Ateneum is an art museum in Helsinki , Finland and one of the three museums forming the Finnish National Gallery . It is located in the centre of Helsinki on the south side of Rautatientori square close to Helsinki Central railway station . It has the biggest collections of classical art in Finland. Before 1991 the Ateneum building also housed the Finnish Academy of Fine Arts and University of Art and Design Helsinki .
133-640: The collections of Ateneum include Finnish art extensively from 18th-century rococo portraiture to the experimental art movements of the 20th century. The collections also include some 650 international works of art. One of them is Vincent van Gogh 's Street in Auvers-sur-Oise (1890), which when deposited to Ateneum in 1903 made it the first museum collection in the world to include a Vincent van Gogh painting. Other notable works include Albert Edelfelt ’s The Luxembourg Garden (1887), Akseli Gallen-Kallela ’s Aino Triptych (1891), Eero Järnefelt ’s Under
266-442: A revivalist and nostalgic style, inspired by 18th century literature and painting, and to follow a way of life similar to that of the old aristocracy, with its salons and sophisticated habits, attracting the attention of other writers and poets. Soon their number would become considerable, giving rise to a romantic undercurrent in literature and visual arts, called Fanciful Romanticism, which would have great popular acceptance between
399-494: A fashion, but the reception of the style in England was not without contradictions, since historically the relations between the two countries were marked by conflict. The elites, however, taking advantage of a period of peace, knew how to separate political and aesthetic issues, visiting France as tourists, encouraging the migration of French craftsmen, and importing large quantities of decorative objects and rococo art pieces, while
532-402: A flexibilization of French culture, until then strongly ceremonial and dominated by representations that aimed above all the praise of the king and his power and manifested themselves in a grandiloquent and pompous way. The disappearance of the very personification of absolutism enabled the nobility to regain some of the power and influence that had been centered on the person of the monarch, and
665-546: A fundamental role in the composition of the work. From France , where it assumed its most typical feature and where it was later recognized as national heritage, Rococo soon spread throughout Europe, but significantly changing its purposes and keeping only the external form of the French model, with important centers of cultivation in Germany , England , Austria , and Italy , with some representation also in other places, such as
798-481: A greater freedom than in Baroque or academic painting. The brush strokes are clear and nimble, with the creation of textures and an effect sometimes similar to that of impressionist paintings, giving many compositions an aspect of sketch, of unfinished, which engaged the viewer more efficiently, asking him to mentally complete what had been presented schematically. Realistic detailing and the primacy of line are denied,
931-598: A late representative of the Rococo and celebrated portraitist, whose career extends into Romanticism, but who initially left works of extraordinary charm and jovial grace. Although much of the Germanic Rococo owes directly to France, its main source is the development of the Italian Baroque, and in these countries the distinction between Rococo and Baroque is more difficult and subjective. In Italy, home of
1064-968: A mark on so many churches and palaces. In the painting of other countries the impact of the Rococo was more limited, but some more or less isolated cases deserve note: in Spain, Goya in his first phase and Ramón Bayeu y Subías ; in the United States, John Singleton Copley ; in Russia, Dmitry Levitsky , Ivan Argunov and Fyodor Rokotov ; in the Netherlands, Rachel Ruysch and Jan van Huysum ; in Scandinavia, Carl Gustaf Pilo and Georg Desmarées ; in Portugal Vieira Portuense and Pedro Alexandrino de Carvalho, and in Brazil
1197-515: A model typified in the Fête galante (elegant feast), illustrated so well in Watteau 's work, where the aristocrats spend their time in sophisticated entertainments in a dreamy atmosphere not devoid of erotic connotations, reminiscent of the idyllic world supposed to exist in classical antiquity . Rococo painting is above all intimate, not intended for the general public, but for the consumption of
1330-430: A more immediate and intense global sensory response, which was one of the parameters for the qualification of a work of art at that time, and inscribed in a broader conception of life where the carefree pleasure of living was the keynote. More suggesting than explaining, more inviting to the public's complementary fantasy than presenting it in its entirety, which would be considered offensive, the eroticism in rococo painting
1463-417: A more popular universe, although he was equally capable of staying within the limits of public decency at other times and creating pieces of great dignity and delicate charm. The other great French figure is Jean-Honoré Fragonard , a pupil of Boucher and an accomplished colorist who continued the tradition of poetic and sensual allegories of his predecessors, but was also appreciated by his contemporaries for
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#17327723675241596-715: A movement which came into prominence in the mid-19th century, emphasized the common heritage and unity of all the Slavic peoples. The main focus was in the Balkans where the South Slavs had been ruled for centuries by other empires: the Byzantine Empire, Austria-Hungary , the Ottoman Empire , and Venice . Austro-Hungary envisioned its own political concept of Austro-Slavism , in opposition of Pan-Slavism that
1729-451: A paradigm of the aesthetics of pleasure typical of the Rococo, the island being the birthplace of Venus , Norman Bryson says that the painter's style provides just enough narrative content to suggest a particular reading of the work, but not to exhaust it, establishing a "semantic vacuum" that initiates a practice of dissociation between the reference text and the painting that illustrates it that prefigures modernity, minimizing dependence on
1862-471: A reaffirmation of masculine principles and the rehabilitation of moralizing historical painting at the expense of the graceful, intimate, and sensual femininity of the Rococo. But the eclipse of the style was brief. Once the most rigorous phase of Neoclassicism was over and European political stability had been restored to some degree after the Revolution and the final failure of Napoleon Bonaparte , in
1995-410: A society that still carried a rigid social stratification and represented the final phase of the old feudal economic system. The Enlightenment questioned the foundations of this society and the model of civilization and culture it proposed, dissolving the hierarchies and modes of patronage that nourished rococo painting, already seen as frivolous, effeminate, elitist, and excessively ornamental, thinking
2128-509: A style of simplifying the scenery, of nonspecific and theatricalized description, and of altering its basic colors and sense of perspective , artificialisms typical of the Rococo, besides having left behind important work in the field of portraiture. Mention should also be made of the German immigrant Johan Zoffany , owner of an original style, creating complex interior settings crammed with works of art and group portraits, and Thomas Lawrence ,
