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133-561: See text The aurochs ( Bos primigenius ) ( / ˈ ɔː r ɒ k s / or / ˈ aʊ r ɒ k s / , plural aurochs or aurochsen ) is an extinct species of bovine , considered to be the wild ancestor of modern domestic cattle . With a shoulder height of up to 180 cm (71 in) in bulls and 155 cm (61 in) in cows, it was one of the largest herbivores in the Holocene ; it had massive elongated and broad horns that reached 80 cm (31 in) in length. The aurochs
266-438: A food chain who lose their prey. "Species coextinction is a manifestation of one of the interconnectednesses of organisms in complex ecosystems ... While coextinction may not be the most important cause of species extinctions, it is certainly an insidious one." Coextinction is especially common when a keystone species goes extinct. Models suggest that coextinction is the most common form of biodiversity loss . There may be
399-541: A hypsodont jaw, it was probably a grazer, with a food selection very similar to domesticated cattle feeding on grass, twigs and acorns . Mesowear analysis of Holocene Danish aurochs premolar teeth indicates that it changed from an abrasion -dominated grazer in the Danish Preboreal to a mixed feeder in the Boreal , Atlantic and Subboreal periods. Dental microwear and mesowear analysis of specimens from
532-669: A nautilus to the Royal Society that was more than two feet in diameter, and morphologically distinct from any known living species. Hooke theorized that this was simply because the species lived in the deep ocean and no one had discovered them yet. While he contended that it was possible a species could be "lost", he thought this highly unlikely. Similarly, in 1695, Sir Thomas Molyneux published an account of enormous antlers found in Ireland that did not belong to any extant taxa in that area. Molyneux reasoned that they came from
665-547: A sequence analysis in 2010, which showed that its genome consists of 16,338 base pairs . Further studies using the aurochs whole genome sequence have identified candidate microRNA-regulated domestication genes . A comprehensive sequence analysis of Late Pleistocene and Holocene aurochs published in 2024 suggested that Indian aurochs (represented by modern zebu cattle) were the most genetically divergent aurochs population, having diverged from other aurochs around 300–166,000 years ago, with other aurochs populations spanning Europe and
798-415: A species or a population is the variety of genetic information in its living members. A large gene pool (extensive genetic diversity ) is associated with robust populations that can survive bouts of intense selection . Meanwhile, low genetic diversity (see inbreeding and population bottlenecks ) reduces the range of adaptions possible. Replacing native with alien genes narrows genetic diversity within
931-436: A viable population for species preservation and possible future reintroduction to the wild, through use of carefully planned breeding programs . The extinction of one species' wild population can have knock-on effects, causing further extinctions. These are also called "chains of extinction". This is especially common with extinction of keystone species . A 2018 study indicated that the sixth mass extinction started in
1064-479: A Lazarus species when extant individuals were described in 2019. Attenborough's long-beaked echidna ( Zaglossus attenboroughi ) is an example of a Lazarus species from Papua New Guinea that had last been sighted in 1962 and believed to be possibly extinct, until it was recorded again in November 2023. Some species currently thought to be extinct have had continued speculation that they may still exist, and in
1197-505: A Polish steer. Contemporary reconstructions of the aurochs are based on skeletons and the information derived from contemporaneous artistic depictions and historic descriptions of the animal. Remains of aurochs hair were not known until the early 1980s. Depictions show that the North African aurochs may have had a light saddle marking on its back. Calves were probably born with a chestnut colour, and young bulls changed to black with
1330-503: A cascade of coextinction across the trophic levels . Such effects are most severe in mutualistic and parasitic relationships. An example of coextinction is the Haast's eagle and the moa : the Haast's eagle was a predator that became extinct because its food source became extinct. The moa were several species of flightless birds that were a food source for the Haast's eagle. Extinction as
1463-429: A common ancestor with modern horses. Pseudoextinction is much easier to demonstrate for larger taxonomic groups. A Lazarus taxon or Lazarus species refers to instances where a species or taxon was thought to be extinct, but was later rediscovered. It can also refer to instances where large gaps in the fossil record of a taxon result in fossils reappearing much later, although the taxon may have ultimately become extinct at
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#17327732594381596-427: A discolouration that appeared after domestication. The proportions and body shape of the aurochs were strikingly different from many modern cattle breeds. For example, the legs were considerably longer and more slender, resulting in a shoulder height that nearly equalled the trunk length. The skull, carrying the large horns, was substantially larger and more elongated than in most cattle breeds. As in other wild bovines,
1729-399: A fact that was accepted by most scientists. The primary debate focused on whether this turnover caused by extinction was gradual or abrupt in nature. Cuvier understood extinction to be the result of cataclysmic events that wipe out huge numbers of species, as opposed to the gradual decline of a species over time. His catastrophic view of the nature of extinction garnered him many opponents in
1862-658: A feast held by the Natufian culture around 12,000 years BP, in which three aurochs were eaten. This appears to be an uncommon occurrence in the culture and was held in conjunction with the burial of an older woman, presumably of some social status. Petroglyphs depicting aurochs in Gobustan Rock Art in Azerbaijan date to the Upper Paleolithic to Neolithic periods. Aurochs bones and skulls found at
1995-708: A higher risk of extinction and die out faster than less sexually dimorphic species, the least sexually dimorphic species surviving for millions of years while the most sexually dimorphic species die out within mere thousands of years. Earlier studies based on counting the number of currently living species in modern taxa have shown a higher number of species in more sexually dimorphic taxa which have been interpreted as higher survival in taxa with more sexual selection, but such studies of modern species only measure indirect effects of extinction and are subject to error sources such as dying and doomed taxa speciating more due to splitting of habitat ranges into more small isolated groups during
2128-405: A large range, a lack of individuals of both sexes (in sexually reproducing species), or other reasons. Pinpointing the extinction (or pseudoextinction ) of a species requires a clear definition of that species . If it is to be declared extinct, the species in question must be uniquely distinguishable from any ancestor or daughter species, and from any other closely related species. Extinction of
