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147-536: The Athens Charter ( French : Charte d'Athènes , Greek : Χάρτα των Αθηνών) was a 1933 document about urban planning published by the Swiss architect Le Corbusier . The work was based upon Le Corbusier’s Ville Radieuse (Radiant City) book of 1935 and urban studies undertaken by the Congrès International d'Architecture Moderne (CIAM) in the early 1930s. The Charter got its name from location of

294-454: A sauna , ping pong tables, and more. More than 40 sport teams exist, and the sports practiced include aerobics , yoga , Pilates , basketball , volleyball , soccer , handball , ping pong , tennis , martial arts inside the campus facilities and swimming , polo , rowing , yachting , rappelling , rafting , squash , wind surfing , and equestrianism outside. Each year several inter-departmental championships are organized among

441-495: A European center of decentralized interdisciplinary, educational, research, technological and cultural activities of NTUA. The NTUA Music Department was established in 1960 by Chancellor Alexander Pappas. The first president of the music department was composer Vassilis Makridis. It features a mixed choir , a string orchestra , and free lessons for various instruments, among others piano , guitar , bouzouki , and cello . The music department groups regularly perform publicly within

588-744: A French official to teachers in the department of Finistère , in western Brittany, included the following: "And remember, Gents: you were given your position in order to kill the Breton language". The prefect of Basses-Pyrénées in the French Basque Country wrote in 1846: "Our schools in the Basque Country are particularly meant to replace the Basque language with French..." Students were taught that their ancestral languages were inferior and they should be ashamed of them; this process

735-553: A broad and diverse range of subjects, strong industry links, and a commitment to quality assurance, but faces issues like state intervention, funding inadequacies, and the need for better external stakeholder engagement and internal services. The Averof building is one of the most important and elegant buildings of the Athenian Neoclassical period located in the center of Athens and the most important work of architect Lysandros Kaftanzoglou . It constitutes also one of

882-442: A brutal crackdown by the regime. The uprising was ignited by a series of student demonstrations and occupations, each met with increasing violence from the authorities. The final confrontation began on November 14th, when students barricaded themselves inside NTUA's Patission Complex and began broadcasting a pirate radio station , calling for popular rebellion. On November 17th, the military regime used army tanks to break through

1029-595: A central library, a computer center and a medical center. The School of Applied Mathematics and Physical Sciences is housed in the center of the campus. Right next to it is the Mining and Metallurgical Engineering School. The Civil Engineering School and the Rural and Surveying Engineering School are both housed on the south-west near the Zografou Gate. Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Naval Engineering, and

1176-567: A civic centre. Although these proposals were unbuilt, he had more success in Marseilles where an initial study for three Unités resulted in one being built. In line with the Charter , the Unité was a north-south orientated block eighteen storeys high set in parkland. There is a public 'street' on levels 7 and 8 that provides various shops, offices and a hotel. On the roof there is a nursery school,

1323-569: A collection of over 2.5 terabytes of free and open source software. English, French, German and Italian are the four languages taught in NTUA. All non-exchange students have to choose one from those as a mandatory foreign language course. For foreign students, the NTUA Linguistic Service offers the option of attending Greek courses during the entire academic year , free of charge. These courses are intended to provide students with

1470-431: A comprehensive academic study entitled "The World's 10 most influential languages". In the article, Weber ranked French as, after English, the second-most influential language of the world, ahead of Spanish. His criteria were the numbers of native speakers, the number of secondary speakers (especially high for French among fellow world languages), the number of countries using the language and their respective populations,

1617-555: A foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050. French is the fastest growing language on the continent (in terms of either official or foreign languages). French is increasingly being spoken as a native language in Francophone Africa, especially in regions like Ivory Coast , Cameroon , Gabon, Madagascar , and

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1764-677: A more organic approach to the image of the city. Even by 1954 during the Aix-en-Provence meeting of CIAM the younger generation riled against the pre-war utopian ideals that the Charter represented. This disillusionment would lead to the formation of Team X at the Dubrovnik meeting of CIAM that would eventually lead to the breakup of the Conference as an organisation. In the case of Brasília, whilst Niemeyer remained faithful to

1911-702: A number of days, some visited local classical sites and others visited nearby islands. On 10 August they embarked on the return journey to Marseilles. During meetings on the return journey delegates found it impossible to agree on resolutions for the Functional City. Van Eesteren's original Amsterdam plan had, with greater resources, a basis formed by scientific data. The plans presented by the national groups did not have this and, despite Giedion's insistence, delegates were reluctant to agree on guidelines. Eventually, two groups agreed on two separate texts: observations and resolutions . The observations taken from

2058-525: A parkland setting". Between 1952 and 1958 London County Council built the Alton East and Alton West high-rise blocks in Roehampton. Alton East comprised 744 dwellings within mainly 10-storey blocks and Alton West was 1867 dwellings in 5-, 6- and 12-storey blocks. Both projects are set within parkland and have since been listed . In Sheffield in 1958, the city architect, Lewis Womersley, designed

2205-705: A period of prosperity and prominence among European nations. Richelieu established the Académie française to protect the French language. By the early 1800s, Parisian French had become the primary language of the aristocracy in France. Near the beginning of the 19th century, the French government began to pursue policies with the end goal of eradicating the many minorities and regional languages ( patois ) spoken in France. This began in 1794 with Henri Grégoire 's "Report on

2352-494: A relic of the old nominal case system of Latin longer than most other Romance languages (with the notable exception of Romanian which still currently maintains a case distinction), differentiating between an oblique case and a nominative case. The phonology was characterized by heavy syllabic stress, which led to the emergence of various complicated diphthongs such as -eau which would later be leveled to monophthongs. The earliest evidence of what became Old French can be seen in

2499-480: A running track and a pool. It opened in 1952 but had begun to influence architects even before it was complete. The 1949 Housing Act in England paved the way for Local Authorities to provide a balance of housing types for a range of communities, not just the working class. In the socialist post-war atmosphere, architectural writer J M Richards praised Le Corbusier's Unité for "putting clean and healthy housing in

2646-587: A second language. French is the second most taught foreign language in the EU. All institutions of the EU use French as a working language along with English and German ; in some institutions, French is the sole working language (e.g. at the Court of Justice of the European Union ). French is also the 16th most natively spoken language in the world, the sixth most spoken language by total number of speakers , and