2261-464: A typology that combined portraiture with landscape painting, introduced by the immigrant Philippe Mercier and possibly inspired by Watteau 's Fêtes galantes . The genre was also cultivated by Francis Hayman , Arthur Devis , and Thomas Gainsborough , perhaps the most typical and brilliant painter of the English Rococo. Gainsborough also practiced pure landscape painting, where he developed
2394-476: A varied theme that ranged from the domestic scene to the urban landscape, including mythological allegories and sacred works. One of the main Germanic figures is Franz Anton Maulbertsch , active in a vast region of central and eastern Europe decorating numerous churches, considered one of the great masters of fresco of the eighteenth century. An original talent, brilliant technique and great colorist, he broke
2527-419: A vehicle for meanings important to the class that ruled Europe in the eighteenth century, a fact that is enough in itself to give it great historical and documentary interest. It is also widely admitted that in its best moments, Rococo painting reaches very high levels of technical excellence, and it is difficult for even the most hardened moralist to remain insensitive to its charm and its plastic richness, and to
2660-417: Is also important to point out that, according to the sophisticated culture of the aristocracy, civilization was a necessarily artificial phenomenon, and an educated and polished spectator was expected to be able to make the subtle distinctions between the real and the fictional, to be able to deal with the complexities of art, and to be able to defend himself from crude charlatanism and cheap illusion, indicating
2793-547: Is also no evidence of Asian admixture. However, samples of Novosibirsk residents and Old Believers in Siberia have 5-10% Central Siberian ancestry despite being genetically close to European Slavs. The pagan Slavic populations were Christianized between the 7th and 12th centuries. Orthodox Christianity is predominant among East and South Slavs, while Catholicism is predominant among West Slavs and some western South Slavs . The religious borders are largely comparable to
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#17327723675242926-449: Is clear is that there is still much controversy and contradictions in studies on Rococo, but nowadays critics more or less agree in seeing in the philosophy underlying Rococo painting elements of superficiality, elitism, pure hedonism, and alienation, but says that these aspects do not tell the whole story and that clinging to them from modern moral presuppositions may prevent the public from recognizing its value as art in its own right and as
3059-408: Is defined as the last stage of the language preceding the geographical split of the historical Slavic languages . That language was uniform, and on the basis of borrowings from foreign languages and Slavic borrowings into other languages, it cannot be said to have any recognizable dialects, which suggests that there was, at one time, a relatively-small Proto-Slavic homeland . Slavic linguistic unity
3192-451: Is more penetrating and efficient than in compositions where the meaning is exhausted from the start by the obviousness of direct references. Even with this dominant aura more of suggestion and insinuation, examples of cruder eroticism are also found, especially in the work of François Boucher , one of the great masters of the Rococo, who, according to Arnold Hauser , made his fame and fortune "painting breasts and buttocks" and thus approached
3325-493: Is not limited to France, even though it appeared there most fully, typically and essentially, and is the basic reference of the entire style, but manifested itself in a great variety of forms in a vast area of the West, adapting itself to other demands and reflecting very diverse vital experiences and worldviews, and second, when we analyze its more difficult aspects, more paradoxical and more prone to criticism, that we try to penetrate
3458-486: Is somewhat unusual, given such a wide dispersal of Slavic populations. Together they form the basis of the " East European " gene cluster , which also includes non-Slavic Hungarians and Aromanians . Only Northern Russians among East and West Slavs belong to a different, " Northern European " genetic cluster, along with Balts , Germanic and Baltic Finnic peoples (Northern Russian populations are very similar to Balts). The 2006 Y-DNA study results "suggest that
3591-781: Is the most spoken Slavic language, and is the most spoken native language in Europe. The alphabets used for Slavic languages are usually connected to the dominant religion among the respective ethnic groups. Orthodox Christians use the Cyrillic alphabet while Catholics use the Latin alphabet ; the Bosniaks, who are Muslim, also use the Latin alphabet and Cyrillic alphabet in Serbia. Additionally, some Eastern Catholics and Western Catholics use
3724-515: Is usually understood in Helsinki to refer to the long-lasting battle of the Finnish art circles in order to establish the museum. All the statues were by Carl Eneas Sjöstrand . In between the second floor windows are 16 medallion-style reliefs by Ville Vallgren representing some of Finland's most well known creative people of his day, including painter Aleksander Lauréus , Werner Holmberg and
3857-497: Is why he qualified art as a "serious game," seeing in it aspects of playfulness such as freedom and disinterest. In this way, the Rococo definitely raises in Western art the question of aestheticism, in the very ambiguity that surrounds its representational method and its essential goals, making clear the primordial convention that if painting exists, it exists for an observer and to be looked at, but handing over to future generations
3990-609: The Alps and in Spain. His personal style was a continuation of the native Baroque, but he adopted a light and luminous color palette, and built lively, agile forms full of grace and movement, which place him perfectly in the orbit of the Rococo, although his tone is always elevated, if not apotheotic, and his theme always either sacred or glorifying. Other Italian names worth remembering are Sebastiano Ricci , Francesco Guardi , Francesco Zugno , Giovanni Antonio Pellegrini , Giovanni Domenico Tiepolo , Michele Rocca , and Pietro Longhi , with
4123-566: The Balto-Slavic branch of the Indo-European language family . Present-day Slavs are classified into three groups: Though the majority of Slavs are Christians , some groups, such as the Bosniaks, mostly identify as Muslims . Modern Slavic nations and ethnic groups are considerably diverse, both genetically and culturally, and relations between them may range from "ethnic solidarity to mutual feelings of hostility" — even within
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4256-721: The Boii ), Old Prussians , and the Pannonian Avars . The West Slavs came under the influence of the Western Roman Empire (Latin) and of the Catholic Church . East Slavs have origins in early Slavic tribes who mixed and contacted with Finns , Balts and with the remnants of the people of the Goths . Their early Slavic component, Antes , mixed or absorbed Iranians , and later received influence from
4389-714: The Duchy of Croatia and the Banate of Bosnia , and West Slavs in the Principality of Nitra , Great Moravia , the Duchy of Bohemia , and the Kingdom of Poland . Beginning in the mid-19th century, a pan-Slavic movement has emphasized the common heritage and unity of all the Slavic peoples. The main focus of the movement was in the Balkans, whereas the Russian Empire was opposed to it. The Slavic languages belong to
