Others
76-589: In terms of Ihsan : Atharism ( Arabic : الأثرية , romanized : al-ʾAthariyya / al-aṯariyyah [æl ʔæθæˈrɪj.jæ] , " archeological ") is a school of theology in Sunni Islam which developed from circles of the Ahl al-Hadith , a group that rejected rationalistic theology in favor of strict textualism in interpretation the Quran and the hadith . Adherents of Athari theology believe
152-420: A subset of those who are mu'min , and those who are mu'min are a subset of muslims : From the preceding discussion it should be clear that not every Muslim is a man or woman of faith ( mu'min ), but every person of faith is a Muslim . Furthermore, a Muslim who believes in all the principles of Islam may not necessarily be a righteous person, a doer of good ( muhsin ), but a truly good and righteous person
228-464: A blameworthy innovation. Rational proofs, unless they are Qur'anic in origin, are considered nonexistent and wholly invalid. However, that was not always the case since a number of Atharis delved into kalām , whether or not they described it as such. Examples of Atharis who wrote books against the use of kalām and human reason include the Hanbalite Sufi scholar Khwaja Abdullah Ansari and
304-953: A heterogeneous living tradition with some non-discursive elements, which is internally extremely dynamic and multifaceted – is the purview of Islamic studies in the modern world. In the years 1821 to 1850, the Royal Asiatic Society in England, the Société Asiatique in France, the Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft in Germany, and the American Oriental Society in the United States were founded. In
380-514: A more rationalist school in theology. Moreover, extreme forms of traditionalism had not been confined within Hanbalism, and is also part of Maliki , Shafi'i and Hanafi schools. Some authors refer to traditionalist theology as "classical Salafism" or "classic Salafiyyah" (from salaf , meaning "(pious) ancestors"). Henri Lauzière has argued that, while the majority Hanbali creed was sometimes identified as "Salafi" in classical-era sources, using
456-553: A number of cultures , philosophies, central teachings and bodies of esoteric knowledge . Kalām emerged as a discipline in response to political disputes among Muslims, and then later in response to the impact of Hellenistic philosophy and the expansion of the Islamic Empire into territories previously dominated and occupied by the Sassanian and Byzantine Empires. Thus, one of the first and persistent questions challenging
532-578: A number of them to preach in Baghdad over the years. One such occasion led to five months of rioting in the city in 1077. While Ashʿarism and Māturīdism are often called the Sunni "orthodoxy", Athari theology has thrived alongside it, laying rival claims to be the orthodox Sunni faith. In the modern era it has had a disproportionate impact on Islamic theology, having been appropriated by Wahhabi and other traditionalist Salafi currents and spread well beyond
608-429: A reassuring scientific framework. However nowadays, besides recurrent debates within history itself, many scientists look unfavorably at a linear conception of time (Rovelli 2018). The first attempt to understand Islam as a topic of modern scholarship (as opposed to a Christological heresy ) was within the context of 19th-century Christian European Oriental studies . Examining and understanding this kind of Islam –
684-437: A significant amount of academic research in that, in the subsequent twenty years, not only expanded and detailed the arguments put forth by these scholars, but also analyzed and improved upon their methodologies. Recent years have seen a shift towards utilizing a broader range of sources and developing more intricate interpretive frameworks, some of which have even challenged the idea of a uniform Islamic gender discourse. Following
760-519: A surge of scholarly research during the early 1990's. This wave of scholarship was influenced by the growing presence of politically and religiously active women scholars with Muslim and Arab backgrounds. Additionally, there was a notable increase in the utilization of gender studies methodologies within the traditionally conservative realms of Islamic history and law. Works such as Leila Ahmed’s Women and Gender in Islam (1992), Fatima Mernissi’s The Veil and
836-511: A theological current. The term " Ahl al-Ḥadīth " ("People of the Tradition") is used by some authors in the same sense as Athari , while others restrict it to the early stages of this movement, or use it in a broader sense to denote particular enthusiasm towards the ḥadīth literature. Since the overwhelming majority of Muslim scholars in the Hanbali school of jurisprudence has adhered to