2793-526: A second language. However it has also become a native language in a number of urban areas, especially in regions like Ivory Coast , Cameroon , Gabon, Madagascar , and the Democratic Republic of the Congo . In some North African countries, though not having official status, it is also a first language among some upper classes of the population alongside indigenous languages, but only

2940-941: A second one among the general population. In 2015, approximately 40% of the Francophone population (including L2 and partial speakers) lived in Europe, 36% in sub-Saharan Africa and the Indian Ocean, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas, and 1% in Asia and Oceania. French is the second most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union . Of Europeans who speak other languages natively, approximately one-fifth are able to speak French as

3087-455: A technical education facility by the state — a crucial step in its development — as it became adapted to the nation’s developmental needs. In 1914, new schools were created and was officially named Ethnicon Metsovion Polytechnion (National Metsovian Polytechnic) went under the supervision of the Ministry of Public Works. This is when new technical schools started to be formed, a process that

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3234-547: A variant of Canadian French , is spoken in parts of New England . Missouri French was historically spoken in Missouri and Illinois (formerly known as Upper Louisiana ), but is nearly extinct today. French also survived in isolated pockets along the Gulf Coast of what was previously French Lower Louisiana , such as Mon Louis Island , Alabama and DeLisle, Mississippi (the latter only being discovered by linguists in

3381-437: Is 95%, and in the French collectivity of Wallis and Futuna , it is 84%. In French Polynesia and to a lesser extent Wallis and Futuna, where oral and written knowledge of the French language has become almost universal (95% and 84% respectively), French increasingly tends to displace the native Polynesian languages as the language most spoken at home. In French Polynesia, the percentage of the population who reported that French

3528-472: Is a widespread second language among the Lebanese people , and is taught in many schools along with Arabic and English. French is used on Lebanese pound banknotes, on road signs, on Lebanese license plates , and on official buildings (alongside Arabic). Today, French and English are secondary languages of Lebanon , with about 40% of the population being Francophone and 40% Anglophone. The use of English

3675-511: Is accessible through three main gates: the Katechaki and Kokkinopoulou Gates on the north, and the Zografou Gate on the west. There are 2,000 dedicated parking spots scattered throughout the campus, most nearby all major buildings. The campus resides near the metro station of Katechaki , which makes it accessible within minutes from any area of Athens. Furthermore, six different buses are available for transportation from various city locations to

3822-489: Is also a working language in nonprofit organisations such as the Red Cross (alongside English, German, Spanish, Portuguese, Arabic and Russian), Amnesty International (alongside 32 other languages of which English is the most used, followed by Spanish, Portuguese, German, and Italian), Médecins sans Frontières (used alongside English, Spanish, Portuguese and Arabic), and Médecins du Monde (used alongside English). Given

3969-430: Is among the top five most studied languages worldwide, with about 120 million learners as of 2017. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 16th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, and Asia. French has a long history as an international language of literature and scientific standards and is a primary or second language of many international organisations including

4116-462: Is an official language in 27 countries , as well as one of the most geographically widespread languages in the world, with about 50 countries and territories having it as a de jure or de facto official, administrative, or cultural language. Most of these countries are members of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie (OIF), the community of 54 member states which share

4263-500: Is available to the public at all times for studying, and available to students, faculty, and internal and external researchers for borrowing. The central library building at Zografou campus houses also the historical library of NTUA as a special collection. This scientific-technical library is unique in Greece, and one of the most important in Europe, since it contains approximately 60,000 volumes and periodicals (1,096 titles) issued from

4410-475: Is commemorated annually on November 17th by students, political parties, and the Greek government as a symbol of the struggle for freedom, democracy, and social justice. A monument created by Memos Makris and erected at the NTUA campus honors the victims of the uprising and serves as a poignant reminder of the sacrifices made by those who fought against tyranny. The emblem of the NTUA features Prometheus bringing

4557-652: Is enacted only in New Brunswick, where about one third of the population is Francophone. French is also an official language of all of the territories ( Northwest Territories , Nunavut , and Yukon ). Out of the three, Yukon has the most French speakers, making up just under 4% of the population. Furthermore, while French is not an official language in Ontario , the French Language Services Act ensures that provincial services are available in

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4704-631: Is funded by the NTUA endowment, or often directly through public or private funds. The National Technical university of Athens is one of Greece's top universities. In 2025, the QS World University Rankings (WUR) ranked NTUA #321, with the corresponding faculty area rank being #142 for Engineering & Technology . In Europe, NTUA secured the #180 spot. According to the QS WUR Ranking By Subject (2024) for Civil and Structural Engineering, NTUA falls within

4851-503: Is growing in the business and media environment. Out of about 900,000 students, about 500,000 are enrolled in Francophone schools, public or private, in which the teaching of mathematics and scientific subjects is provided in French. Actual usage of French varies depending on the region and social status. One-third of high school students educated in French go on to pursue higher education in English-speaking institutions. English

4998-404: Is known as Old French. The period of Old French spanned between the 8th and 14th centuries. Old French shared many characteristics with Latin. For example, Old French made use of different possible word orders just as Latin did because it had a case system that retained the difference between nominative subjects and oblique non-subjects . The period is marked by a heavy superstrate influence from

5145-563: Is linked to a central service core but is separated from its neighbour by a balcony - a design feature that virtually eliminated noise transfer between dwellings. In 1937 with the fall of the Second Spanish Republic , Sert suggested that England and the United States may be the best place to focus CIAM's activities. The Athens Charter had a huge impact on planning thought after World War II. However, its influence

5292-469: Is often considered to be a useful skill by business owners in the United Kingdom; a 2014 study found that 50% of British managers considered French to be a valuable asset for their business, thus ranking French as the most sought-after foreign language there, ahead of German (49%) and Spanish (44%). MIT economist Albert Saiz calculated a 2.3% premium for those who have French as a foreign language in

5439-828: Is one of the official languages of such major international and regional courts, tribunals, and dispute-settlement bodies as the African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights , the Caribbean Court of Justice , the Court of Justice for the Economic Community of West African States , the Inter-American Court of Human Rights , the International Court of Justice , the International Criminal Tribunal for

5586-592: Is responsible for awarding professional licenses to all practicing engineers in Greece. In 1930, the Athens School of Fine Arts was established, acquiring its independence from the NTUA, as a school exclusively focused in the teaching the fine arts. This allowed the two schools to develop separately as a technical and an arts school respectively. In 1941 to 1944, the National Technical University of Athens played an important role in