2261-607: A later point. The coelacanth , a fish related to lungfish and tetrapods , is an example of a Lazarus taxon that was known only from the fossil record and was considered to have been extinct since the end of the Cretaceous Period . In 1938, however, a living specimen was found off the Chalumna River (now Tyolomnqa) on the east coast of South Africa. Calliostoma bullatum , a species of deepwater sea snail originally described from fossils in 1844 proved to be
2394-594: A mathematical model that falls in all positions. By contrast, conservation biology uses the extinction vortex model to classify extinctions by cause. When concerns about human extinction have been raised, for example in Sir Martin Rees ' 2003 book Our Final Hour , those concerns lie with the effects of climate change or technological disaster. Human-driven extinction started as humans migrated out of Africa more than 60,000 years ago. Currently, environmental groups and some governments are concerned with
2527-456: A natural part of the evolutionary process. Only recently have extinctions been recorded and scientists have become alarmed at the current high rate of extinctions . Most species that become extinct are never scientifically documented. Some scientists estimate that up to half of presently existing plant and animal species may become extinct by 2100. A 2018 report indicated that the phylogenetic diversity of 300 mammalian species erased during
2660-441: A new mega-predator or by transporting animals and plants from one part of the world to another. Such introductions have been occurring for thousands of years, sometimes intentionally (e.g. livestock released by sailors on islands as a future source of food) and sometimes accidentally (e.g. rats escaping from boats). In most cases, the introductions are unsuccessful, but when an invasive alien species does become established,
2793-610: A population a higher chance in the short term of surviving an adverse change in conditions. Effects that cause or reward a loss in genetic diversity can increase the chances of extinction of a species. Population bottlenecks can dramatically reduce genetic diversity by severely limiting the number of reproducing individuals and make inbreeding more frequent. Extinction sometimes results for species evolved to specific ecologies that are subjected to genetic pollution —i.e., uncontrolled hybridization , introgression and genetic swamping that lead to homogenization or out-competition from
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#17327732594382926-407: A race of animals to become extinct. A series of fossils were discovered in the late 17th century that appeared unlike any living species. As a result, the scientific community embarked on a voyage of creative rationalization, seeking to understand what had happened to these species within a framework that did not account for total extinction. In October 1686, Robert Hooke presented an impression of
3059-502: A reduction in agricultural productivity. Furthermore, increased erosion contributes to poorer water quality by elevating the levels of sediment and pollutants in rivers and streams. Habitat degradation through toxicity can kill off a species very rapidly, by killing all living members through contamination or sterilizing them. It can also occur over longer periods at lower toxicity levels by affecting life span, reproductive capacity, or competitiveness. Habitat degradation can also take
3192-499: A result of climate change has been confirmed by fossil studies. Particularly, the extinction of amphibians during the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse , 305 million years ago. A 2003 review across 14 biodiversity research centers predicted that, because of climate change, 15–37% of land species would be "committed to extinction" by 2050. The ecologically rich areas that would potentially suffer
3325-597: A result of sea level changes during the Pleistocene: Calibrations using fossils of 16 Bovidae species indicate that the Bovini tribe evolved about 11.7 million years ago . The Bos and Bison genetic lineages are estimated to have genetically diverged from the Bovini about 2.5 to 1.65 million years ago . The following cladogram shows the phylogenetic relationships of
3458-447: A shinier coat than during the rest of the year. Calves stayed with their mothers until they were strong enough to join and keep up with the herd on the feeding grounds. Aurochs calves would have been vulnerable to predation by grey wolves ( Canis lupus ) and brown bears ( Ursus arctos ), while the immense size and strength of healthy adult aurochs meant they likely did not need to fear most predators. According to historical descriptions,
3591-479: A species (or replacement by a daughter species) plays a key role in the punctuated equilibrium hypothesis of Stephen Jay Gould and Niles Eldredge . In ecology , extinction is sometimes used informally to refer to local extinction , in which a species ceases to exist in the chosen area of study, despite still existing elsewhere. Local extinctions may be made good by the reintroduction of individuals of that species taken from other locations; wolf reintroduction
3724-439: A species may come suddenly when an otherwise healthy species is wiped out completely, as when toxic pollution renders its entire habitat unliveable; or may occur gradually over thousands or millions of years, such as when a species gradually loses out in competition for food to better adapted competitors. Extinction may occur a long time after the events that set it in motion, a phenomenon known as extinction debt . Assessing
3857-404: A species or group of species. "Just as each species is unique", write Beverly and Stephen C. Stearns , "so is each extinction ... the causes for each are varied—some subtle and complex, others obvious and simple". Most simply, any species that cannot survive and reproduce in its environment and cannot move to a new environment where it can do so, dies out and becomes extinct. Extinction of
3990-451: A species' potential range may be very large, determining this moment is difficult, and is usually done retrospectively. This difficulty leads to phenomena such as Lazarus taxa , where a species presumed extinct abruptly "reappears" (typically in the fossil record ) after a period of apparent absence. More than 99% of all species that ever lived on Earth , amounting to over five billion species, are estimated to have died out. It
4123-518: A subsequent report, IPBES listed unsustainable fishing, hunting and logging as being some of the primary drivers of the global extinction crisis. In June 2019, one million species of plants and animals were at risk of extinction. At least 571 plant species have been lost since 1750, but likely many more. The main cause of the extinctions is the destruction of natural habitats by human activities, such as cutting down forests and converting land into fields for farming. A dagger symbol (†) placed next to
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4256-473: A white eel stripe running down the spine, while cows retained a reddish-brown colour. Both sexes had a light-coloured muzzle, but evidence for variation in coat colour does not exist. Egyptian grave paintings show cattle with a reddish-brown coat colour in both sexes, with a light saddle, but the horn shape of these suggest that they may depict domesticated cattle. Many primitive cattle breeds, particularly those from Southern Europe, display similar coat colours to
4389-523: Is also evidence to suggest that this event was preceded by another mass extinction, known as Olson's Extinction . The Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event (K–Pg) occurred 66 million years ago, at the end of the Cretaceous period; it is best known for having wiped out non-avian dinosaurs , among many other species. According to a 1998 survey of 400 biologists conducted by New York 's American Museum of Natural History , nearly 70% believed that