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#1732765863943912-421: Is Amir al-Sha'bi , who unlike his colleague Ibrahim al-Nakha'i , who relied primarily on Qiyas (analogic deduction) in his scholastic method, al-Shaʿbī strongly relied primarily on scriptural traditions (Atharism). He also tried to convince other scholars that Qiyās was not a valid argument. Al-Sha'bi was recorded to have said: "Beware of Qiyās. For when you use it, you make what is halal to be haram and what
988-398: Is God's Speech, which He expressed; it is uncreated. He who claims the opposite is a Jahmite , an infidel . And he who says, 'The Qur'an is God's Speech,' and stops there without adding 'uncreated,' speaks even more abominably than the former." For Atharis, the validity of human reason is limited, and rational proofs cannot be trusted or relied upon in matters of belief, which makes kalām
1064-500: Is a matter of taking one's inner faith ( iman ) and showing it in both deed and action, a sense of social responsibility borne from religious convictions. In Islam , Ihsan is the Muslim responsibility to obtain perfection, or excellence, in worship, such that Muslims try to worship God as if they see Him, and although they cannot see Him, they undoubtedly believe that He is constantly watching over them. That definition comes from
1140-476: Is both a Muslim and a true person of faith. Some Islamic scholars explain ihsan as being the inner dimension of Islam whereas shariah is often described as the outer dimension. Ihsan "constitutes the highest form of worship" ( ibadah ). It is excellence in work and in social interactions. For example, ihsan includes sincerity during Muslim prayers and being grateful to parents, family, and God. Islamic studies Islamic studies refers to
1216-581: Is due to the fact that early Islam forbade the painting of human beings, especially the Prophet , as Muslims believe this tempts followers of the Prophet to idolatry . This prohibition against human beings or icons is called aniconism . Despite such a prohibition, depictions of human beings do occur in Islamic art, such as that of the Mughals , demonstrating a strong diversity in popular interpretation over
1292-407: Is grounded on the following propositions: The traditionalists' attitudes towards religious principles led them to differentiate two similar terms: Taqlid and Ittiba . Taqlid which was the practice of blindly following scholars and their opinions ( ra'y ) without scriptural proofs, was harshly condemned. On the other hand, Atharis understood Ittiba as following the prophetic teachings by using
1368-513: Is haram to be halal." Atharism materialized as a formal distinct school of thought towards the end of the 8th century CE among Muslim scholars of the ḥadīth who held the Quran and the authentic ḥadīth to be the only acceptable sources in matters of law and creed. Alongside Malik ibn Anas , Islamic scholar Ibn Idris al-Shafi'i is widely regarded among the earliest leaders of the Athari school. In
1444-430: Is not an inherent attribute (ṣifa lāzima) of a thing but rather a relative one (min al-umūr al-nisbiyya al-iḍāfiyya), for Zayd may know through his reason what Bakr does not know, and a man may know at a certain time through his reason what he will not know at another time. Athari theologians believe that every part of the Quran is uncreated ( ghair makhluq ). It is reported that Ahmad ibn Hanbal (d. 855) said: "The Qur'an
1520-406: The zahir (apparent) meaning of the Quran and the hadith are the sole authorities in matters of aqida and Islamic jurisprudence ; and that the use of rational disputation is forbidden, even if in verifying the truth. Atharis oppose the use of metaphorical interpretation regarding the anthropomorphic descriptions and attributes of God ( ta'wil ) and do not attempt to conceptualize
1596-492: The Hadith of Gabriel in which Muhammad states, "[Ihsan is] to worship God as though you see Him, and if you cannot see Him, then indeed He sees you". ( Al-Bukhari and Al-Muslim ). According to Muhammad's hadith "God has written ihsan on everything". Ihsan is one of the three dimensions of the Islamic religion ( ad-din ): In contrast to the emphases of islam (what one should do) and iman (why one should do),
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#17327658639431672-545: The Middle East and other areas that are or have been part of, or influenced by, Islamic culture, such as Hebrew , Turkish , Persian , Urdu , Azerbaijanian and Uzbek . Islamic architecture is the entire range of architecture that has evolved within Muslim culture in the course of the history of Islam . Hence the term encompasses religious buildings as well as secular ones, historic as well as modern expressions and
1748-700: The Qadariyah , Ibn 'Umar responded with subtle takfīr (excommunication from Islam) towards the Qadariyah for their rejection of qadar (predestination). He also condemned their usage of analogical method ( Qiyas ). According to contemporary scholars, the reason for the condemnation of the Qadariyah by Ibn 'Umar was the similarity between their doctrines and those of Zoroastrianism and Manichaeism due to their respective dualistic cosmologies , which are in line with one ḥadīth that recites: " Qadariyah were Magi of this Ummah ". Another notable early Atharist