5733-576: Is taught in universities around the world, and is one of the world's most influential languages because of its wide use in the worlds of journalism, jurisprudence , education, and diplomacy. In diplomacy, French is one of the six official languages of the United Nations (and one of the UN Secretariat 's only two working languages ), one of twenty official and three procedural languages of the European Union , an official language of NATO ,

5880-553: Is the language of business and communication, with French being an element of social distinction, chosen for its emotional value. French is an official language of the Pacific Island nation of Vanuatu , where 31% of the population was estimated to speak it in 2023. In the French special collectivity of New Caledonia , 97% of the population can speak, read and write French while in French Polynesia this figure

6027-431: Is the native language of about 23% of the Swiss population, and is spoken by 50% of the population. Along with Luxembourgish and German, French is one of the three official languages of Luxembourg , where it is generally the preferred language of business as well as of the different public administrations. It is also the official language of Monaco . At a regional level, French is acknowledged as an official language in

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6174-492: Is the second-most spoken language (after English) in the states of Maine and New Hampshire . In Louisiana , it is tied with Spanish for second-most spoken if Louisiana French and all creoles such as Haitian are included. French is the third most spoken language (after English and Spanish) in the states of Connecticut , Rhode Island , and New Hampshire . Louisiana is home to many distinct French dialects, collectively known as Louisiana French . New England French , essentially

6321-424: Is the sole official language in the province of Quebec , where some 80% of the population speak it as a native language and 95% are capable of conducting a conversation in it. Quebec is also home to the city of Montreal , which is the world's fourth-largest French-speaking city, by number of first language speakers. New Brunswick and Manitoba are the only officially bilingual provinces, though full bilingualism

6468-764: The Aosta Valley region of Italy where it is the first language of approximately 50% of the population, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands . It is also spoken in Andorra and is the main language after Catalan in El Pas de la Casa . The language is taught as the primary second language in the German state of Saarland , with French being taught from pre-school and over 43% of citizens being able to speak French. The majority of

6615-462: The Aosta Valley region of Italy; and various communities elsewhere. French is estimated to have about 310 million speakers, of which about 80 million are native speakers. According to the OIF, approximately 321 million people worldwide are "able to speak the language" as of 2022, without specifying the criteria for this estimation or whom it encompasses. In Francophone Africa, it is spoken mainly as

6762-539: The Democratic Republic of Congo . There is not a single African French , but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages . Sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth. It is also where the language has evolved the most in recent years. Some vernacular forms of French in Africa can be difficult to understand for French speakers from other countries, but written forms of

6909-518: The European Council of Spatial Planners wrote a new version of the Charter. J. G. Ballard's book High Rise is set in a 40 storey block set in parkland with other high-rises in central London. On the tenth floor is a wide concourse with supermarket, shops and gymnasium and a swimming pool. On the 35th floor there is a smaller swimming pool, a sauna and a restaurant. As the affluent tenants embark upon an orgy of destruction, Ballard tells

7056-485: The European Union , French was the dominant language within all institutions until the 1990s. After several enlargements of the EU (1995, 2004), French significantly lost ground in favour of English, which is more widely spoken and taught in most EU countries. French currently remains one of the three working languages, or "procedural languages", of the EU, along with English and German. It is the second-most widely used language within EU institutions after English, but remains

7203-559: The Francien dialect is one that not only continued but also thrived during the Middle French period (14th–17th centuries). Modern French grew out of this Francien dialect. Grammatically, during the period of Middle French, noun declensions were lost and there began to be standardized rules. Robert Estienne published the first Latin-French dictionary, which included information about phonetics, etymology, and grammar. Politically,

7350-877: The International Olympic Committee , the Council of Europe , the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development , Organization of American States (alongside Spanish, Portuguese and English), the Eurovision Song Contest , one of eighteen official languages of the European Space Agency , World Trade Organization and the least used of the three official languages in the North American Free Trade Agreement countries. It

7497-626: The Oaths of Strasbourg and the Sequence of Saint Eulalia , while Old French literature began to be produced in the eleventh century, with major early works often focusing on the lives of saints (such as the Vie de Saint Alexis ), or wars and royal courts, notably including the Chanson de Roland , epic cycles focused on King Arthur and his court , as well as a cycle focused on William of Orange . It

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7644-528: The Park Hill Estate . The product of an entire slum clearance , three times the size of the Unité , dwellings were housed in a series of high-rise structures connected by external decks. These 'streets in the air' are wide enough to incorporate bicycles and milk floats . Initial success came because whole streets were moved into adjacent dwellings on the new scheme. Harold Macmillan said it would "draw

7791-1012: The United Nations , the European Union, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization , the World Trade Organization , the International Olympic Committee , the General Conference on Weights and Measures , and the International Committee of the Red Cross . French is a Romance language (meaning that it is descended primarily from Vulgar Latin ) that evolved out of the Gallo-Romance dialects spoken in northern France. The language's early forms include Old French and Middle French . Due to Roman rule, Latin

7938-415: The engineering disciplines, including architecture , and one for applied sciences (mathematics and physics). Undergraduate studies have a duration of five years. The university comprises about 700 of academic staff, 140 scientific assistants and 260 administrative and technical staff. It also has about 8,500 undergraduates and about 1,500 postgraduate students. Eight of the NTUA's Schools are housed at

8085-400: The 17th century until 1950. The main bulk of NTUA's historical collection consists of old and rare books, pamphlets, maps, engravings and encyclopedias. Lavrion Technological and Cultural Park (LTCP), is a body of scientific research, education, business and culture. Founded in place of the old French Mining Company of Lavrion (Compagnie Francaise des Mines du Laurium) in 1992, as a result of

8232-410: The 1821 Greek revolution . The Averof building reached a deteriorating state and was eventually in great need of restoration and modernization in order to continue operating as an educational establishment. The aim of the conservation project, namely for the Averof to be used again as an educational building, was successfully achieved after the building became operative in the beginning of 2010 and won

8379-411: The 1950s, when polytechnics were established outside Athens . Its traditional campus , located in the center of Athens on Patission Avenue on a site donated by Eleni Tositsa, features a suite of magnificent neoclassical buildings by architect Lysandros Kaftantzoglou (1811–1885). A new campus, the Zografou Campus, was built in the 1980s. NTUA is divided into nine academic schools, eight being for

8526-455: The 1990s) but these varieties are severely endangered or presumed extinct. French is one of two official languages in Haiti alongside Haitian Creole . It is the principal language of education, administration, business, and public signage and is spoken by all educated Haitians. It is also used for ceremonial events such as weddings, graduations, and church masses. The vast majority of the population speaks Haitian Creole as their first language;