4522-444: Is an example of this. Species that are not globally extinct are termed extant . Those species that are extant, yet are threatened with extinction, are referred to as threatened or endangered species . Currently, an important aspect of extinction is human attempts to preserve critically endangered species. These are reflected by the creation of the conservation status "extinct in the wild" (EW) . Species listed under this status by
4655-585: Is difficult to demonstrate unless one has a strong chain of evidence linking a living species to members of a pre-existing species. For example, it is sometimes claimed that the extinct Hyracotherium , which was an early horse that shares a common ancestor with the modern horse , is pseudoextinct, rather than extinct, because there are several extant species of Equus , including zebra and donkey ; however, as fossil species typically leave no genetic material behind, one cannot say whether Hyracotherium evolved into more modern horse species or merely evolved from
4788-417: Is estimated as 100 to 1,000 times "background" rates (the average extinction rates in the evolutionary time scale of planet Earth), faster than at any other time in human history, while future rates are likely 10,000 times higher. However, some groups are going extinct much faster. Biologists Paul R. Ehrlich and Stuart Pimm , among others, contend that human population growth and overconsumption are
4921-414: Is estimated that there are currently around 8.7 million species of eukaryotes globally, and possibly many times more if microorganisms , like bacteria , are included. Notable extinct animal species include non-avian dinosaurs , saber-toothed cats , dodos , mammoths , ground sloths , thylacines , trilobites , golden toads , and passenger pigeons . Through evolution , species arise through
5054-592: Is the destruction of ocean floors by bottom trawling . Diminished resources or introduction of new competitor species also often accompany habitat degradation. Global warming has allowed some species to expand their range, bringing competition to other species that previously occupied that area. Sometimes these new competitors are predators and directly affect prey species, while at other times they may merely outcompete vulnerable species for limited resources. Vital resources including water and food can also be limited during habitat degradation, leading to extinction. In
5187-525: Is the most important determinant of genus extinction at background rates but becomes increasingly irrelevant as mass extinction arises. Limited geographic range is a cause both of small population size and of greater vulnerability to local environmental catastrophes. Extinction rates can be affected not just by population size, but by any factor that affects evolvability , including balancing selection , cryptic genetic variation , phenotypic plasticity , and robustness . A diverse or deep gene pool gives
5320-712: Is the oldest well-dated fossil specimen to date. The authors of the study proposed that Bos might have evolved in Africa and migrated to Eurasia during the Middle Pleistocene. Middle Pleistocene aurochs fossils were also excavated in a Saharan erg in the Hoggar Mountains . Fossils of the Indian subspecies ( Bos primigenius namadicus ) were excavated in alluvial deposits in South India dating to
5453-699: The Eocene formations in the Constantine region, where Tissot suspected the presence of calcium pyrophosphate . Thomas was the first to discover phosphates in the province of Ras El Aioun , Algeria. In 1882, Jules Ferry , Minister of Public Instruction, decided to create a mission to explore the Regency of Tunisia. The expedition was headed by the botanist Ernest Cosson , who had already undertaken eight study trips in Algeria between 1852 and 1880. It included
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5586-483: The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) are not known to have any living specimens in the wild and are maintained only in zoos or other artificial environments. Some of these species are functionally extinct, as they are no longer part of their natural habitat and it is unlikely the species will ever be restored to the wild. When possible, modern zoological institutions try to maintain
5719-647: The Irish elk/giant deer ( Megaloceros giganteus ). Acheulean layers in Hunasagi on India's southern Deccan Plateau yielded aurochs bones with cut marks. An aurochs bone with cut marks induced with flint was found in a Middle Paleolithic layer at the Nesher Ramla Homo site in Israel; it was dated to Marine Isotope Stage 5 about 120,000 years ago. An archaeological excavation in Israel found traces of
5852-485: The Late Pleistocene could take up to 5 to 7 million years to restore mammal diversity to what it was before the human era. Extinction of a parent species where daughter species or subspecies are still extant is called pseudoextinction or phyletic extinction. Effectively, the old taxon vanishes, transformed ( anagenesis ) into a successor, or split into more than one ( cladogenesis ). Pseudoextinction
5985-637: The Maktar and Kairouan regions. In 1885–86, Thomas explored the southern area of Tunisia between the meridian of Kairouan and the Saharan chotts , covering a vast area. He also explored the western area, which his colleagues had neglected, particularly the Chaîne du Thaljah or Chaîne du Tseldja mountains that stretch westward from Gafsa into Algeria. He identified the geology of the Gafsa chain with that of
6118-797: The Maykop culture in the Western Caucasus . The aurochs is denoted in the Akkadian words rīmu and rēmu, both used in the context of hunts by rulers such as Naram-Sin of Akkad , Tiglath-Pileser I and Shalmaneser III ; in Mesopotamia, it symbolised power and sexual potency, was an epithet of the gods Enlil and Shamash , denoted prowess as an epithet of the king Sennacherib and the hero Gilgamesh . Wild bulls are frequently referred to in Ugaritic texts as hunted by and sacrificed to
6251-462: The Near East about 4,000 years ago. Some modern cattle breeds exhibit features reminiscent of the aurochs, such as the dark colour and light eel stripe along the back of bulls, the lighter colour of cows, or an aurochs-like horn shape. Both "aur" and "ur" are Germanic or Celtic words meaning "wild ox". In Old High German , this word was compounded with ohso ('ox') to ūrohso , which became
6384-752: The Neolithic Revolution . One gave rise to the domestic taurine cattle ( Bos taurus ) in the Fertile Crescent in the Near East that was introduced to Europe via the Balkans and the coast of the Mediterranean Sea . Hybridisation between aurochs and early domestic cattle occurred during the early Holocene. Domestication of the Indian aurochs led to the zebu cattle ( Bos indicus ) that hybridised with early taurine cattle in
6517-770: The Tertiary formations, was completed and published by his friend, Professor Léon Pervinquière (1873–1913), holder of the Chair of Geology at the Faculty of Science in Paris. Émile Haug published the Essai d'une description géologique de la Tunisie after Pervinquiere had also died and presented it to the Geological Society of France in session on 6 April 1914. The Vétérinaire Général Léon-Paul-Charles Vivien wrote, When
6650-748: The evolution of large grazers. The origin of the aurochs is unclear, with authors suggesting either an African or Asian origin for the species. Bos acutifrons is considered to be a possible ancestor of the aurochs, of which a fossil skull was excavated in the Sivalik Hills in India that dates to the Early Pleistocene about 2 million years ago . An aurochs skull excavated in Tunisia's Kef Governorate from early Middle Pleistocene strata dating about 0.78 million years ago