1824-541: The Quran and the ḥadīth . The name derives from "tradition" in its technical sense as a translation of the Arabic word athar . Its adherents are referred to by several names such as " Ahl al-Athar ", " Ahl al-Hadith ", etc. Muslim historians and jurists theorized that the companion Zubayr ibn al-Awwam was one of the earliest traditionalist and textualist scholars who influenced later Athari scholasticism. Zubair's method of proto-textualism precedently influenced
1900-565: The Zahirite (literalist) school. Under the leadership of these two scholars, the Atharite camp gained ascendancy. In legal matters, these traditionalists criticized the use of personal opinion ( ra'y ) common among the Hanafite jurists of Iraq as well as the reliance on living local traditions by Malikite jurists of Medina . They emphasised the superiority of Scriptural proofs, denouncing
1976-556: The historical study of Islam , Islamic civilization , history of the Muslim world , historiography , Islamic law , Islamic theology and Islamic philosophy . Specialists in Islamic studies concentrate on the detailed, academic study of texts written in Arabic within the fields of Islamic theology , Islamic law , and the Qur'an and Hadith along with ancillary disciplines such as Tafsir or Qur'an Exegesis. However, they also often apply
2052-469: The modern era it has had a grand impact on Islamic theology. Several terms are used to refer to Athari theology or Atharism. They are used inconsistently, and some of them have been subject to criticism. The designation Traditionalist Theology is derived from the word "tradition" in its technical meaning as translation of the Arabic term ḥadīth . This term is found in a number of reference works. It has been criticized by Marshall Hodgson (who preferred
2128-441: The 16th century, originally as a sub-division of divinity . This latter context gave early academic Islamic studies its Biblical studies character and was also a consequence of the fact that, throughout early-modern Western Europe, the discipline was developed by churchmen whose primary aim had been to refute the tenets of Islam . Today, academic Islamic studies is usually taught and studied alongside or after an extensive study of
2204-540: The Arabic language, with named undergraduate and graduate degrees in Arabic and Islamic studies existing at universities such as Georgetown University , the University of Exeter , University of Oxford , University of Leeds , SOAS at the University of London , Yale University and several universities in Holland and Germany (notably Leiden University and Tübingen University ). A recent HEFCE report emphasises
2280-442: The Athari creed ( ʿaqīdah ), many sources refer to it as "Hanbali theology", although Western scholars of Islamic studies remark that it would be incorrect to consider Atharism and Hanbalism as synonymous, since there have been Hanbalite scholars who have explicitly rejected and opposed the Athari theology. However, others note that some Shafiʽi scholars also belonged to this theological school, while some Hanbalites in law adopted
2356-538: The Athari school support the splitting of Tawhid into three parts, as done by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab and thus believe it is an innovation. The 16th-century Ash'arite scholar Ibn Hajar al-Haytami denounced Athari theological views as associated with the doctrine of Ibn Taymiyyah . Ihsan Ihsan ( Arabic : إحسان ʾiḥsān , also romanized ehsan ), is an Arabic term meaning "to do beautiful things", "beautification", "perfection", or "excellence" (Arabic: husn , lit. ' beauty ' ). Ihsan
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2432-412: The Athari theology as a whole. The Atharis hold that iman (faith) increases and decreases in correlation with the performance of prescribed rituals and duties, such as the five daily prayers . They believe that iman resides in the heart, in the utterance of the tongue, and in the action of the limbs. Ibn Taymiyyah seems to have been the first to introduce this distinction. Not all adherents of
2508-492: The Hanbalite jurist Ibn Qudama . Ibn Qudama harshly rebuked kalām as one of the worst of all heresies. He characterized its theologians, the mutakallimūn , as innovators and heretics who had betrayed and deviated from the simple and pious faith of the early Muslims. He wrote, "The theologians are intensely hated in this world, and they will be tortured in the next. None among them will prosper, nor will he succeed in following