8673-474: The 20th century, when it was replaced by English as the United States became the dominant global power following the Second World War . Stanley Meisler of the Los Angeles Times said that the fact that the Treaty of Versailles was written in English as well as French was the "first diplomatic blow" against the language. During the Grand Siècle (17th century), France, under the rule of powerful leaders such as Cardinal Richelieu and Louis XIV , enjoyed

8820-439: The 51-100 range. Its highest position in this category was #25 in 2013. NTUA has the highest citation impact score (0.88) among the Greek universities, based on a ranking prepared by the Directorate General for Science and Research of the European Commission in 2003 (updated 2004) that was compiled as part of the Third European Report on Science & Technology Indicators. During 2022, 130 researchers from NTUA were included among

8967-510: The Canadian capital, is also effectively bilingual, as it has a large population of federal government workers, who are required to offer services in both French and English, and is just across the river from the Quebecois city of Gatineau . According to the United States Census Bureau (2011), French is the fourth most spoken language in the United States after English, Spanish, and Chinese, when all forms of French are considered together and all dialects of Chinese are similarly combined. French

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9114-614: The Caribbean that are collectively referred to as the French West Indies , namely Guadeloupe , Saint Barthélemy , Saint Martin , and Martinique . French is the official language of both French Guiana on the South American continent, and of Saint Pierre and Miquelon , an archipelago off the coast of Newfoundland in North America. French was the official language of the colony of French Indochina , comprising modern-day Vietnam , Laos , and Cambodia . It continues to be an administrative language in Laos and Cambodia, although its influence has waned in recent decades. In colonial Vietnam,

9261-408: The Empire, this local elite had been slowly abandoning Gaulish entirely, but the rural and lower class populations remained Gaulish speakers who could sometimes also speak Latin or Greek. The final language shift from Gaulish to Vulgar Latin among rural and lower class populations occurred later, when both they and the incoming Frankish ruler/military class adopted the Gallo-Roman Vulgar Latin speech of

9408-458: The European Union. There are currently 20 departmental or inter-departmental postgraduate courses, coordinated by NTUA Departments, leading to the respective Post Graduate Specialization Diploma, with a minimum duration of 17 months, including one in Business Administration (in collaboration with the Athens University of Economics and Business). Moreover, NTUA participates in nine post-graduate programs coordinated by other Greek Universities. After

9555-416: The Germanic Frankish language , which non-exhaustively included the use in upper-class speech and higher registers of V2 word order , a large percentage of the vocabulary (now at around 15% of modern French vocabulary ) including the impersonal singular pronoun on (a calque of Germanic man ), and the name of the language itself. Up until its later stages, Old French , alongside Old Occitan , maintained

9702-431: The National Technical University of Athens for the Protection and Development of Mountainous Environment and Local European Cultures was founded in 1993 by decision of the National Technical University of Athens Senate, following the proposal of the then Rector professor Nikos Markatos . The principal aim of MIRC is to contribute to the protection and development of mountainous environment and local European cultures and

9849-496: The Netherlands, CIAM delegates visited the Van Nelle factory designed in part by Mart Stam that was to have formed a larger part of a Functional City design. CIAM 4 was the first congress that the influential MARS Group from England was represented. In 1935 MARS member Berthold Lubetkin and his practice, the Tecton Group completed Highpoint in Highgate, London. The project comprised 56 dwellings grouped together as two crosses on plan, eight dwellings per arm. Each dwelling

9996-410: The Soviets competition entry failed to gain acceptance from the jury and, due to the political conditions in Russia, CIAM's agenda became increasingly ignored. A new venue for the fourth CIAM conference was required. The fourth CIAM conference took place on board the S.S. Patris, an ocean-going liner journeying from Marseilles to Athens in July 1933. The national groups reported to the conference with

10143-402: The Zografou Campus, while the School of Architecture is based at the Patission Complex. NTUA was established by royal decree on December 31, 1836 (OS) , January 21, 1837 (NS), under the name "Royal School of Arts" ( Greek : Βασιλικό Σχολείο των Τεχνών ). It began functioning as a part-time vocational school (only Sundays and holidays) to train craftsmen, builders and master craftsmen to cover

10290-446: The abstract shape of the human body with head, spine, arms and legs. The design maintained the idea of high-rise housing blocks, free circulation and abundant green spaces proposed in his earlier work. Le Corbusier exhibited the first representations of his ideas at the third CIAM meeting in Brussels in 1930 and published a book of the same title as the city in 1935. The concept of the Functional City came to dominate CIAM thinking after

10437-411: The acquisition of the Post Graduate Specialization Diploma, the student can proceed towards submitting a doctoral thesis. NTUA boasts high research activity, as research and education are both its goals. Research is managed by administrative and education personnel, but can be conducted by graduate and sometimes undergraduate students as well. Research is administered by five separate offices: Research

10584-637: The admiration of the world". In Scotland, the Department of Housing for Scotland encouraged Local Authorities to build more unified and open schemes. The Functional City prescribed the separation of industrial zones from residential ones by parkland. This concept suited the regeneration of industrial decay in Scottish cities. From 1956 the Hutchesontown Gorbals area of Glasgow was redeveloped. The architect Robert Matthew designed one of

10731-577: The basis of Josep Lluís Sert's book Can our cities survive? and were incorporated in Le Corbusier's Athens Charter published in 1943. The resolutions formed part of Le Corbusier's book The Radiant City published in 1935. The text of the Athens Charter as published became an extension of the content of The Radiant City and Le Corbusier significantly re-worded the original observations . As well as adding new material he also removed

10878-470: The benefactors who financed construction of this campus. Though the Patission Street campus was incomplete at the time, rising student demand made it urgent to relocate. In 1887, the institution was partitioned into three technical schools: Structural Engineering, Architecture and Mechanical Engineering — all four-year degrees at the time. It was at this point that the institute was recognized as

11025-555: The campus: the 608 from Galatsi , 230 from Acropolis , 242 from the Katechaki Metro station and 140 from Glifada . On the campus lies the NTUA Central Library, which has operated since 1914, and was the first library in Greece with a complete index. Today, it remains one of the largest technical libraries in the country, featuring a collection of over 215,000 books and 100,000 scientific issues. The library