6783-410: The slender-billed curlew ( Numenius tenuirostris ), not seen since 2007. As long as species have been evolving, species have been going extinct. It is estimated that over 99.9% of all species that ever lived are extinct. The average lifespan of a species is 1–10 million years, although this varies widely between taxa. A variety of causes can contribute directly or indirectly to the extinction of
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#17327732594386916-436: The strata of the Paris basin. They saw alternating saltwater and freshwater deposits, as well as patterns of the appearance and disappearance of fossils throughout the record. From these patterns, Cuvier inferred historic cycles of catastrophic flooding, extinction, and repopulation of the earth with new species. Cuvier's fossil evidence showed that very different life forms existed in the past than those that exist today,
7049-565: The 1886 exploration campaign in southern and central Tunisia up to Kalaat es Senam . Thomas sent a second note to the Academy of Sciences in 1887 and a third in 1888, in which he described his 1878 observations and the Algerian deposits. He did not have the time or resources to travel the Dyr of Tébessa to confirm the presence of the phosphates that he expected to be found there, but the deposit
7182-639: The 20 biodiversity goals laid out by the Aichi Biodiversity Targets in 2010, only 6 were "partially achieved" by the deadline of 2020. The report warned that biodiversity will continue to decline if the status quo is not changed, in particular the "currently unsustainable patterns of production and consumption, population growth and technological developments". In a 2021 report published in the journal Frontiers in Conservation Science , some top scientists asserted that even if
7315-504: The 20th century BC, and in the mortuary temple of Ramesses III at Medinet Habu dating to around 1175 BC. The latter is the youngest depiction of aurochs in Ancient Egyptian art to date. Extinct Extinction is the termination of a taxon by the death of its last member . A taxon may become functionally extinct before the death of its last member if it loses the capacity to reproduce and recover. Because
7448-648: The 21st century, Chinese geneticists published mitochondrial DNA evidence supporting that Eurasian aurochs populations from northern China were genetically isolated for large stretches of the Pleistocene , and as a result distinctive enough to be considered a separate subspecies, the East Asian aurochs ( B. p. sinensis ), even if the animals weren't morphologically distinct. At least two dwarf subspecies of aurochs developed in Mediterranean islands as
7581-451: The Aichi Biodiversity Targets set for 2020 had been achieved, it would not have resulted in a significant mitigation of biodiversity loss. They added that failure of the global community to reach these targets is hardly surprising given that biodiversity loss is "nowhere close to the top of any country's priorities, trailing far behind other concerns such as employment, healthcare, economic growth, or currency stability." For much of history,
7714-799: The Bey Muhammad an-Nasir gave Philippe Thomas's name to the Metlaoui station in recognition of the prosperity that his discovery of phosphates of lime had brought to the country. A medallion was placed in front of the station. A monument with a bust of Thomas by the sculptor André César Vermare was inaugurated in Sfax by Gabriel Alapetite , Resident-General of France in Tunisia on 26 April 1913. Alapetite inaugurated another monument in honour of Thomas in Tunis on 29 May 1913. Thomas's bust in Sfax and that of
7847-563: The Earth is currently in the early stages of a human-caused mass extinction, known as the Holocene extinction . In that survey, the same proportion of respondents agreed with the prediction that up to 20% of all living populations could become extinct within 30 years (by 2028). A 2014 special edition of Science declared there is widespread consensus on the issue of human-driven mass species extinctions. A 2020 study published in PNAS stated that
7980-499: The French protectorate was established, Tunisia was a vast depopulated, barren, and arid country. The sea seemed to constitute the only usable wealth. Philippe Thomas called the attention of the industrial world to its soil. New deposits of iron, zinc, copper and manganese were successively discovered and Tunisia appeared as one of the richest mining regions in the world. Philippe Thomas had determined its future ..." On 10 December 1908,
8113-763: The Iberian Peninsula during the Last Glacial Maximum , with the Holocene also seeing mixing between previously isolated aurochs populations. The aurochs was widely distributed in North Africa , Mesopotamia , and throughout Europe to the Pontic–Caspian steppe , Caucasus and Western Siberia in the west and to the Gulf of Finland and Lake Ladoga in the north. Fossil horns attributed to
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#17327732594388246-509: The M'fatah massif in Algeria and on 18 April 1885 found phosphates at Jebel Tselja. He found a brown or greenish gray limestone that on average contains 60% tricalcium phosphate near Métlaoui , where the Cretaceous limestone axis of the mountains joins the Eocene foundations. Thomas crossed the Chaîne du Tseldja through the dramatic gorges of the Oued and found identical phosphate deposits on
8379-668: The Middle East to East Asia sharing much more recent common ancestry within the last 100,000 years. Late Pleistocene European aurochs were found to have a small (~3%) ancestry component from a divergent lineage that split prior to the divergence of Indian and other aurochs, suggested to be residual from earlier European aurochs populations. Towards the end of the Late Pleistocene, European aurochs experienced considerable gene flow from Middle Eastern aurochs. European Holocene aurochs primarily descend from those that were present in
8512-538: The Middle Pleistocene. Remains of aurochs are common in Late Pleistocene sites across the Indian subcontinent. The earliest fossils in Europe date to the Middle Pleistocene. One site widely historically suggested to represent the first appearance of aurochs in Europe was the Notarchirico site in southern Italy, dating around 600,000 years ago, however a 2024 re-examination of the site found that presence of aurochs at
8645-641: The Ministry of Education proposed that Georges Rolland should write up the results of the Scientific Mission, but he refused for health reasons. The task was given to Thomas, who was now in retirement. He wrote the Essai d'une description géologique de la Tunisie with the support of Jean Albert Gaudry, Alphonse Péron , and Paul Bursaux, technical director of the Compagnie des phosphates de Gafsa . The first part, an Overview of physical geography ,
8778-584: The North American moose and that the animal had once been common on the British Isles . Rather than suggest that this indicated the possibility of species going extinct, he argued that although organisms could become locally extinct, they could never be entirely lost and would continue to exist in some unknown region of the globe. The antlers were later confirmed to be from the extinct deer Megaloceros . Hooke and Molyneux's line of thinking