2584-468: The Islamic community was the status of a believer who committed grave sins. The term “Islamic law” would in itself be an example of such a holistic merging of two spheres, conflating a person’s faith with his rights, or even three, if “law” is seen as a natural aspect of state politics that in a modern differentiated system should not be separated from religion, in its institutions and its rules. Islamic jurisprudence relates to everyday and social issues in
2660-613: The Male Elite (first published in English in 1991, translated from a 1987 French original), and Fedwa Malti-Douglas’s Woman’s Body, Woman’s Word: Gender and Discourse in Arabo-Islamic Writing (1991) surveyed large swathes of Islamic history and thought, suggesting structural connections between gendered religious discourses and the social and political roles and rights of women over time. The work from this era sparked
2736-475: The Mu'tazilite doctrine that the Quran was created and therefore not co-eternal with God , which implicitly made it subject to interpretation by caliphs and scholars. Ibn Hanbal led traditionalist resistance to this policy, affirming under torture that the Quran was uncreated and hence co-eternal with God. Although Mu'tazilism remained state doctrine until 851, the efforts to impose it only served to politicize and harden
2812-557: The Quran, the ḥadīth , the sunnah , and ijma , and consensus Atharis did not neglect the use of reason . According to the traditionalists, rational arguments serve as proofs of the divine revelation . Despite the traditionalist criticism of the rationalist Islamic theologians, reason plays an important role in Athari theology. According to the medieval Sunni theologian and Hanbalite scholar Ibn Taymiyyah (d. 1328), straying away from tradition and adopting rationalist approaches creates disputes among Muslims. Hence, Ibn Taymiyyah advocated
2888-494: The academic study of Islam , which is analogous to related fields such as Jewish studies and Quranic studies . Islamic studies seeks to understand the past and the potential future of the Islamic world. In this multidisciplinary program, scholars from diverse areas (history, culture, literature, art) participate and exchange ideas pertaining to the particular field of study. Generations of scholars in Islamic studies, most of whom studied with Orientalist mentors, helped bridge
2964-585: The adherents of the later Salafiyya movement, who regard it as a true representation of the Hanafi creed free from the influence of Māturīdī theology . Numerous contemporary Salafi scholars have produced supercommentaries and annotations on the sharh , including Abd al-Aziz ibn Baz , Muhammad Nasiruddin al-Albani , and Saleh al-Fawzan , and it is taught as a standard text at the Islamic University of Madinah . Including: Athari doctrine
3040-522: The caliph al-Mutawakkil suspended the rationalist inquisition, Abbasid caliphs came to rely on an alliance with traditionalists to buttress popular support. In the early 11th century, the caliph al-Qadir made a series of proclamations that sought to prevent public preaching of rationalistic theology. In turn, the Seljuq vizier Nizam al-Mulk in the late 11th century encouraged Ashʿarite theologians in order to counterbalance caliphal traditionalism, inviting
3116-421: The clear texts of Qur'an and Hadith to prefer the opinions of other individuals belong to the "Age of Ignorance" ( Jahiliyyah ) and deserve to be punished. In one of his fatwas sternly condemning the practice of blind Taqlid , Ibn Taymiyya declares: One who requires taqlīd of a particular imām must be asked to repent, and if he refuses, he is to be killed. While they promoted strict adherence to
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3192-471: The concept of ihsan is primarily associated with intention. One who "does what is beautiful" is called a muhsin . It is generally held that a person can only achieve true Ihsan with the help and guidance of God , who governs all things. While traditionally Islamic jurists have concentrated on islam and theologians on iman , the Sufis have focused their attention on ihsan . Those who are muhsin are
3268-675: The confines of the Hanbali school of jurisprudence. The works of 19th century Sunni Yemeni theologian Muhammad Al-Shawkani (d. 1839 C.E/ 1255 A.H) has contributed heavily to the revival of traditionalist theology in the contemporary era. Traditionalist scripturalism also exerts significant influence within the Hanafi school of jurisprudence , such as the Hanafite scholar Ibn Abi al-Izz 's sharh on al-Tahawi's creedal treatise Al-Aqida al-Tahawiyya . This treatise would become popular amongst
3344-499: The context of a given Sufi’s own time for reasons as to why he/she was known as a Sufi. Sufism is not that, they do not follow the Islam properly it’s just that they spend more time with God. It is an individual way of studying. It might also be referred to as Islamic mysticism. While other branches of Islam generally focus on exoteric aspects of religion, Sufism is mainly focused on the direct perception of truth or God through mystic practices based on divine love. Sufism embodies