11172-466: The city. He relied upon the more rational methods being promoted by CIAM at that time which sought to use statistical information for designing zone uses rather than designing them in any detail. At a special congress meeting in Berlin later in 1931 van Eesteren presented his findings to his colleagues. He presented three drawings of Amsterdam . The first at a scale of 1:10000 showed land use and density,

11319-519: The conference in Brussels. At a meeting in Zürich in 1931, CIAM members Le Corbusier, Walter Gropius , Siegfried Giedion , Rudolf Steiger and Werner M. Moser discussed with Cornelis van Eesteren the importance of solar orientation in governing the directional positioning of low-cost housing on a given site. Van Eesteren had been chief architect of Amsterdam's Urban Development Section since 1929 and

11466-513: The country near French-speaking Quebec, however, it is the foreign language more commonly taught. Vowel phonemes in French National Technical University of Athens It was founded in 1837 as a part-time vocational school named Royal School of Arts which, as its role in the technical development of the fledgling state grew, developed into Greece's sole institution providing engineering degrees up until

11613-699: The country's political life with the Greek students participating in the National Resistance under the German occupation. During the Axis occupation of Greece , NTUA, in addition to its function as an academic institution, became one of the most active resistance centers in Athens. The Polytechnion Uprising of November, 1973, marked a turning point in Greece's struggle against the military dictatorship that had seized power in 1967. This historic event, which began with student protests at NTUA, culminated in

11760-519: The demographic prospects of the French-speaking nations of Africa, researcher Pascal-Emmanuel Gobry wrote in 2014 that French "could be the language of the future". However, some African countries such as Algeria intermittently attempted to eradicate the use of French, and as of 2024 it was removed as an official language in Mali and Burkina Faso . Significant as a judicial language, French

11907-448: The economic power of the countries using the language, the number of major areas in which the language is used, and the linguistic prestige associated with the mastery of the language (Weber highlighted that French in particular enjoys considerable linguistic prestige). In a 2008 reassessment of his article, Weber concluded that his findings were still correct since "the situation among the top ten remains unchanged." Knowledge of French

12054-594: The elites primarily spoke French, while many servants who worked in French households spoke a French pidgin known as " Tây Bồi " (now extinct). After French rule ended, South Vietnam continued to use French in administration, education, and trade. However, since the Fall of Saigon and the opening of a unified Vietnam's economy, French has gradually been effectively displaced as the first foreign language of choice by English in Vietnam. Nevertheless, it continues to be taught as

12201-579: The emblem are part of the Hadjikyriakos-Ghikas collection of the Benaki Museum . The National Technical University of Athens is divided into nine academic schools ( Greek : σχολές ), which are furthermore divided into 33 departments (Greek: τομείς): The academic calendar of NTUA comprises 10 independent, integral academic semesters. Each semester lasts 18 weeks: 13 weeks of classes, a two-week break (Christmas and Easter holidays for

12348-511: The facilities of the university, but also elsewhere. At the moment, the department's president is conductor and composer Michalis Economou. The Dancing Department was established in 1990. It is formed by students, and it features various groups, including a Greek traditional and Cretan folk dances group, a European and Latin Ballroom dances group, a Salsa and a tango group. The groups meets weekly, and perform regularly inside and outside

12495-408: The facilities of the university. Attendance and dancing lessons are free for undergraduate and graduate students, alumni, faculty and even people not related to the university. The dancing department is housed near the center of the main campus. The Theatrical Group was established in 1991. It is a self-managed group, which teaches the art of performance and often performs in public. Participation in

12642-517: The fall and spring semester respectively), and three weeks of semester exams. The tenth semester is devoted to the preparation of the diploma thesis. The diploma thesis has to be related to one of the courses of the faculty. The student has at his or her disposal at least a full academic semester to prepare the thesis. Upon completion of the thesis, the student must take part in an oral examination that can take place either in June, October or February, after

12789-649: The final examinations, provided that the student has passed all courses prescribed by the curriculum. An important part of the studies in NTUA are the summer "training" projects which take place in Industrial and Production Units, in the period between the end of the spring semester and the beginning of the fall semester. They constitute an elective course for the Faculties of Civil Engineering, Survey Engineering (Surveying and Geodesy Camp) and Mining and Metallurgy Engineering (Mining Camp) and are partially subsidized by

12936-767: The findings from their city studies, presenting in each case the agreed three boards showing a total of 33 cities. In addition, Le Corbusier and the group who had met earlier in Zürich hosted a meeting to state the core goals of the Functional City. On arrival in Athens on 3 August an exhibition of the Functional City boards was held at the National Technical University of Athens and inaugurated by Greece's prime minister. The boards were separated into seven categories: metropolises, cities of administration, ports, industrial cities, pleasure cities and cities of diverse function. The delegates remained in Athens for

13083-455: The fire from the gods to the mankind. In Greek mythology , Prometheus defied the Olympian gods by giving fire to humanity in the form of technology, knowledge and, more generally, civilization. This emblem underscores NTUA's commitment to addressing real human needs and dimensions. The emblem is round and black. It features Prometheus in the center holding a lit torch with his right hand. To

13230-516: The first government authority to adopt Modern French as official was the Aosta Valley in 1536, while the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts (1539) named French the language of law in the Kingdom of France . During the 17th century, French replaced Latin as the most important language of diplomacy and international relations ( lingua franca ). It retained this role until approximately the middle of

13377-915: The former Yugoslavia , International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda , the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea the International Criminal Court and the World Trade Organization Appellate Body . It is the sole internal working language of the Court of Justice of the European Union , and makes with English the European Court of Human Rights 's two working languages. In 1997, George Weber published, in Language Today ,

13524-469: The four areas using 18-storey blocks on a north-south axis that ignored local street patterns. The Golden Lane Estate in London was designed by Chamberlin, Powell and Bon , who also designed the adjacent Barbican Estate . It has a variety of dwellings and a good provision of supporting community buildings. Like the Unité it has a terrace on the roof. The Smithsons (Alison and Peter Smithson) were against

13671-708: The four functions explored for the Functional City , renaming them House , Street , District and City . In the Golden Lane development the House became the family unit, the Street was an elevated access deck but the District and City lay outside the project's boundaries. Their work was never built at Golden Lane, but these ideas can be viewed in their book "Urban Structuring". Lúcio Costa's conception of