8911-522: The Paris basin, could be formed by a slow rise and fall of sea levels . The concept of extinction was integral to Charles Darwin 's On the Origin of Species , with less fit lineages disappearing over time. For Darwin, extinction was a constant side effect of competition . Because of the wide reach of On the Origin of Species , it was widely accepted that extinction occurred gradually and evenly (a concept now referred to as background extinction ). It
9044-575: The Pleistocene of Britain has found these aurochs had mixed feeding to browsing diets, rather than being strict grazers. Mating season was in September, and calves were born in spring. Rutting bulls had violent fights, and evidence from the Jaktorów forest shows that they were fully capable of mortally wounding one another. In autumn, aurochs fed for the winter, gaining weight and possessing
9177-509: The Société des Sciences physiques, naturelles et climatologiques d'Alger recognized his work between 1868 and 1875 in geology and palaeontology by awarding him a silver medal. This was soon followed by his admission to the Société géologique de France . Between 1880 and 1884, Thomas published several papers on his Algerian research, and with the mining engineer Jules Tissot (1838–83) investigated
9310-455: The United States government, to force the removal of Native Americans , many of whom relied on the bison for food. Philippe Thomas Philippe Thomas (4 May 1843 – 12 February 1910) was a French veterinarian and amateur geologist who discovered large deposits of phosphates in Tunisia . Despite the huge economic importance of his discovery, he received little recognition during his life. Monuments to Thomas in Tunisia were destroyed after
9443-429: The accumulation of slightly deleterious mutations , then a population will go extinct. Smaller populations have fewer beneficial mutations entering the population each generation, slowing adaptation. It is also easier for slightly deleterious mutations to fix in small populations; the resulting positive feedback loop between small population size and low fitness can cause mutational meltdown . Limited geographic range
9576-421: The aurochs based on analysis of nuclear and mitochondrial genomes in the Bovini tribe : Bubalina (buffalo) Bos primigenius (aurochs) Bos mutus (wild yak) Bison bison (American bison) Bison bonasus (European bison/wisent) Bos javanicus (banteng) Bos gaurus (gaur) Bos sauveli (kouprey) The cold Pliocene climate caused an extension of open grassland , which enabled
9709-414: The aurochs main predators during the Holocene. During interglacial periods in the Middle Pleistocene and early Late Pleistocene in Europe, the aurochs occurred alongside other large temperate adapted megafauna species, including the straight-tusked elephant ( Palaeoloxodon antiquus ), Merck's rhinoceros ( Stephanorhinus kirchbergensis ), the narrow-nosed rhinoceros , ( Stephanorhinus hemitoechus ) and
9842-603: The aurochs survived in the region until at least 5,000 years BP. Fossils were also excavated on the Korean Peninsula , and in the Japanese archipelago . During warm interglacial periods the aurochs was widespread across Europe, but during glacial periods retreated into southern refugia in the Iberian , Italian and Balkan peninsulas. Landscapes in Europe probably consisted of dense forests throughout much of
9975-528: The aurochs was swift despite its build, could be very aggressive if provoked, and was not generally fearful of humans. In Middle Pleistocene Europe, aurochs were likely predated upon by the "European jaguar" Panthera gombaszoegensis and the scimitar toothed-cat ( Homotherium latidens ), with evidence for the consumption of aurochs by cave hyenas ( Crocuta ( Crocuta ) spelaea ) having been found from Late Pleistocene Italy. The lion ( Panthera leo ), tiger ( Panthera tigris ) and wolf are thought to have been
10108-1185: The aurochs were found in Late Pleistocene deposits at an elevation of 3,400 m (11,200 ft) on the eastern margin of the Tibetan plateau close to the Heihe River in Zoigê County that date to about 26,620 ±600 years BP. Most fossils in China were found in plains below 1,000 m (3,300 ft) in Heilongjiang , Yushu, Jilin , northeastern Manchuria , Inner Mongolia , near Beijing , Yangyuan County in Hebei province, Datong and Dingcun in Shanxi province, Huan County in Gansu and in Guizhou provinces. Ancient DNA in aurochs fossils found in Northeast China indicate that
10241-408: The aurochs, including the black colour in bulls with a light eel stripe, a pale mouth, and similar sexual dimorphism in colour. A feature often attributed to the aurochs is blond forehead hairs. According to historical descriptions of the aurochs, it had long and curly forehead hair, but none mentions a certain colour. Although the colour is present in a variety of primitive cattle breeds, it is probably
10374-595: The base, then swinging forwards and inwards, then inwards and upwards. The curvature of bull horns was more strongly expressed than horns of cows. The basal circumference of horn cores reached 44.5 cm (17.5 in) in the largest Chinese specimen and 48 cm (19 in) in a French specimen. Some cattle breeds still show horn shapes similar to that of the aurochs, such as the Spanish fighting bull, and occasionally also individuals of derived breeds. A well-preserved aurochs bone yielded sufficient mitochondrial DNA for
10507-728: The body shape of the aurochs was athletic, and especially in bulls, showed a strongly expressed neck and shoulder musculature. Therefore, the fore hand was larger than the rear, similar to the wisent, but unlike many domesticated cattle. Even in carrying cows, the udder was small and hardly visible from the side; this feature is equal to that of other wild bovines. The aurochs was one of the largest herbivores in Holocene Europe. The size of an aurochs appears to have varied by region, with larger specimens in northern Europe than farther south. Aurochs in Denmark and Germany ranged in height at
10640-510: The botanist Napoléon Doumet-Adanson and other naturalists. The botanists undertook their work in 1883 and 1884. In 1884, a geological section under Georges Rolland was added to the Tunisian Scientific Exploration Mission. Rolland was assisted by Philippe Thomas from 1885 and by Georges Le Mesle in 1887. Thomas was 42 when he started his exploration of Tunisia. He was assigned to the expedition at
10773-476: The climate in this region was more humid than during the African humid period . Following the most recent deglaciation , the range of the aurochs expanded into Denmark and southern Sweden at the beginning of the Holocene, around 12-11,000 years ago. According to a 16th-century description by Sigismund von Herberstein , the aurochs was pitch-black with a grey streak along the back; his wood carving made in 1556
10906-600: The consequences can be catastrophic. Invasive alien species can affect native species directly by eating them, competing with them, and introducing pathogens or parasites that sicken or kill them; or indirectly by destroying or degrading their habitat. Human populations may themselves act as invasive predators. According to the "overkill hypothesis", the swift extinction of the megafauna in areas such as Australia (40,000 years before present), North and South America (12,000 years before present), Madagascar , Hawaii (AD 300–1000), and New Zealand (AD 1300–1500), resulted from
11039-418: The contemporary extinction crisis "may be the most serious environmental threat to the persistence of civilization, because it is irreversible." Biologist E. O. Wilson estimated in 2002 that if current rates of human destruction of the biosphere continue, one-half of all plant and animal species of life on earth will be extinct in 100 years. More significantly, the current rate of global species extinctions