3420-434: The corresponding nouns in this context is anachronistic. It is also known as Traditionalist theology or Scripturalist theology. it emerged as a school of theology in the late 8th century CE from the scholarly circles of Ahl al-Hadith , an early Islamic religious movement that rejected the formulation of Islamic doctrine derived from rationalistic Islamic theology ( kalām ) in favor of strict textualism in interpreting
3496-531: The debates between rationalists and the traditionalists, al-Shafi'i was able to successfully uphold the superiority of the ḥadīth over other devices (such as rational arguments, local traditions, customs, ra'y , etc. ) as the source of theological knowledge and Quranic interpretation. From this school would emerge a vigorous traditionalist movement against the Ahl al-Ra'y and its various manifestations. The doctrines of these early Shafi'ite theologians would be revived in
3572-539: The designation traditionalist theology in a way that includes both Ashʿarism and Māturīdism . Athari (from the Arabic word athar , meaning " remnant " or " effect ") is another term that has been used for traditionalist theology. The term Traditionism has also been used in the same sense, although Binyamin Abrahamov reserves the term "traditionists" for scholars of the Hadith, distinguishing it from traditionalism as
3648-415: The doctrine of early Athari theologians, which emphasizes the stability of the tradition. Summing up the traditionalist attitude toward rational argumentation, Ibn Taymiyyah wrote: The preference of rational arguments over traditional ones is impossible and unsound. As for the preference of the traditional proofs, it is possible and sound... that is on account of the fact that being known through reason or not
3724-602: The early time of Islam, of Muhammad and how the Quran was written. In the 1970s, the Revisionist School of Islamic Studies questioned the uncritical adherence to traditional Islamic sources and started to develop a new picture of the earliest times of Islam by applying the historical-critical method . To understand the history of Islam provides the indispensable basis to understand all aspects of Islam and its culture. Themes of special interest are: The history of women and gender in Islamic studies experienced
3800-639: The gap between Orientalism and Religious studies. The subfield that grew out of this effort is called "Islamic studies." The study of Islam is part of a tradition that started in Western academia on a professional scale about two centuries ago, and has been previously linked to social concern. This academic tradition has not only led to an accumulation of knowledge, even if some of it is almost forgotten or badly neglected, but has also witnessed major changes in interests, questions, methods, aesthetics, and ethics of Islam. Many academic Islamic studies programs include
3876-477: The impactful comprehensive syntheses of the early 1990's, more in-depth and context-specific studies have delved into social customs, religious beliefs, and the interplay between the two. Sufism ( تصوف taṣawwuf ) is a mystic tradition of Islam based on the pursuit of spiritual truth as it is gradually revealed to the heart and mind of the Sufi (one who practices Sufism).According to Renard (2021) quoted by Green
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#17327658639433952-409: The increasing, strategic importance for Western governments since 9/11 of Islamic studies in higher education and also provides an international overview of the state of the field. With the events of 11 September 2001, Islam has become the most prominent world religion and occupies center stage in world politics. In Islamic Studies, there is a tendency to rely on history (as method and approach) as
4028-434: The leadership of Ahmad ibn Hanbal (780–855). In matters of faith, they were pitted against Mu'tazilites and other theological Islamic currents and condemned many points of their doctrine as well as the extreme philosophical methods they used. Ashʿarism and Māturīdism is often called the Sunni creed. But the original Ahl al-Hadith , early Sunni creed after which Ash'arism evolved has continued to thrive alongside it. In
4104-405: The life of Muslims. It is divided in fields like: Key distinctions include those between fiqh , hadith and ijtihad . Islamic studies scholars also deal with the long and rich tradition of philosophy as developed by Muslim philosophers . It is divided in fields like: Islamic studies scholars are also active in the history and philosophy of science . Significant progress in science
4180-414: The meaning of Sufism is “a strong method of Muslim’s knowledge and practice bringing proximity to or meditation with God and believed that it came from Prophet Muhammad from generation to generation who followed him” (P.8). The etymological term Suf has mysticism to the educational notion of asceticism. The ascetics and mystics have different and separate roles in each setting, and everyone needs to search