13818-491: The fourth CIAM conference in 1933, which, due to the deteriorating political situation in Russia, took place on the S.S. Patris bound for Athens from Marseille . This conference is documented in a film commissioned by Sigfried Giedion and made by his friend László Moholy-Nagy : "Architects' Congress." The Charter had a significant impact on urban planning after World War II. Although Le Corbusier had exhibited his ideas for

13965-623: The gates and unleash a wave of violence against the students and their supporters. The toll of the Polytechnion uprising was tragic. Several demonstrators were killed; many more were arrested by the military police and were tortured for months in military prisons. The uprising galvanized the Greek people and the junta was irreparably damaged by the popular outcry (it fell in 1974, after the Turkish invasion in Cyprus ). The Polytechnion Uprising

14112-829: The gender of the corresponding word in Gaulish. The estimated number of French words that can be attributed to Gaulish is placed at 154 by the Petit Robert , which is often viewed as representing standardized French, while if non-standard dialects are included, the number increases to 240. Known Gaulish loans are skewed toward certain semantic fields, such as plant life ( chêne , bille , etc.), animals ( mouton , cheval , etc.), nature ( boue , etc.), domestic activities (ex. berceau ), farming and rural units of measure ( arpent , lieue , borne , boisseau ), weapons, and products traded regionally rather than further afield. This semantic distribution has been attributed to peasants being

14259-645: The grand prize of Europa Nostra in 2012. The main campus is located in the Zografou area of the Athens metropolitan area , housing all the schools of NTUA except architecture, which remains in its traditional location on the Patission Avenue for historical reasons. The main campus spreads over an area of about 190 acres, 6 km from the center of Athens. It includes buildings of 65 acres with fully equipped lecture theaters, laboratories, libraries, gyms,

14406-656: The group asked him to prepare a number of analytical studies of cities ready for the next main CIAM meeting planned to be in Moscow in 1933. The theme for these studies would be the Functional City, that is, one where land planning would be based upon function-based zones. Van Eesteren employed the city planner Theodor Karel van Lohuizen to use methods developed for the Amsterdam Expansion Plan, to prepare zoning plans that would predict overall future development in

14553-467: The group is free for students. The theatrical group is housed near the center of the main campus. The theatrical group has also organized a separate percussion lessons group. The main sports facilities of NTUA are housed in the Sports Center located to the south of the campus, taking up about 3,500 square meters. The campus sport facilities feature tennis and soccer courts, a field and track,

14700-615: The ideal city, the Ville Contemporaine in the 1920s, during the early 1930s, after contact with international planners he began work on the Ville Radieuse (Radiant City). In 1930 he had become an active member of the syndicalist movement and proposed the Ville Radieuse as a blueprint of social reform. Unlike the radial design of the Ville Contemporaine, the Ville Radieuse was a linear city based upon

14847-409: The ideas of zoning and green spaces, his revised urban utopia became based upon a smaller city with a high vertical concentration of people with increased pedestrian facilities. In 1958 he had warned that his utopian dream could not be fulfilled unless society itself was reorganised to suit it. At its inauguration the city was branded a Kafkaesque Nightmare with an Orwellian environment. To reduce

14994-411: The initiative undertaken from the National Technical University of Athens. LTCP aims at linking scientific and technological research conducted in Athens with the needs and interests of the business world, and to the realization of cultural events related to the promotion of the history and culture of the wider area of Lavreotiki, and the emergence of the history of activities in the past had developed in

15141-466: The introduction of several new technical courses. This restructuring continued steadily until 1873. At the time, the school became overwhelmed by the plethora of students wishing to learn higher technical skills. This led to its move to a new campus. In 1873 it moved to its new campus in Patission Street and was known as Metsovion Polytechnion (Metsovian Polytechnic) after the birthplace of

15288-454: The language are very closely related to those of the rest of the French-speaking world. French is the second most commonly spoken language in Canada and one of two federal official languages alongside English. As of the 2021 Canadian census , it was the native language of 7.7 million people (21% of the population) and the second language of 2.9 million (8% of the population). French

15435-479: The language, although it has now given way to Tamil and English. A former French mandate , Lebanon designates Arabic as the sole official language, while a special law regulates cases when French can be publicly used. Article 11 of Lebanon's Constitution states that "Arabic is the official national language. A law determines the cases in which the French language is to be used". The French language in Lebanon

15582-612: The language. The Act applies to areas of the province where there are significant Francophone communities, namely Eastern Ontario and Northern Ontario . Elsewhere, sizable French-speaking minorities are found in southern Manitoba, Nova Scotia , Prince Edward Island and the Port au Port Peninsula in Newfoundland and Labrador, where the unique Newfoundland French dialect was historically spoken. Smaller pockets of French speakers exist in all other provinces. The Ontarian city of Ottawa ,

15729-479: The last to hold onto Gaulish. The beginning of French in Gaul was greatly influenced by Germanic invasions into the country. These invasions had the greatest impact on the northern part of the country and on the language there. A language divide began to grow across the country. The population in the north spoke langue d'oïl while the population in the south spoke langue d'oc . Langue d'oïl grew into what

15876-733: The maintenance of premises. The LTCP area is a unique monument of industrial architecture and archeology and placed him in a series of housing facilities for business and research excellence. The services provided by LTCP as well as its renovated facilities, continue to support research, education and technology. Today, LTCP is essentially the only technology park in Attica, which specializes in areas – keys of modern applied technology, such as information technology, electronics technology, telecommunications, robotics, technology laser, environmental technology, energy, shipbuilding, marine technology, etc. The Metsovion Interdisciplinary Research Center (MIRC) of

16023-431: The matter to high density when no due attention was given to communal facilities was to court disaster; to create open space without greenery was to devalue the idea of the community living in nature. The imitations of the Unité usually involved such drastic omissions. Does this mean that the prototype should be blamed for the later disastrous variations? −Curtis, 1986, Modern Architecture since 1900, Phaidon, p293 In 2003

16170-610: The most important creations of European Neoclassicism , directly influenced in its design by the monuments of the Athenian Acropolis . Its construction began in 1862 and ended in 1878. After its completion, the building was in continuous use for more than 125 years during which it suffered from several additions and alterations. The main building has housed at times the National Gallery and various exhibitions of Schliemann 's archaeological findings and relics of

16317-420: The necessity and means to annihilate the patois and to universalize the use of the French language". When public education was made compulsory , only French was taught and the use of any other ( patois ) language was punished. The goals of the public school system were made especially clear to the French-speaking teachers sent to teach students in regions such as Occitania and Brittany . Instructions given by