11172-602: The country gained independence. Philippe Thomas was born in Duerne , Rhône on 4 May 1843. He attended the École nationale vétérinaire d'Alfort , where he was a brilliant student, and the Cavalry School . He was named an Army Veterinarian in 1865. He was assigned to Algeria but returned to France at the start of the Franco-Prussian War (1870) and fought in various engagements. He returned to Algeria after
11305-476: The deliberate destruction of some species, such as dangerous viruses , and the total destruction of other problematic species has been suggested. Other species were deliberately driven to extinction, or nearly so, due to poaching or because they were "undesirable", or to push for other human agendas. One example was the near extinction of the American bison , which was nearly wiped out by mass hunts sanctioned by
11438-594: The early modern Aurochs . The Latin word "urus" was used for wild ox from the Gallic Wars onwards. The use of the plural form aurochsen in English is a direct parallel of the German plural Ochsen and recreates the same distinction by analogy as English singular ox and plural oxen , although aurochs may stand for both the singular and the plural term; both are attested. The scientific name Bos taurus
11571-403: The endangered wild water buffalo is most threatened with extinction by genetic pollution from the abundant domestic water buffalo ). Such extinctions are not always apparent from morphological (non-genetic) observations. Some degree of gene flow is a normal evolutionary process; nevertheless, hybridization (with or without introgression) threatens rare species' existence. The gene pool of
11704-536: The event of rediscovery would be considered Lazarus species. Examples include the thylacine , or Tasmanian tiger ( Thylacinus cynocephalus ), the last known example of which died in Hobart Zoo in Tasmania in 1936; the Japanese wolf ( Canis lupus hodophilax ), last sighted over 100 years ago; the American ivory-billed woodpecker ( Campephilus principalis ), with the last universally accepted sighting in 1944; and
11837-443: The extinction crisis. According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), 784 extinctions have been recorded since the year 1500, the arbitrary date selected to define "recent" extinctions, up to the year 2004; with many more likely to have gone unnoticed. Several species have also been listed as extinct since 2004. If adaptation increasing population fitness is slower than environmental degradation plus
11970-475: The extinction of species caused by humanity, and they try to prevent further extinctions through a variety of conservation programs. Humans can cause extinction of a species through overharvesting , pollution , habitat destruction , introduction of invasive species (such as new predators and food competitors ), overhunting, and other influences. Explosive, unsustainable human population growth and increasing per capita consumption are essential drivers of
12103-540: The field of zoology , and biology in general, and has also become an area of concern outside the scientific community. A number of organizations, such as the Worldwide Fund for Nature , have been created with the goal of preserving species from extinction. Governments have attempted, through enacting laws, to avoid habitat destruction, agricultural over-harvesting, and pollution . While many human-caused extinctions have been accidental, humans have also engaged in
12236-435: The form of a physical destruction of niche habitats. The widespread destruction of tropical rainforests and replacement with open pastureland is widely cited as an example of this; elimination of the dense forest eliminated the infrastructure needed by many species to survive. For example, a fern that depends on dense shade for protection from direct sunlight can no longer survive without forest to shelter it. Another example
12369-460: The god Baal . An aurochs is depicted on Babylon 's Ishtar Gate , constructed in the 6th century BC . Petroglyphs depicting aurochs found in Qurta in the upper Nile valley were dated to the Late Pleistocene about 19–15,000 years BP using luminescence dating and are the oldest engravings found to date in Africa. Aurochs are part of hunting scenes in reliefs in a tomb at Thebes, Egypt dating to
12502-580: The habitat retreat of taxa approaching extinction. Possible causes of the higher extinction risk in species with more sexual selection shown by the comprehensive fossil studies that rule out such error sources include expensive sexually selected ornaments having negative effects on the ability to survive natural selection , as well as sexual selection removing a diversity of genes that under current ecological conditions are neutral for natural selection but some of which may be important for surviving climate change. There have been at least five mass extinctions in
12635-676: The heaviest losses include the Cape Floristic Region and the Caribbean Basin . These areas might see a doubling of present carbon dioxide levels and rising temperatures that could eliminate 56,000 plant and 3,700 animal species. Climate change has also been found to be a factor in habitat loss and desertification . Studies of fossils following species from the time they evolved to their extinction show that species with high sexual dimorphism , especially characteristics in males that are used to compete for mating, are at
12768-447: The history of life on earth, and four in the last 350 million years in which many species have disappeared in a relatively short period of geological time. A massive eruptive event that released large quantities of tephra particles into the atmosphere is considered to be one likely cause of the " Permian–Triassic extinction event " about 250 million years ago, which is estimated to have killed 90% of species then existing. There
12901-475: The human era since the Late Pleistocene would require 5 to 7 million years to recover. According to the 2019 Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services by IPBES , the biomass of wild mammals has fallen by 82%, natural ecosystems have lost about half their area and a million species are at risk of extinction—all largely as a result of human actions. Twenty-five percent of plant and animal species are threatened with extinction. In
13034-431: The introduced ( or hybrid ) species. Endemic populations can face such extinctions when new populations are imported or selectively bred by people, or when habitat modification brings previously isolated species into contact. Extinction is likeliest for rare species coming into contact with more abundant ones; interbreeding can swamp the rarer gene pool and create hybrids, depleting the purebred gene pool (for example,
13167-574: The last few thousand years. The aurochs is likely to have used riparian forests and wetlands along lakes. Analysis of specimens found in Britain suggests that aurochs preferred inhabiting low lying relatively flat landscapes. Pollen of mostly small shrubs found in fossiliferous sediments with aurochs remains in China indicate that it preferred temperate grassy plains or grasslands bordering woodlands . It may have also lived in open grasslands. In
13300-666: The last known individual dying in the Jaktorów forest in Poland in 1627. There is a long history of interaction between aurochs and humans, including archaic humans like Neanderthals . The aurochs is depicted in Paleolithic cave paintings , Neolithic petroglyphs , Ancient Egyptian reliefs and Bronze Age figurines. It symbolised power, sexual potency and prowess in religions of the ancient Near East . Its horns were used in votive offerings , as trophies and drinking horns . Two aurochs domestication events occurred during