4522-458: The East–West Schism which began in the 11th century. Islam first arrived in the 7th century during the early Muslim conquests , and was gradually adopted by a number of Slavic ethnic groups through the centuries in the Balkans. Among Slavic populations who profess a religion, the majority of contemporary Christian Slavs are Orthodox, followed by Catholic. The majority of Muslim Slavs follow
4655-528: The French Revolution , and represents the last symbolic bastion of resistance of an elite distant from the problems and interests of the common people, and that was increasingly threatened by the rise of the middle class, which was educated and began to dominate the economy and even important sectors of the art market and culture in general. With this, it determined the parallel emergence of a much more realistic and austere stylistic current, whose theme
4788-554: The Hanafi school of the Sunni branch of Islam. Religious delineations by nationality can be very sharp; usually in the Slavic ethnic groups, the vast majority of religious people share the same religion. Mainly Eastern Orthodoxy : Mainly Catholicism : Mainly Islam : Throughout their history, Slavs came into contact with non-Slavic groups. In the postulated homeland region (present-day Ukraine ), they had contacts with
4921-559: The Hunger Plan , Germany's intentional starvation of the region, as well as the murders of 3.3. million Soviet prisoners of war . Germany's Heinrich Himmler also ordered his subordinate Ludolf-Hermann von Alvensleben to start repopulating Crimea , and hundreds of ethnic Germans were forcibly moved to cities and villages there. The Soviet Red Army took back their land from the Germans in 1944 . Stephen J. Lee estimates that, by
5054-770: The Iberian Peninsula , the Slavic and Nordic countries , even reaching the Americas . Despite its value as an autonomous work of art, Rococo painting was often conceived as an integral part of an overall concept of interior decoration. It began to be criticized from the mid-18th century, with the rise of the Enlightenment , neoclassical and bourgeois ideals, surviving until the French Revolution , when it fell into complete disrepute, accused of being superficial, frivolous, immoral and purely decorative. From
5187-691: The Khazars and Vikings . The East Slavs trace their national origins to the tribal unions of Kievan Rus' and Rus' Khaganate , beginning in the 10th century. They came particularly under the influence of the Byzantine Empire and of the Eastern Orthodox Church . South Slavs from most of the region have origins in early Slavic tribes who mixed with the local Proto-Balkanic tribes ( Illyrian , Dacian , Thracian , Paeonian , Hellenic tribes ), and Celtic tribes (particularly
5320-681: The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes . The first half of the 20th century in Russia and the Soviet Union was marked by a succession of wars, famines and other disasters, each accompanied by large-scale population losses. The two major famines were in 1921 to 1923 and 1932 to 1933 , which caused millions of deaths mostly around Ukraine and the Northern Caucasus . The latter resulted from Soviet leader Joseph Stalin 's collectivization of agriculture in Ukraine . During
5453-882: The Peloponnese and Asia Minor being reported to have Slavic settlements. This southern movement has traditionally been seen as an invasive expansion. By the end of the 6th century, Slavs had settled the Eastern Alps regions . Pope Gregory I in 600 AD wrote to Maximus, the bishop of Salona (in Dalmatia ), expressing concern about the arrival of the Slavs: Latin: " Et quidem de Sclavorum gente, quae vobis valde imminet, et affligor vehementer et conturbor. Affligor in his quae jam in vobis patior; conturbor, quia per Istriae aditum jam ad Italiam intrare coeperunt. " English: "I am both distressed and disturbed about
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5586-569: The Prague -type pottery associated with Slavs was not found anywhere south of the Danube where large numbers of Slavic-speaking people emerged in the early Middle Ages. Around the 6th century, Slavs appeared on Byzantine borders in large numbers. Byzantine records note that Slav numbers were so great, that grass would not regrow where the Slavs had marched through . Military movements resulted in even
5719-533: The Roman world, Slavic -speaking tribes formed part of several successive multi-ethnic confederacies of Eurasia – such as the Sarmatian, Hun and Gothic empires. The Slavs emerged from obscurity when the westward movement of Germanic tribes in the 5th and 6th centuries AD (thought to be in conjunction with the movement of peoples from Siberia and Eastern Europe: Huns , and later Avars and Bulgars ) started
5852-518: The Roman Empire and remained present in Western culture almost without interruption since their origin, both as a simple romantic and poetic artifice and as a resource for psychological escape when times proved hostile or excessively sophisticated, thus becoming a powerful symbol of freedom. In the Rococo period the innovative note was that of the world of the Arcadian shepherds and the gods of
5985-625: The Scordisci ), as well as with Romans (and the Romanized remnants of the former groups), and also with remnants of temporarily settled invading East Germanic, Asiatic or Caucasian tribes such as Gepids , Huns , Avars , Goths and Bulgars . The original inhabitants of present-day Slovenia and continental Croatia have origins in early Slavic tribes who mixed with Romans and romanized Celtic and Illyrian people as well as with Avars and Germanic peoples (Lombards and East Goths). The South Slavs (except
6118-523: The Vandals to the Iberian Peninsula and even to North Africa . On the other hand, historian Florin Curta categorically dismisses the concept of "Slavs' migration" and opts instead for short-distance population movements that would explain the spread of Slavic languages . He argues - in favor of this view - that the proposed migration models are inconsistent with the archaeological findings, for example
6251-483: The academic doctrine, which tried, even during the high Baroque and especially in France, to impose a classicist artistic model as a timeless and universally valid principle, whose authority was placed above questioning, just as political theory validated absolutism. In this wave of liberalism and relativism , art began to be seen as just one more thing among so many that were subject to the fluctuations of fashion and
6384-442: The contemplation of the beauty of an object, and understood as the sensual stimulation of undifferentiated thoughts, devoid of utility or purpose and detached from morality . For Kant, ideal beauty does not declare itself completely, but rather remains constantly arousing ideas without exhausting them. Thus meaning is not in the determination of any one concept, but in the incessant dialogue between imagination and understanding. This
6517-719: The great migration of the Slavs, who settled the lands abandoned by Germanic tribes who had fled from the Huns and their allies. Slavs, according to this account, moved westward into the country between the Oder and the Elbe - Saale line; southward into Bohemia , Moravia , much of present-day Austria , the Pannonian plain and the Balkans ; and northward along the upper Dnieper river. It has also been suggested that some Slavs migrated with