4256-477: The meaning which Allah intended by His attributes; no course of action is intended by them, nor is there any obligation attached to them. It is possible to believe in them without the knowledge of their intended sense." Anthropomorphism was commonly alleged against Athari theologians by their critics, including the Hanbalite scholar and theologian Ibn al-Jawzi . In some cases, Athari scholars espoused extreme anthropomorphic views, but they do not generally represent
4332-424: The meanings of the Quran by using philosophical principles since they believe that their realities should be consigned to God and Muhammad alone ( tafwid ). In essence, they assert that the literal meaning of the Quran and the ḥadīth must be accepted without asking "how?" (i.e. " Bi-la kayfa "). Athari theology emerged among hadith scholars who eventually coalesced into a movement called Ahl al-Ḥadīth under
4408-470: The methods adapted from several ancillary fields, ranging from Biblical studies and classical philology to modern history , legal history and sociology . Scholars in the field of Islamic studies are often referred to as "Islamicists" and the discipline traditionally made up the bulk of what used to be called Oriental studies . The transitional generation of Islamicists were betwixt and between an era when Islamic studies were dominated by Orientalism and
4484-425: The post-Orientalist era of post-colonial criticism and critical theory in the social sciences and much of religious studies. In fact, some of the more traditional Western universities still confer degrees in Arabic and Islamic studies under the primary title of "Oriental studies". This is the case, for example, at the University of Oxford , where classical Arabic and Islamic studies have been taught since as early as
4560-493: The production of all places that have come under the varying levels of Islamic influence. Islamic visual art has, throughout history, been mainly abstract and decorative, portraying geometric, floral, Arabesque , and calligraphic designs. Unlike the strong tradition of portraying the human figure in Christian art , Islamic art is typically distinguished as not including depictions of human beings. The lack of portraiture
4636-534: The rank of mujtahid mūtlaq (advanced scholars who founded their own madhhab ) such as the Shafiʽite scholar Ibn Kathir , Hanbalite scholar Ibn Taymiyyah , Ibn Hazm , Bukhari-independent school , and also scholars from the Jariri and Zahiri schools. Another companion who was known to hold this textualist stance was 'Abdullah ibn Umar . When enquired by a group of his Tabi'in disciples regarding his views on
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#17327658639434712-537: The rationalistic methods they used in defending them. Traditionalists were also characterized by their avoidance of all state patronage and by their social activism. They attempted to follow the injunction of " commanding good and forbidding evil " by preaching asceticism and launching vigilante attacks to break wine bottles, musical instruments and chessboards. In 833, the caliph al-Ma'mun tried to impose Mu'tazilite theology on all religious scholars and instituted an inquisition ( mihna ) which required them to accept
4788-431: The right direction..." Atharis staunchly affirm the existence of the attributes of God and consider all of them to be equally eternal. They accept the relevant verses of the Quran and the ḥadīth as they are without subjecting them to rational analysis or elaboration. According to Atharis, the real meanings of the attributes of God should be consigned to God alone ( tafwid ). According to this method, one should adhere to
4864-425: The role of 'Aql (human intellect) and also rejected methods of jurisprudence not based on literal reading of scriptures. Unlike mainstream traditionalists, Dawud would go as far as to declare all forms of Qiyas (analogical reasoning) to be completely invalid. In matters of faith, traditionalists were pitted against Mu'tazilites and other theological currents, condemning many points of their doctrines as well as
4940-465: The scholars of Ahl al-Ḥadīth . This was characterized by their approach to literal adherence to the texts of the Quran and ḥadīth , while largely rejecting the Qiyas (analogy) methodology of Ahl al-Ra'y (scholars of logic). This strict view expressed by az-Zubayr regarding the exegetical interpretation of the Quran was recorded in his primary biographies compiled by Islamic scholars. These include
5016-522: The scriptural evidences supplied by the scholars. Many traditionalists like Ahmad ibn Hanbal (d. 855), a major scholar who articulated Ijtihad and rejected Taqlid , would use scriptural proofs from the Quran and sunnah but also in some cases rational proofs. The Athari denunciations of Taqlid would reach its zenith in the writings of the 8th/14th-century theologians Ibn Taymiyya (d. 1328 C.E/ 728 A.H) and Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya (d. 1350 C.E/751 A.H). According to Ibn Taymiyya, those who depart from