13433-466: The late Middle Pleistocene are estimated to have weighed up to 1,500 kg (3,310 lb). The aurochs exhibited considerable sexual dimorphism in the size of males and females. The horns were massive, reaching 80 cm (31 in) in length and between 10 and 20 cm (3.9 and 7.9 in) in diameter. Its horns grew from the skull at a 60-degree angle to the muzzle facing forwards and were curved in three directions, namely upwards and outwards at
13566-664: The locality was unsupported, with the oldest records of aurochs now placed at the Ponte Molle site in central Italy, dating to around 550-450,000 years ago. Aurochs were present in Britain by Marine Isotope Stage 11 ~400,000 years ago. The earliest remains aurochs in East Asia are uncertain, but may date to the late Middle Pleistocene. Late Pleistocene aurochs fossils were found in Affad 23 in Sudan dating to 50,000 years ago when
13699-488: The main drivers of the modern extinction crisis. In January 2020, the UN's Convention on Biological Diversity drafted a plan to mitigate the contemporary extinction crisis by establishing a deadline of 2030 to protect 30% of the Earth's land and oceans and reduce pollution by 50%, with the goal of allowing for the restoration of ecosystems by 2050. The 2020 United Nations ' Global Biodiversity Outlook report stated that of
13832-421: The modern understanding of extinction as the end of a species was incompatible with the prevailing worldview. Prior to the 19th century, much of Western society adhered to the belief that the world was created by God and as such was complete and perfect. This concept reached its heyday in the 1700s with the peak popularity of a theological concept called the great chain of being , in which all life on earth, from
13965-490: The name of a species or other taxon normally indicates its status as extinct. Examples of species and subspecies that are extinct include: A species is extinct when the last existing member dies. Extinction therefore becomes a certainty when there are no surviving individuals that can reproduce and create a new generation. A species may become functionally extinct when only a handful of individuals survive, which cannot reproduce due to poor health, age, sparse distribution over
14098-469: The natural course of events, species become extinct for a number of reasons, including but not limited to: extinction of a necessary host, prey or pollinator, interspecific competition , inability to deal with evolving diseases and changing environmental conditions (particularly sudden changes) which can act to introduce novel predators, or to remove prey. Recently in geological time, humans have become an additional cause of extinction of some species, either as
14231-410: The newly emerging school of uniformitarianism . Jean-Baptiste Lamarck , a gradualist and colleague of Cuvier, saw the fossils of different life forms as evidence of the mutable character of species. While Lamarck did not deny the possibility of extinction, he believed that it was exceptional and rare and that most of the change in species over time was due to gradual change. Unlike Cuvier, Lamarck
14364-399: The original population, thereby increasing the chance of extinction. Habitat degradation is currently the main anthropogenic cause of species extinctions. The main cause of habitat degradation worldwide is agriculture, with urban sprawl , logging, mining, and some fishing practices close behind. The degradation of a species' habitat may alter the fitness landscape to such an extent that
14497-702: The process of speciation —where new varieties of organisms arise and thrive when they are able to find and exploit an ecological niche —and species become extinct when they are no longer able to survive in changing conditions or against superior competition . The relationship between animals and their ecological niches has been firmly established. A typical species becomes extinct within 10 million years of its first appearance, although some species, called living fossils , survive with little to no morphological change for hundreds of millions of years. Mass extinctions are relatively rare events; however, isolated extinctions of species and clades are quite common, and are
14630-574: The recommendation of the paleontologist Jean Albert Gaudry , and because Jules Ferry knew his ability and perfect knowledge of the Arabic language. Rolland covered the centre of the country, while Thomas worked further south and Le Mesle worked mainly in the north, apart from an expedition to the extreme south. The team gave good descriptions of the Jurassic of the Zaghouan region and the Eocene of
14763-410: The relative importance of genetic factors compared to environmental ones as the causes of extinction has been compared to the debate on nature and nurture . The question of whether more extinctions in the fossil record have been caused by evolution or by competition or by predation or by disease or by catastrophe is a subject of discussion; Mark Newman, the author of Modeling Extinction , argues for
14896-745: The settlements of Mureybet , Hallan Çemi and Çayönü indicate that people stored and shared food in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B culture. Remains of an aurochs were also found in a necropolis in Sidon , Lebanon, dating to around 3,700 years BP; the aurochs was buried together with numerous animals, a few human bones and foods. Seals dating to the Indus Valley civilisation found in Harappa and Mohenjo-daro show an animal with curved horns like an aurochs. Aurochs figurines were made by
15029-625: The shoulders between 155–180 cm (61–71 in) in bulls and 135–155 cm (53–61 in) in cows, while aurochs bulls in Hungary reached 160 cm (63 in). The African aurochs was similar in size to the European aurochs in the Pleistocene, but declined in size during the transition to the Holocene; it may have also varied in size geographically. The body mass of aurochs appears to have shown some variability. Some individuals reached around 700 kg (1,540 lb), whereas those from
15162-503: The southern slope of the range extending for at least 80 kilometres (50 mi). Thomas sent rock samples to the École des Mines de Paris for analysis, and on receiving the results on 18 October 1885, informed Dr. Cosson, head of the mission. The discovery had great economic and agricultural importance. With Cosson's authorization, he informed the French Academy of Sciences on 7 December 1885. He completed his observations in
15295-460: The species is no longer able to survive and becomes extinct. This may occur by direct effects, such as the environment becoming toxic , or indirectly, by limiting a species' ability to compete effectively for diminished resources or against new competitor species. Habitat destruction, particularly the removal of vegetation that stabilizes soil, enhances erosion and diminishes nutrient availability in terrestrial ecosystems. This degradation can lead to
15428-430: The sudden introduction of human beings to environments full of animals that had never seen them before and were therefore completely unadapted to their predation techniques. Coextinction refers to the loss of a species due to the extinction of another; for example, the extinction of parasitic insects following the loss of their hosts. Coextinction can also occur when a species loses its pollinator , or to predators in
