temple are among the earliest known evidence of Krishna-Vasudeva devotion and Vaishnavism in ancient India. The Heliodorus inscription is not isolated evidence. The Hathibada Ghosundi Inscriptions , all located in the state of Rajasthan and dated by modern methodology to the 1st   century   BCE, mention Saṃkarṣaṇa and Vāsudeva, also mention that the structure was built for their worship in association with

6873-619: The text, or the Krishna Devakiputra, could be different from the deity Krishna. These doubts are supported by the fact that the much later age Sandilya Bhakti Sutras , a treatise on Krishna, cites later age compilations such as the Narayana Upanishad but never cites this verse of the Chandogya Upanishad. Other scholars disagree that the Krishna mentioned along with Devaki in the ancient Upanishad

6960-458: The two brothers, Balarama and Krishna. The first known depiction of the life of Krishna himself comes relatively late, with a relief found in Mathura , and dated to the 1st–2nd century CE. This fragment seems to show Vasudeva , Krishna's father, carrying baby Krishna in a basket across the Yamuna . The relief shows at one end a seven-hooded Naga crossing a river, where a makara crocodile

7047-652: The war, in a fit of rage and sorrow, Gandhari said, "Thou were indifferent to the Kurus and the Pandavas whilst they slew each other. Therefore, O Govinda, thou shalt be the slayer of thy own kinsmen!" According to the Mahabharata , a fight breaks out at a festival among the Yadavas, who end up killing each other. Mistaking the sleeping Krishna for a deer, a hunter named Jara shoots an arrow towards Krishna's foot that fatally injures him. Krishna forgives Jara and dies. The pilgrimage ( tirtha ) site of Bhalka in Gujarat marks

7134-443: The well-known Puranic story about Krishna. Shatapatha Brahmana and Aitareya-Aranyaka associate Krishna with his Vrishni origins. In Ashṭādhyāyī , authored by the ancient grammarian Pāṇini (probably belonged to the 5th or 6th   century   BCE), Vāsudeva and Arjuna , as recipients of worship, are referred to together in the same sutra . Megasthenes , a Greek ethnographer and an ambassador of Seleucus I to

7221-492: The word Kamsavadha or the "killing of Kamsa", an important part of the legends surrounding Krishna. Many Puranas tell Krishna's life story or some highlights from it. Two Puranas, the Bhagavata Purana and the Vishnu Purana , contain the most elaborate telling of Krishna's story, but the life stories of Krishna in these and other texts vary, and contain significant inconsistencies. The Bhagavata Purana consists of twelve books subdivided into 332   chapters, with

7308-587: The yajna ask if animal sacrifice is appropriate, or should they show compassion for all creatures. Some suggest that seeds of grain be substituted, and the animals be set free. Listening to the discussion between the Rishis, king Vasu suggests in Ashvamedhika Parva, that large gifts from a sinful person are of no value, but even a small gift from a righteous person given with love is of great merit. Anugita parva , Chapter 27: In that forest, Intelligence

7395-648: Was fighting mildly as per his brother words, but at last defeated and spared by him. When Arjuna reaches Manipura, their ruler Vabhruvahana with his people welcomes him. Arjuna do not approve it and challenges him to battle. And as per Ulupi(Naga) words both fights, in which at last both struck each other and fell down. The latter's swoon was however due to his exertions in battle. Arjuna's wife Chitrangada comes and starts to lament for her husband death by his son and vows for suicide if he does not comes back. Ulupi(Arjuna's wife) at last uses her mystical gem to revive him and tells them her intentions. After which Arjuna again follows

7482-730: Was named Krishna. Vāsudeva and Krishna fused to become a single deity, which appears in the Mahabharata , and they started to be identified with Vishnu in the Mahabharata and the Bhagavad Gita . Around the 4th century CE, another tradition, the cult of Gopala-Krishna of the Ābhīras , the protector of cattle, was also absorbed into the Krishna tradition. Around 180 BCE, the Indo-Greek king Agathocles issued some coinage (discovered in Ai-Khanoum , Afghanistan) bearing images of deities that are now interpreted as being related to Vaisnava imagery in India. The deities displayed on

7569-567: Was seen as ultimately him, including Brahma , "storm gods, sun gods, bright gods", light gods, "and gods of ritual." Other forces also existed in his body, such as "hordes of varied creatures" that included "celestial serpents." He is also "the essence of humanity." The Harivamsa , a later appendix to the Mahabharata, contains a detailed version of Krishna's childhood and youth. The Chandogya Upanishad (verse III.xvii.6) mentions Krishna in Krishnaya Devakiputraya as

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