6650-407: The perspective of space is shortened, creating a more enclosed setting, the backdrops are more simplified, favoring the foreground, and suggestive effects of atmosphere are sought. The representation of the clothing, however, tends to be real enough to show the sumptuousness of the fabrics and the richness of the jewelry and ornaments worn by the models. As for color, a central aspect in the Rococo,
6783-470: The 1830s on, it was again recognized as an important testimony to a certain phase of European culture and the lifestyle of a specific social stratum, and as a valuable asset for its own unique artistic merit, where questions about aesthetics were raised that would later flourish and become central to modern art . Rococo developed from the growing freedom of thought that was being born in 18th century France. The death of Louis XIV in 1715 opened space for
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#17327723675246916-406: The 1830s rococo art returned to the scene through the literature of Gérard de Nerval , Théophile Gautier , and other authors, disillusioned with the excessive emphasis, as they saw it, on the conception that art should invariably be produced for a civic or didactic purpose, and with the world that for them had come to be dominated by an uneducated and tasteless bourgeoisie. The group began to develop
7049-466: The 1840s and 1850s. By the end of the 19th century, the French Rococo was fully recovered and established as a national cultural heritage of France, along with the rehabilitation of the decorative arts in general. During this phase, critical literature on the style multiplied, museums for the decorative arts were established, several eighteenth-century monuments were restored, and Rococo painting
7182-458: The 1960s, the latter focusing more on architectural sets, but Victor Tapiè and Myriam Oliveira believe that in the 1970s onwards there was even a regression in research to already outdated concepts, She particularly points to the approaches of Germain Bazin , Anthony Blunt , Yves Bottineau, and Georges Cattaui , who delimit it but submit it to the Baroque, referring to pre-Kimball visions. What
7315-545: The 5th to the 10th century AD), and came to control large parts of Central , Eastern , and Southeast Europe between the sixth and seventh centuries. Beginning in the 7th century, they were gradually Christianized . By the 12th century, they formed the core population of a number of medieval Christian states: East Slavs in the Kievan Rus' , South Slavs in the Bulgarian Empire , the Principality of Serbia ,
7448-479: The 9th century, attest the autonym as Slověne ( Словѣне ). Those forms point back to a Slavic autonym , which can be reconstructed in Proto-Slavic as *Slověninъ , plural Slověne . The reconstructed autonym * Slověninъ is usually considered a derivation from slovo ("word"), originally denoting "people who speak (the same language)", meaning "people who understand one another", in contrast to
7581-456: The Balkans were Slavicized. Thracians and Illyrians mixed as ethnic groups in this period. A notable exception is Greece, where Slavs were Hellenized because Greeks were more numerous, especially with more Greeks returning to Greece in the 9th century and the influence of the church and administration, however, Slavicized regions within Macedonia , Thrace and Moesia Inferior also had
7714-540: The Baroque, removing various obstacles between the sacred and the profane, and served as a new and more engaging way to celebrate the mysteries of faith, but its ornamentalism was also seen by some as a distraction from the primary purposes of sacramental gathering. In France, the Rococo showed its most characteristic face, in a light, gallant and sensual treatment of its privileged themes, the pastoral , followed by allegorical scenes and portraits. Its figures are richly dressed, set against country backdrops, gardens or parks,
7847-507: The Baroque, this style continued to meet the needs of the local sensibility, and the model of the French Rococo was not followed in its essence, but changed its thematic scope and its significant emphases, expressing itself mainly in monumental decoration. In the field of painting the greatest Rococo flowering took place in Venice, around the dominant figure of Giovanni Battista Tiepolo , a celebrated muralist who left important works also north of
7980-746: The Cyrillic alphabet. Serbian and Montenegrin use both the Cyrillic and Latin alphabets. There is also a Latin script to write in Belarusian, called Łacinka and in Ukrainian, called Latynka . West Slavs originate from early Slavic tribes which settled in Central Europe after the East Germanic tribes had left this area during the migration period . They are noted as having mixed with Germanics , Hungarians , Celts (particularly
8113-480: The Greco-Latin pantheon virtually only the backdrop of the natural environment remained, this "natural" being more often than not a cultivated garden, and the protagonists of the moment were the aristocrats and the enriched bourgeois themselves, with all their fashionable apparatus, engaged in brilliant conversation and whose heroism was summed up in amorous conquest, embodying the pastoral idea more in keeping with
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#17327723675248246-492: The Iranian Sarmatians and the Germanic Goths . After their subsequent spread, the Slavs began assimilating non-Slavic peoples. For example, in the Northern Black Sea region, the Slavs assimilated the remnants of the Goths. In the Balkans, there were Paleo-Balkan peoples, such as Romanized and Hellenized ( Jireček Line ) Illyrians , Thracians and Dacians , as well as Greeks and Celtic Scordisci and Serdi . Because Slavs were so numerous, most indigenous populations of
8379-417: The Rococo aesthetic was formed, which displaced from the center of interest historical painting, which was previously the most prestigious genre and which invoked a typically masculine ethical, civic and heroic sense, putting in its place the painting of domestic and country scenes, or of gentle allegories inspired by classical myths , where many identify the prevalence of the feminine universe. In this sense,
8512-435: The Rococo is a simple continuation, indeed a culmination, of Baroque values – the taste for the splendid, for movement and asymmetry, the frequent allusion to Greco-Roman mythology , the emotional bent, the ostentatious pretension, and the conventionalism, in the sense of being governed by pre-established criteria accepted by consensus. Rococo painting also illustrates, in its first version, the social schism that would lead to
8645-415: The Rococo style as the face of the corrupt and dissolute elite it wished to overthrow, and the art it cultivated and appreciated, especially that of Chardin and Greuze , was diametrically opposed to it in both form and content. This process culminated in the French Revolution and the emergence of Neoclassicism , with a return of artistic ideals based on values of austerity, piety, civility, and ethics, in
8778-600: The Sclaveni as having swamps and forests for their cities. Another 6th-century source refers to them living among nearly-impenetrable forests, rivers, lakes, and marshes. Menander Protector mentions Daurentius ( r. c. 577 – 579 ) who slew an Avar envoy of Khagan Bayan I for asking the Slavs to accept the suzerainty of the Avars; Daurentius declined and is reported as saying: "Others do not conquer our land, we conquer theirs – so it shall always be for us as long as there are wars and weapons". According to eastern homeland theory, prior to becoming known to