16464-481: The needs of the new Greek state . In 1840, due to its increasing popularity and the changing socio-economic conditions in the new state, NTUA was upgraded to a full time technical school which worked alongside the Sunday school. Courses were expanded and the institution was housed in its own building on Pireos Street . In 1843 a major restructuring was made. Three departments were created: The new department's object

16611-420: The new Electrical Engineering School are all housed near the middle of the campus, while the old electrical engineering buildings remain on the north-east. There are in-campus roads making all buildings accessible by bicycle and car. There are also various internal buses that allow for transportation within the facilities, driving around the perimeter of the campus and through eight different bus stops. The campus

16758-589: The official use or teaching of French. It is spoken as a first language (in descending order of the number of speakers) in France; Canada (especially in the provinces of Quebec, Ontario, and New Brunswick); Belgium ( Wallonia and the Brussels-Capital Region ); western Switzerland (specifically the cantons forming the Romandy region); parts of Luxembourg; parts of the United States (the states of Louisiana, Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont); Monaco;

16905-570: The other langues d'oïl —languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, which French ( Francien ) largely supplanted. French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the ( Germanic ) Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to the French colonial empire , there are numerous French-based creole languages , most notably Haitian Creole . A French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French

17052-534: The other main foreign language in the Vietnamese educational system and is regarded as a cultural language. All three countries are full members of La Francophonie (OIF). French was the official language of French India , consisting of the geographically separate enclaves referred to as Puducherry . It continued to be an official language of the territory even after its cession to India in 1956 until 1965. A small number of older locals still retain knowledge of

17199-455: The plan for Brasília saw the city as a manifestation of the Functional City. Like Le Corbusier's Ville Radieuse, it was seen as a method of imposing order, progress and stability to Brazil's new capital. Like Le Corbusier, Costa and Oscar Niemeyer aspired to produce a city based upon equality and justice. In a variation of the Functional City , Sert designed married-student housing for Harvard University in 1964. Known as Peabody Terraces it

17346-471: The preferred language of certain institutions or administrations such as the Court of Justice of the European Union , where it is the sole internal working language, or the Directorate-General for Agriculture . Since 2016, Brexit has rekindled discussions on whether or not French should again hold greater role within the institutions of the European Union. A leading world language , French

17493-440: The provision of continuing education . As well as, the conduct of research , studies, seminars and conferences , relevant to the broader object of MIRC, the creation of a European network with related organizations under the aegis of the center or the participation in already existing networks. The above will be utilized by universities, cultural, research and productive organizations with the aim of assisting Metsovon in becoming

17640-471: The rest largely speak French as a first language. As a French Creole language , Haitian Creole draws the large majority of its vocabulary from French, with influences from West African languages, as well as several European languages. It is closely related to Louisiana Creole and the creole from the Lesser Antilles . French is the sole official language of all the overseas territories of France in

17787-634: The right is an altar with a flame on top and the name "Prometheus the Fire-bringer ( Pyrphoros ) inscribed on the sides. On the left side of the emblem, the name ΕΘΝ • ΜΕΤΣΟΒ • ΠΟΛΥΤΕΧΝΕΙΟΝ is written in capital letters, along with the year NTUA was established in Greek numerals (i.e., [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] ). The emblem was designed in 1954 by the greek artist Nikos Hadjikyriakos-Ghikas , who also served as Professor of Drawing until 1958. His original sketches for

17934-473: The school of Mechanical & Electrical Engineering was split up into two separate schools, Mechanical Engineering and Electrical and Computer Engineering , which is almost the form of schools maintained until now. In 1923, the NTUA alumni formed the core of the Technical Chamber of Greece , the professional organization that serves as the official technical adviser of the Greek state and

18081-499: The second showed transportation networks and the third, at 1:50000 showed the regional setting of the city. He also presented supporting information on the four functions of dwelling, work, recreation and transport. Based upon his presentation it was decided that the separate national groups within CIAM would prepare similar presentation boards for the Moscow meeting. A standard set of notation was agreed. In 1932 Le Corbusier's Palace of

18228-625: The soil for large green parks. -Mumford, 2000, The CIAM Discourse on Urbanism, 1928-1960, The MIT Press, p85 Additionally they said it was important to reduce commuting times by locating industrial zones close to residential ones and buffering them with wide parks and sports areas. Street widths and requirements should be scientifically worked out to accommodate the speed and type of transport. Finally, with regards to conservation, historic monuments should be kept only when they were of true value and their conservation did not reduce their inhabitants to unhealthy living conditions. The observations formed

18375-835: The story of how the whole block slowly degenerates into chaos. French language French ( français [fʁɑ̃sɛ] or langue française [lɑ̃ɡ fʁɑ̃sɛːz] ) is a Romance language of the Indo-European family . Like all other Romance languages, it descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire . French evolved from Gallo-Romance , the Latin spoken in Gaul , and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are

18522-431: The studies of 33 cities set guidelines under the titles: living, working, recreation and circulation. CIAM demanded that housing districts should occupy the best sites, and a minimum amount of solar exposure should be required in all dwellings. For hygienic reasons, buildings should not be built along transportation routes, and modern techniques should be used to construct high apartment building spaces widely apart, to free

18669-586: The teams of the university faculties. NTUA student's teams have been distinguished and received many awards in Panhellenic University Games, as well as in university games abroad. There is an open source students group whose purpose is to promote the use of open source software throughout the university and beyond. Furthermore, NTUA officially supports open source software by using it in its laboratories and other facilities, but also hosting mirrors for all major open source projects with

18816-871: The top-cited scientists (top 2%). Between October 2015 and July 2016, the Hellenic Authority for Higher Education (HEHA) carried out the external evaluation of all Greek institutions of higher education. The final external evaluation report for NTUA was submitted by the experts in November 2016. The report stresses that NTUA is well-organized and boasts an outstanding reputation due to its students and faculty, who have significantly contributed to Greek science and technology. The leadership has clear academic, administrative, and research goals, and strategic initiatives to address both strengths and weaknesses. Challenges include adapting to changes in higher education, legal obstacles, and staff alignment. The university has

18963-466: The total number of French speakers will reach approximately 500 million in 2025 and 650 million by 2050, largely due to rapid population growth in sub-Saharan Africa . OIF estimates 700 million French speakers by 2050, 80% of whom will be in Africa. In a study published in March 2014 by Forbes , the investment bank Natixis said that French could become the world's most spoken language by 2050. In