5092-421: The second half of the 19th century, philological and historical approaches were predominant. Leading in the field were German researchers like Theodore Nöldeke with his History of the Quran , and Ignaz Goldziher 's work on hadith ( Muslim Studies ). Orientalists and Islamic scholars alike preferred to interpret the history of Islam in a conservative way. They did not question the traditional account of
5168-416: The statements of az-Zubayr such as his advice to one of his children to never argue about the text of the Quran with logic. According to az-Zubayr, the interpretations of the Quran should be strictly bound with the traditional understanding of the ḥadīth and sunnah . Such anti-rationalistic, traditionalistic, and ḥadīth -oriented views were also shared by many influential scholars in history that reached
5244-499: The term Hadith folk ) for its potential for confusion between the technical and common meanings of the word "tradition". Oliver Leaman also cautions against misinterpreting the terms "traditionalists" and "rationalists" as implying that the former favored irrationality or that the latter did not use the ḥadīth . Some authors reject the use of these terms as labels for groups of scholars and prefer to speak of "traditionalist" and "rationalist" tendencies instead. Racha el Omari has applied
5320-569: The text of the Quran and believe that it is the truth, without trying to explain it through a figurative explanation. Ahmad ibn Hanbal reportedly stated: "His Attributes proceed from Him and are His own, we do not go beyond the Qur'an and the traditions of the Prophet and his Companions; nor do we know the how of these, save by the acknowledgment of the Apostle and the confirmation of the Qur'an." Ibn Qudamah al-Maqdisi stated: "For we have no need to know
5396-816: The theological controversy. The failure of the Mihna campaign symbolised the total defeat of the Mu'tazilites and the doctrinal triumph of the persecuted traditionalists, who had gained popular support. Apart from the universal condemnation of the doctrine of Qur'anic createdness ; 'Aql (human intellect) was denied any independent role in religious interpretations and driven compliant to Wahy (Revelation) in Sunni hermeneutical paradigm. The next two centuries saw an emergence of broad compromises in both law and creed within Sunni Islam. In jurisprudence, Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, and Hanbali schools all gradually came to accept both
5472-415: The traditionalist reliance on the Quran and ḥadīth and the use of controlled reasoning in the form of qiyas . In theology, al-Ashʿarī (874–936) found a middle ground between Mu'tazilite rationalism and Hanbalite literalism, using the rationalistic methods championed by Mu'tazilites to defend most tenets of the traditionalist doctrine. A rival compromise between rationalism and traditionalism emerged from
5548-523: The traditionalist scholars who rejected the Ashʿarī - Māturīdī synthesis were in the minority, their emotive, narrative-based approach to faith remained influential among the urban masses in some areas, particularly in Abbasid Baghdad . Its popularity manifested itself repeatedly from the late 9th to 11th centuries, when crowds shouted down preachers who publicly expounded rationalistic theology. After
5624-406: The treatises of later Hanbali scholars. At first these scholars formed minorities within existing religious study circles, but by the early 9th century CE they coalesced into a separate traditionalist scholastic movement, commonly called Ahl al-Ḥadīth , under the leadership of Ahmad ibn Hanbal . Another major leader of the traditionalist camp during this era was Dawud ibn Khalaf , the founder of
5700-431: The work of al-Māturīdī (d. c. 944), and one of these two schools of theology was accepted by members of all the Sunni schools of jurisprudence, with the exception of most Hanbalite and some Maliki and Shafi'i scholars, who ostensibly persisted in their rejection of kalām , although they often resorted to rationalistic arguments themselves, even while claiming to rely on the literal text of the Islamic scriptures. Although
5776-613: Was made in the Muslim world during the Middle Ages , especially during the Islamic Golden Age , which is considered a major period in the history of science. Scholars also study the relationship between Islam and science , for example in the application of Islamic ethics to scientific practice. This field includes the study of modern and classical Arabic and the literature written in those languages. It also often includes other modern, classic or ancient languages of
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