8911-434: The Slavic expansion started from the territory of present-day Ukraine, thus supporting the hypothesis placing the earliest known homeland of Slavs in the basin of the middle Dnieper ". According to genetic studies until 2020, the distribution, variance and frequency of the Y-DNA haplogroups R1a and I2 and their subclades R-M558, R-M458 and I-CTS10228 among South Slavs correlate with the spread of Slavic languages during
9044-566: The Slavic word denoting " German people ", namely *němьcь , meaning "silent, mute people" (from Slavic *němъ " mute , mumbling"). The word slovo ("word") and the related slava ("glory, fame") and sluh ("hearing") originate from the Proto-Indo-European root *ḱlew- ("be spoken of, glory"), cognate with Ancient Greek κλέος ( kléos "fame"), as in the name Pericles , Latin clueō ("be called"), and English loud . In medieval and early modern sources written in Latin, Slavs are most commonly referred to as Sclaveni or
9177-436: The Slavs, who are pressing hard on you. I am distressed because I sympathize with you; I am disturbed because they have already begun to arrive in Italy through the entry-point of Istria ." When Slav migrations ended, their first state organizations appeared, each headed by a prince with a treasury and a defense force. In the 7th century, the Frankish merchant Samo supported the Slavs against their Avar rulers and became
9310-679: The Slovenes and Croats) came under the cultural sphere of the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire), of the Ottoman Empire and of the Eastern Orthodox Church and Islam , while the Slovenes and the Croats were influenced by the Western Roman Empire (Latin) and thus by the Catholic Church in a similar fashion to that of the West Slavs. Consistent with the proximity of their languages, analyses of Y chromosomes , mDNA , and autosomal marker CCR5de132 shows that East Slavs and West Slavs are genetically very similar, but demonstrating significant differences from neighboring Finno-Ugric, Turkic , and North Caucasian peoples. Such genetic homogeneity
9443-425: The Yoke (Burning the Brushwood) (1893) and Hugo Simberg ’s The Wounded Angel (1903). The Ateneum building was designed by Theodor Höijer and completed in 1887. The facade of Ateneum is decorated with statues and reliefs which contain a lot of symbols. Above the main entrance, in the second floor, are busts of three famous classical artists: architect Bramante , painter Raphael and sculptor Phidias . Above
9576-459: The academic canons and developed a strongly personal style that is difficult to categorize, sometimes compared to Tiepolo for the high quality of his work. Towards the end of the century a revulsion developed in Germany at the allegedly over-artificial French model, just as it did in some sectors of the art world in England – and even in France itself. German nationalists recommended the adoption of
9709-663: The affairs of the Austro-Hungarian Empire , were calling for national self-determination. During World War I , representatives of the Czechs, Slovaks, Poles, Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes set up organizations in the Allied countries to gain sympathy and recognition. In 1918, after World War I ended, the Slavs established such independent states as Czechoslovakia , the Second Polish Republic , and
9842-409: The already mentioned Master Ataíde . The spirit of Rococo began to be attacked in the mid-18th century, after the rise of Enlightenment criticism and the puritanical ideals of the middle class. The main criticisms made since then and still made to the style were mainly directed at its French version or its more literal derivations. The French Rococo was an essentially aristocratic style, derived from
9975-520: The architect Carl Ludvig Engel . Other ornamental elements were sculpted by Magnus von Wright . The Ateneum building is owned by Senate Properties ( Finnish : Senaatti-kiinteistöt ), the government real estate provider. Rococo painting Rococo painting represents the expression in painting of an aesthetic movement that flourished in Europe between the early and late 18th century, migrating to America and surviving in some regions until
10108-492: The busts, in the third floor, four caryatids support the pediment. These symbolize the four classical art forms: sculpture, painting, geometry, and architecture. The facade culminates in a collage of sculptures in which the Goddess of Art, Pallas Athene , blesses the products of the different art forms. Below the pediment's collage is the Latin phrase Concordia res parvae crescunt ( With concord small things increase ), which
10241-407: The circumstantial and concrete to throw them into the ambiguous and fluent world of the theater of representation, a practice that otherwise did not find unanimous support and was criticized by many moralists, concerned about the concomitant dissolution of the sense of reality and the firmness of ethical values encouraged by these paintings. Likewise, not all artists had this goal. Important painters of
10374-441: The commoners, who were better informed about general facts, politics, and even art than in other regions, through the increasing dissemination of books and the circulation of various popular periodicals. These factors gave English society a freedom of expression unknown in other European countries, and made the country the world leader in the next century. The English Rococo was imported from France, and since its introduction became
10507-436: The concern of its artists reached extremes of complexity. Manuals for amateurs and beginners written at the time, instead of giving gradual instructions on combinations of primary colors , jumped directly to mixing schemes with dozens and dozens of gradations, and the refinement in this area, at the level of professionals, was naturally much sharper, even developing its own symbolism involving each type of tone. Rococo painting
10640-433: The continental model. The aristocracy formed by the nobles and the rich merchants also dominated power there, but strove to implement a fully capitalist system that solicited – and obtained – the concurrence of the bourgeoisie, who knew that their objectives were common and identified with those of the state, for their own benefit and that of the nation. There was no mythical aura surrounding noble birth, social stratification
10773-400: The conventions of a social theater. In representation, just as the Baroque was prolix, the pastoral Rococo is succinct; despite the uniqueness of setting, formally the painting is an accumulation of discontinuities, and what most confers the effect of unity is atmosphere rather than description. In this way, the Rococo appears as the link between the ceremonious classicism of the late Baroque and
10906-461: The court at Versailles emptied, with many nobles moving to their estates in the countryside, while others moved to palaces in Paris, which became the center of " salon culture ," sophisticated, glittering, and hedonistic social gatherings that took place amid literary and artistic discussions. This empowerment of the nobility then made it the main patron of artists of the period. In these salons,
11039-407: The cultivation of his intellect and his erudite baggage. Another important contribution to the formulation of Rococo aesthetics was the establishment of the concept of art for art's sake initiated by Alexander Baumgarten in 1750 and further developed by Kant in the following decade. He stated that the main goal of art was pleasure, not utility, conceiving the aesthetic experience as coming from