19110-679: The two official languages—along with Dutch —of the Brussels-Capital Region , where it is spoken by the majority of the population (approx. 80%), often as their primary language. French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland, along with German, Italian, and Romansh , and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland, called Romandy , of which Geneva is the largest city. The language divisions in Switzerland do not coincide with political subdivisions, and some cantons have bilingual status: for example, cities such as Biel/Bienne and cantons such as Valais , Fribourg and Bern . French

19257-508: The urban intellectual elite. The Gaulish language likely survived into the sixth century in France despite considerable Romanization . Coexisting with Latin, Gaulish helped shape the Vulgar Latin dialects that developed into French contributing loanwords and calques (including oui , the word for "yes"), sound changes shaped by Gaulish influence, and influences in conjugation and word order. Recent computational studies suggest that early gender shifts may have been motivated by

19404-533: The urban plans upon which the original text was based. This treatment made the Athens Charter an abstract text of general value but also transformed the original force of the observations that were founded before on concrete references. Despite its title, the Athens Charter cannot be considered as the mutual outcome of the CIAM conference, which took place ten years earlier, but largely as an expression of Le Corbusier's individual concerns. The CIAM 4 meeting

19551-485: The use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, and legal contracts; advertisements must bear a translation of foreign words. In Belgium, French is an official language at the federal level along with Dutch and German. At the regional level, French is the sole official language of Wallonia (excluding a part of the East Cantons , which are German-speaking ) and one of

19698-536: The workplace. In 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese . In English-speaking Canada, the United Kingdom, and Ireland, French is the first foreign language taught and in number of pupils is far ahead of other languages. In the United States, French is the second-most commonly taught foreign language in schools and universities, although well behind Spanish. In some areas of

19845-402: The world's French-speaking population lives in Africa. According to a 2023 estimate from the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie , an estimated 167 million African people spread across 35 countries and territories can speak French as either a first or a second language . This number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as

19992-470: Was completed three years later, in 1917, when the NTUA changed form. By special law, the old School of Industrial Arts was now separated into the Higher Schools of Civil Engineering , Mechanical & Electrical Engineering , Chemical Engineering , Surveying Engineering and Architecture . Later, the schools of Naval Engineering , and Mining and Metallurgical Engineering were formed, and

20139-487: Was concerned that the supposed universality of the Charter concealed a very narrow view of architecture and planning that overly constrained the members of CIAM. The emphasis on tall high-density housing amongst wide, green spaces effectively killed research into other areas of urban housing. In planning terms the Charter had set rigid geometries for urban planning, increasingly there became an awareness of words like 'neighbourhood', 'cluster' and 'association' that demanded

20286-497: Was designed in accordance with CIAM ideals for the Functional City . It was made up of 14 storey blocks and is often claimed to have won an American Institute of Architects award when it was built in 1951, but no evidence of such exists. Charles Jencks proclaimed that the death of Modern Architecture was on 15 July 1972 at 3.32pm when the Pruitt–Igoe housing scheme was demolished with dynamite. Architectural critic Reyner Banham

20433-819: Was during the period of the Crusades in which French became so dominant in the Mediterranean Sea that became a lingua franca ("Frankish language"), and because of increased contact with the Arabs during the Crusades who referred to them as Franj , numerous Arabic loanwords entered French, such as amiral (admiral), alcool (alcohol), coton (cotton) and sirop (syrop), as well as scientific terms such as algébre (algebra), alchimie (alchemy) and zéro (zero). Within Old French many dialects emerged but

20580-514: Was fine arts and engineering. The new department, which was later renamed School of Industrial and Fine Arts , rapidly evolved towards a major higher education institution. Tradition has it that arts referred to both technical professions and fine arts. Even today, the school maintains a school of architecture that is closely related to the School of Fine Arts, which later evolved to become a separate school. The name Polytechnnic came in 1862, with

20727-400: Was gradually adopted by the inhabitants of Gaul. As the language was learned by the common people, it developed a distinct local character, with grammatical differences from Latin as spoken elsewhere, some of which is attested in graffiti. This local variety evolved into the Gallo-Romance tongues, which include French and its closest relatives, such as Arpitan . The evolution of Latin in Gaul

20874-470: Was influential among attending architects from Switzerland, France, England, Germany, Austria, Belgium, Hungary, the Netherlands, Italy, Spain, Greece, Finland, Denmark, Norway, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Brazil and Canada. After The Radiant City was published in France in 1935, Le Corbusier continued to develop his ideas of urban planning through a number of unrealised schemes. These included plans for Antwerp, Paris, Moscow, Algiers and Morocco. In

21021-469: Was known in the Occitan-speaking region as Vergonha . Spoken by 19.71% of the European Union's population, French is the third most widely spoken language in the EU, after English and German and the second-most-widely taught language after English. Under the Constitution of France , French has been the official language of the Republic since 1992, although the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts made it mandatory for legal documents in 1539. France mandates

21168-488: Was made up of three main towers set in lawns and sheltered pedestrian routes. It avoided the usual vacuum at the base by grading the scale between the towers and the lawns. In Japan in 1957, Kunio Maekawa designed the Harumi Apartment block in Tokyo based upon the idea of the Unité. Meanwhile, In Tel Aviv in 1963 CIAM member Jacob B. Bakema designed a Functional City proposal based upon Le Corbusier's Algiers scheme. The Pruitt–Igoe housing scheme in St Louis, Missouri

21315-436: Was more complicated because in the 1950s CIAM attempted to replace the Functional City described in the Charter with a different Charter of Habitat . In 1946 Le Corbusier received a commission for projects in La Rochelle and St Dié. The urban plan allowed him to experiment with urban monumentality that had been somewhat underplayed in the Charter , but as part of the project he proposed eight Unité d'Habitation flanked by

21462-411: Was shaped by its coexistence for over half a millennium beside the native Celtic Gaulish language , which did not go extinct until the late sixth century, long after the fall of the Western Roman Empire . The population remained 90% indigenous in origin; the Romanizing class were the local native elite (not Roman settlers), whose children learned Latin in Roman schools. At the time of the collapse of

21609-437: Was the language they use the most at home rose from 67% at the 2007 census to 74% at the 2017 census. In Wallis and Futuna, the percentage of the population who reported that French was the language they use the most at home rose from 10% at the 2008 census to 13% at the 2018 census. According to a demographic projection led by the Université Laval and the Réseau Démographie de l'Agence universitaire de la Francophonie ,

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