11172-495: The divine. At the same time, his personalistic nature, his curiosity for novelties and exoticism, and his rejection of official academicism represented a movement toward creative freedom and spontaneity, so cherished today, and which were considered legitimate criteria for evaluating a work of art in those times. Alexander Pope thought so when he declared that "some beauties cannot yet be explained in precepts," and that "there are nameless graces which no method teaches, and which only
11305-423: The early 20th century Oswald Spengler gave a eulogy of Rococo art in his work The Decline of the West . However, other authors such as Egon Friedell , writing between the wars, continued to consider the style in unflattering approaches. A new interest in the Rococo emerged in the 1940s when Fiske Kimball published his important study The Creation of the Rococo (1943), which attempted to delimit and describe
11438-733: The end of World War II in 1945, the Russian population was about 90 million fewer than it could have been otherwise. Also during World War II, fascist Italy sent tens of thousands of Slavs to concentration camps in mainland Italy, Libya , and the Balkans , because Italian leader Benito Mussolini also had a hatred of them. In 1991, the Soviet Union collapsed , and many former Soviet republics became independent countries. Currently, former Soviet states in Central Asia such as Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan have very large minority Slavic populations, with most being Russians. Kazakhstan has
11571-484: The enormous versatility he showed, adapting to the needs of a wide variety of subjects and genres, amassing enormous fortune from the sale of his works but facing poverty after the Revolution. In the rehabilitation of the Rococo in the 19th century, he was called "the Cherubino of erotic painting," and praised in high terms for his ability to create effects of emotional suspension and sensual tension without falling into
11704-742: The era of the emperor Justinian I ( r. 527–565 ), such as Procopius of Caesarea , Jordanes and Theophylact Simocatta , describe tribes of these names emerging from the area of the Carpathian Mountains , the lower Danube and the Black Sea to invade the Danubian provinces of the Eastern Empire . Jordanes, in his work Getica (written in 551 AD), describes the Veneti as a "populous nation" whose dwellings begin at
11837-505: The hand of a master can reach," qualities that could only be judged by "taste," a subtle element that in Voltaire's words is "a quick discernment, a sudden perception which, like the sensations of the palate, anticipates reflection, and accepts what gives a voluptuous and rare impression and rejects what seems coarse and disgusting. In sum, for a better understanding of Rococo painting, it is necessary that we first clearly perceive that it
11970-460: The illustrated and idle nobility and the wealthier bourgeoisie , and had an eminently decorative character, drawing much inspiration from classical literature . The technique is agile and tends toward virtuosity, with free brushstrokes that in a way prefigure Impressionism and a rich color palette, but with a predominance of light tones, seeking subtle and evocative effects of atmosphere. The decorativism of Rococo painting draws its substance from
12103-425: The indecorous. Finally, several other names in French Rococo deserve attention: Jean-Marc Nattier , the three Van Loo ( Jean-Baptiste , Louis-Michel , and Charles-André ), Maurice Quentin de La Tour , Jean-Baptiste Perronneau , François Lemoyne , Elisabeth Vigée Le Brun , Jean-Baptiste Pater , Alexander Roslin , and Nicolas Lancret among many others. The English social system differed in several points from
12236-640: The individual groups. The oldest mention of the Slavic ethnonym is from the 6th century AD, when Procopius , writing in Byzantine Greek , used various forms such as Sklaboi ( Σκλάβοι ), Sklabēnoi ( Σκλαβηνοί ), Sklauenoi ( Σκλαυηνοί ), Sthlabenoi ( Σθλαβηνοί ), or Sklabinoi ( Σκλαβῖνοι ), and his contemporary Jordanes refers to the Sclaveni in Latin . The oldest documents written in Old Church Slavonic , dating from
12369-628: The largest Slavic minority population. Proto-Slavic , the supposed ancestor language of all Slavic languages, is a descendant of common Proto-Indo-European , via a Balto-Slavic stage in which it developed numerous lexical and morphophonological isoglosses with the Baltic languages . In the framework of the Kurgan hypothesis , "the Indo-Europeans who remained after the migrations [from the steppe] became speakers of Balto-Slavic". Proto-Slavic
12502-419: The literary source for artistic creation in other fields, and, according to Catherine Cusset , replacing psychological or metaphysical content with a "plethora of ideas. In this aesthetic of pleasure, sensuality had special appeal, but not as a narrative component of pure eroticism; rather, it provided a pretext for artists to explore the limits of representation, aiming for a tangibility that would elicit
12635-465: The lower classes and whose devotion had been in no way affected by the uprooted customs of the elites. The apparent contradictions at once were resolved by Christian moralists in associating the happiness desired by the senses with the happiness provided by a virtuous life, asserting that human pleasure is one of God 's gifts and suggesting that divine love is also the source of a kind of sensory lust. With this accommodation, religion, previously burdened by
12768-476: The medieval Slavic expansion from Eastern Europe, most probably from the territory of present-day Ukraine and Southeastern Poland . According to a 2017 study, Slavic speakers like Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians have similar genetic components. Ukrainians and Belarusians have near-equal amounts of two "European components", which are commonly found in North Europe and Caucasus respectively. There
12901-402: The mid-19th century. The painting of this movement is divided into two sharply differentiated camps. One forms an intimate, carefree visual document of the way of life and worldview of the eighteenth-century European elites, and the other, adapting constituent elements of the style to the monumental decoration of churches and palaces, served as a means of glorifying faith and civil power. Rococo
13034-566: The northern parts of Eurasia ; they predominantly inhabit Central Europe , Eastern Europe , Southeastern Europe , and Northern Asia , though there is a large Slavic minority scattered across the Baltic states and Central Asia , and a substantial Slavic diaspora in the Americas , Western Europe , and Northern Europe . Early Slavs lived during the Migration Period and the Early Middle Ages (approximately from
13167-404: The notion of guilt and the threats of the fire and eternal damnation, takes on an optimistic and positive tone, and generates a painting before which the faithful could pray "in hope and joy" and which serves as a bridge between earthly and heavenly happiness. Rococo, employed in ecclesiastical decoration, was part of the secularization movement that the Catholic Church had been experiencing since
13300-405: The opinion of Victor-Lucien Tapié, one of the happiest fruits of the style in the religious sphere. The preoccupation of the illustrated but unoccupied elites with happiness and pleasure, accompanied by a decline in the influence of religion, which draw the rococo atmosphere, might, at first impression, problematize the application of the style to religious art, which catered rather to the needs of
13433-587: The philosophy that guided that art of charms and fantasies, of visual and intellectual games and veiled allusions, that praised education and refinement against what it judged rude and uncouth, and expressed a voluptuousness and an authentic joy for the simple fact of living in a comfortable situation, which, if it was the prerogative of a few in its time, as we know, today has become the heritage of all through its artistic legacy. Slavs The Slavs or Slavic people are groups of people who speak Slavic languages . Slavs are geographically distributed throughout
13566-463: The question whether an activity based on imitation and lure of the senses could be morally justified or worthy of intellectual attention has accompanied European thought since the questioning of Plato , Socrates , and Aristotle in Ancient Greece . During the 18th century, this topic took on a new color in the deliberate quest to somehow confuse and disorient the audience, removing them from
13699-612: The relaxed and captivating grace, excluding all rhetoric and drama . For this the classical tradition was still of use, by offering for the artists' inspiration a body of themes quite attractive and suitable for the hedonistic and refined mentality of the elites, who rejected all austerity and reinterpreted the classical past in the light of the ideal and bucolic Arcadia, of the fantasy of a Golden Age where nature and civilization, sensuality and intelligence, beauty and spirituality were harmoniously identified. Neither this theme nor this interpretation were, in fact, new; they had existed since
13832-538: The rest of the population tended to view everything French with disdain. On this popular base appeared satirical writers like Jonathan Swift , and artists like William Hogarth , with series of canvases and prints of strong social criticism such as The Career of the Libertine and Marriage à la mode , crudely exposing in a robust and frankly narrative painting the vices of the Francophile elite. In thematic terms he
13965-418: The rich ornamentation common in many works, the profusion of details represented in detail, the sophisticated chromaticism, the wealth of costumes and scenery, to the point of becoming a value in itself, in compositions that even lose their narrative focus amidst the voluptuousness of pure plasticity, the immediate sensory appeal. Speaking of an important work by Watteau, The Embarkation for Cythera , considered
14098-546: The role played by women in the society of this phase was very relevant, assuming a force in politics throughout Europe and proving to be generous patrons of art and shapers of taste, the case of the royal mistresses Madame de Pompadour and Madame du Barry , of the empresses Catherine the Great and Maria Theresa of Austria , and organizing several important salons, such as Madame Geoffrin , Madame d'Épinay , and Madame de Lespinasse , among many others. However, in many respects
14231-608: The ruler of the first known Slav state in Central Europe, Samo's Empire . This early Slavic polity probably did not outlive its founder and ruler, but it was the foundation for later West Slavic states on its territory. The oldest of them was Carantania ; others are the Principality of Nitra , the Moravian principality (see under Great Moravia ) and the Balaton Principality . The First Bulgarian Empire
14364-422: The sentimental pre- Romanticism of the middle class. This fantasy universe was also in line with the conceptions of the time about the illusionistic nature of art. For the critics of that time, the pleasure that art can provide is only possible when the spectator accepts the terms of the game and submits to being illuded by a kind of magic. The problematic involved in artistic illusion was not unprecedented, and
14497-502: The serious problem of, according to Stephen Melville, "to say that what happens to a viewer in front of a painting is fundamentally different from what happens to a person looking at a wallpaper or a landscape through a window," a dialectical element that would become crucial to the modern discussion and validation of art itself, of artistic making and understanding, and of the autonomy of Aesthetics, and which has not yet been satisfactorily resolved. Technically, Rococo painting tends toward
14630-692: The shortened version Sclavi . Ancient Roman sources refer to the Early Slavic peoples as "Veneti" , who dwelt in a region of central Europe east of the Germanic tribe of Suebi and west of the Iranian Sarmatians in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, between the upper Vistula and Dnieper rivers. Slavs - called Antes and Sclaveni - first appear in Byzantine records in the early 6th century AD. Byzantine historiographers of
14763-416: The skill of its authors. Another positive point of Rococo painting was detected in the reformulation and softening of Christian iconography, translating the elements of faith and portraying its martyrs and saints within a less heavy and oppressive formal frame than that produced during the Baroque, allowing the birth of a more jovial and optimistic devotion, less charged with guilt and reconciling nature with
14896-489: The sober, natural, and industrious manners of the English as an antidote to the French "theatrical affectations" and the "softness of false graces." Also to be included as important masters of the monumental Germanic Rococo are Johann Baptist Zimmermann , Antoine Pesne , Joseph Ignaz Appiani , Franz Anton Zeiller , Paul Troger , Franz Joseph Spiegler , Johann Georg Bergmüller , Carlo Carlone , among many others, who left
15029-974: The sources of the Vistula and occupy "a great expanse of land". He also describes the Veneti as the ancestors of Antes and Slaveni, two early Slavic tribes, who appeared on the Byzantine frontier in the early-6th century. Procopius wrote in 545 that "the Sclaveni and the Antae actually had a single name in the remote past; for they were both called Sporoi in olden times". The name Sporoi derives from Greek σπείρω ("to sow "). He described them as barbarians, who lived under democracy and believed in one god, "the maker of lightning" ( Perun ), to whom they made sacrifice. They lived in scattered housing and constantly changed settlement. In war, they were mainly foot soldiers with shields, spears, bows, and little armour, which
15162-511: The space. In France and England, the Rococo took a mainly profane form, but in other regions of Catholic Europe, especially in southern Germany, it left admirable religious monuments, the same happening in Brazil , where painters from the Minas Gerais region, led by Master Ataíde , formulated through a late Rococo and naive flavor the first school of national painting, and constituting, in
15295-487: The start of World War II was to exterminate, expel, or enslave most or all West and East Slavs from their native lands, so as to make " living space " for German settlers. In early 1941, Germany began planning Generalplan Ost , the genocide of Slavs in Eastern Europe which was supposed to start after a major expansion of German concentration camps in occupied Poland and the fall of Stalin's regime. This plan
15428-437: The style on a curiously ahistorical critical basis, but which served to raise a series of new questions that brought to light inconsistencies in its definition, highlighted its complexity, and fueled subsequent scholarly debates, with major contributions by Arnold Hauser in the 1950s, in the 1950s, appreciating style in a deeper and more comprehensive way in the light of Marxism , and of Philippe Minguet and Russell Hitchcock in
15561-421: The time, more engaged in an idea of reforming and moralizing art, such as Hogarth and Goya , strove to overcome the conventions of illusionism and help the public restore, as Matthew Craske puts it, "the clarity of their vision." Thus, one finds positions with varying degrees of closeness to or distance from objective reality, in a dialectic that provided much of the strength for the creativity of this period. It
15694-422: The times, a view that would have been inconceivable until recently. As a result, the inclinations of the period tended toward the human and the sentimental, directing production not toward heroes or demigods , but toward ordinary people, with their weaknesses, and who sought pleasure. The representation of power and grandeur is abandoned, and the public of rococo painting seeks to see in it rather beauty, love, and
15827-428: The war, Nazi Germany used hundreds of thousands of people for slave labor in their concentration camps , the majority of whom were Jewish or Slavic. Both groups were a part of what Germans claimed to be a "vast racially subhuman surplus population" that they " intended to eliminate in time from their new empire ", their term for "racial subhumans" being Untermensch . Thus, one of Adolf Hitler 's ambitions at
15960-403: The world from a more egalitarian viewpoint, regardless of traditions, myths , and religions , overturning cradle privileges and establishing new criteria for the acquisition of knowledge, where the clarity of reason and logical and scientific demonstration prevailed over the ambiguous and obscure subtleties of opinion, feeling, and the metaphysical. The middle class, in turn, easily identified
16093-408: Was all bourgeois and popular, exemplified by the artists Jean-Baptiste Greuze and Jean-Baptiste Chardin , and which was virtually ignored by the rococo universe, with few exceptions, but which would ultimately end up being one of the forces for its collapse at the end of the 18th century. In a period in which the old traditions were beginning to dissolve, rococo painting represents an opposition to
16226-479: Was an isolated case, and the reaction to his works by the elite was, predictably, negative, but as a symptom of the times, formally his personal style owes much to France. The art market was completely bent to foreign fashions, and local artists had to accept the situation by largely adopting the principles of French Rococo. The most popular genres in England were portraiture and "conversation paintings," scenes showing groups of friends or family engaged in conversation,
16359-522: Was born in Paris around the 1700s, as a reaction of the French aristocracy against the sumptuous, palatial, and solemn Baroque practiced in the period of Louis XIV . It was characterized above all by its hedonistic and aristocratic character, manifested in delicacy, elegance, sensuality, and grace, and in the preference for light and sentimental themes, where curved line, light colors, and asymmetry played
16492-446: Was founded in 681 as an alliance between the ruling Bulgars and the numerous Slavs in the area, and their South Slavic language, the Old Church Slavonic , became the main and official language of the empire in 864 AD. Bulgaria was instrumental in the spread of Slavic literacy and Christianity to the rest of the Slavic world. Duchy of Croatia was founded in 7th century and later became Kingdom of Croatia . Principality of Serbia
16625-854: Was founded in 8th, Duchy of Bohemia and Kievan Rus' both in the 9th century. The expansion of the Magyars into the Carpathian Basin and the Germanization of Austria gradually separated the South Slavs from the West and East Slavs . Later Slavic states, which formed in the following centuries included the Second Bulgarian Empire , the Kingdom of Poland , Banate of Bosnia , Duklja and Kingdom of Serbia which later grew into Serbian Empire . Pan-Slavism ,
16758-404: Was more elastic, often linking commoners to the nobility through marriage, and its lower strata showed a fairly homogeneous group that in practice was little different from the middle class. Another distinctive feature was that in England it was the nobles who paid most of the taxes, but in France they were exempt from all taxes. In addition, a considerable reading public was forming in England among
16891-399: Was not an exclusively domestic phenomenon, and found fertile ground also in the decoration of public buildings and churches. In these environments, Rococo painting entered as an important element in the composition of a "total work of art," integrating the architecture with the furniture and the accessory decorative objects, such as silverware and stuccoes, and signaling the functionality of
17024-497: Was once again understood as an integral part of a global conception of interior decoration, just as it was understood in its origin. This renewed enthusiasm for Rococo culminated with its consecration in the Louvre Museum in 1894, with the assignment of a wing entirely dedicated to 18th century art, where complete environments were recreated. It also stimulated a fashion for decorative objects and panels in revivalist style, and
17157-465: Was one of the factors for the development of the applied arts and the high quality craftsmanship of Art Nouveau , besides having had a symbolic character of rapprochement between the elites inherited from the nobility and the bourgeoisie of the Third Republic . In the same period the importance of Tiepolo as one of the most distinguished muralists of the 18th century was rescued, and in
17290-530: Was predominantly led by the Russian Empire . As of 1878, there were only three majority Slavic states in the world: the Russian Empire, Principality of Serbia and Principality of Montenegro . Bulgaria was effectively independent but was de jure vassal to the Ottoman Empire until official independence was declared in 1908. The Slavic peoples who were, for the most part, denied a voice in
17423-433: Was reserved mainly for chiefs and their inner circle of warriors. Their language is "barbarous" (that is, not Greek), and the two tribes are alike in appearance, being tall and robust, "while their bodies and hair are neither very fair or blond, nor indeed do they incline entirely to the dark type, but they are all slightly ruddy in color. And they live a hard life, giving no heed to bodily comforts..." Jordanes describes
17556-686: Was to be carried out gradually over 25 to 30 years. After an approximate 30 million Slavs would be killed through starvation and their major cities depopulated, the Germans were supposed to repopulate Eastern Europe. In June 1941, when Germany invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa , Hitler paused the plan to focus on the extermination of the Jews . However, some of the plan was nonetheless implemented. Millions of Slavs were murdered in Eastern Europe; this includes victims of
17689-486: Was to some extent visible as late as Old Church Slavonic (or Old Bulgarian ) manuscripts which, though based on local Slavic speech of Thessaloniki , could still serve the purpose of the first common Slavic literary language. Standardised Slavic languages that have official status in at least one country are: Belarusian , Bosnian , Bulgarian , Croatian , Czech , Macedonian , Montenegrin , Polish , Russian , Serbian , Slovak , Slovene , and Ukrainian . Russian
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