15561-517: The third part of the Essai . In 1909, when he was dying of disease, the Société des Phosphates de Gafsa awarded him 25,000 francs, to be added to the 6,000 francs life annuity from the Tunisian government. Philippe Thomas died on 12 February 1910 in Moulins, Allier , France at the age of 66. The third part of Thomas's Essai d'une description géologique de la Tunisie , which was to have described
15694-412: The tiniest microorganism to God, is linked in a continuous chain. The extinction of a species was impossible under this model, as it would create gaps or missing links in the chain and destroy the natural order. Thomas Jefferson was a firm supporter of the great chain of being and an opponent of extinction, famously denying the extinction of the woolly mammoth on the grounds that nature never allows
15827-567: The total extinction of the dodo and the extirpation of indigenous horses to the British Isles. He similarly argued against mass extinctions , believing that any extinction must be a gradual process. Lyell also showed that Cuvier's original interpretation of the Parisian strata was incorrect. Instead of the catastrophic floods inferred by Cuvier, Lyell demonstrated that patterns of saltwater and freshwater deposits , like those seen in
15960-531: The war and took part in suppression of the revolt in the Kabylie in 1871. In his spare time, he studied geology, paleontology, and other scientific disciplines. Thomas became a qualified geologist. Thomas classified the succession of Eocene rocks in Algeria from the Mediterranean coast to the Sahara , a succession that he would again find in southern Tunisia. In 1873, in the M'Fatah massif of Algeria Thomas
16093-512: The warm Atlantic period of the Holocene, it was restricted to remaining open country and forest margins, where competition with livestock and humans gradually increased leading to a successive decline of the aurochs. Aurochs formed small herds mainly in winter, but typically lived singly or in smaller groups during the summer. If aurochs had social behaviour similar to their descendants, social status would have been gained through displays and fights, in which both cows and bulls engaged. Since it has
16226-581: The wider scientific community of his theory. Cuvier was a well-regarded geologist, lauded for his ability to reconstruct the anatomy of an unknown species from a few fragments of bone. His primary evidence for extinction came from mammoth skulls found in the Paris basin . Cuvier recognized them as distinct from any known living species of elephant, and argued that it was highly unlikely such an enormous animal would go undiscovered. In 1812, Cuvier, along with Alexandre Brongniart and Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire , mapped
16359-546: Was based on a culled aurochs, which he had received in Mazovia . In 1827, Charles Hamilton Smith published an image of an aurochs that was based on an oil painting that he had purchased from a merchant in Augsburg , which is thought to have been made in the early 16th century. This painting is thought to have shown an aurochs, although some authors suggested it may have shown a hybrid between an aurochs and domestic cattle, or
16492-648: Was coined by Philippe Thomas in 1881 who described fossils found in deposits near Oued Seguen west of Constantine, Algeria . In 2003, the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature placed Bos primigenius on the Official List of Specific Names in Zoology and thereby recognized the validity of this name for a wild species. Three aurochs subspecies have traditionally been recognised to have existed in historical times: In
16625-491: Was difficult to disprove. When parts of the world had not been thoroughly examined and charted, scientists could not rule out that animals found only in the fossil record were not simply "hiding" in unexplored regions of the Earth. Georges Cuvier is credited with establishing the modern conception of extinction in a 1796 lecture to the French Institute , though he would spend most of his career trying to convince
16758-541: Was found as predicted and was the first to be exploited. Philippe Thomas published the palaeontology results of the Scientific Exploration Mission in six instalments plus an atlas, giving the work of Victor-Auguste Gauthier ( sea urchins ), Arnould Locard ( Mollusca ), Auguste Péron ( Brachiopods , Bryozoa , and Pentacrinitess ), and Henri Émile Sauvage ( fish ). Thomas was promoted to First Class Veterinarian in 1895. When he retired, he
16891-473: Was introduced by Carl Linnaeus in 1758 for feral cattle in Poland. The scientific name Bos primigenius was proposed for the aurochs by Ludwig Heinrich Bojanus who described the skeletal differences between the aurochs and domestic cattle in 1825, published in 1827. The name Bos namadicus was used by Hugh Falconer in 1859 for cattle fossils found in Nerbudda deposits . Bos primigenius mauritanicus
17024-694: Was made an officer of the Legion of Honour . In 1898, a member of the Institute of Carthage revived interest in his work. When the Sfax – Gafsa railway was inaugurated in 1899, Thomas was made a member of the Tunisian Order of Glory . In 1900, he was awarded a small pension of 6,000 francs. In 1904, he was awarded a Gold Medal by the Geographic Society of France. Thomas continued to send regular notes on his findings until 1909. In 1902,
17157-430: Was not until 1982, when David Raup and Jack Sepkoski published their seminal paper on mass extinctions, that Cuvier was vindicated and catastrophic extinction was accepted as an important mechanism . The current understanding of extinction is a synthesis of the cataclysmic extinction events proposed by Cuvier, and the background extinction events proposed by Lyell and Darwin. Extinction is an important research topic in
17290-558: Was part of the Pleistocene megafauna . It probably evolved in Asia and migrated west and north during warm interglacial periods. The oldest-known aurochs fossils date to the Middle Pleistocene . The species had an expansive range spanning from Western Europe and North Africa to the Indian subcontinent and East Asia. The distribution of the aurochs progressively contracted during the Holocene due to habitat loss and hunting, with
17423-563: Was published in 1907. The second part, Stratigraphy of the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic terrains , was published in 1908. Thomas described the great density of marine fauna at the dawn of the Tertiary that had created the layers of phosphates and the coastal fauna of the later Eocene layers characterized by the great vertebrates, particularly Sauria and giant turtles, and very numerous Plagiostoma bivalves. Thomas died before completing
17556-571: Was skeptical that catastrophic events of a scale large enough to cause total extinction were possible. In his geological history of the earth titled Hydrogeologie, Lamarck instead argued that the surface of the earth was shaped by gradual erosion and deposition by water, and that species changed over time in response to the changing environment. Charles Lyell , a noted geologist and founder of uniformitarianism , believed that past processes should be understood using present day processes. Like Lamarck, Lyell acknowledged that extinction could occur, noting
17689-723: Was the first to discover the existence of phosphated nodules from the lower Eocene. In 1875, he studied the fluvio-lacustrine terrains of the Upper Tertiary and Quaternary , and published a series of notes on palaeontology and palaeoethnology. The first, on "Buhalus Antiqus" appeared in the Bulletin of the Climatological Society of Algiers. In the same bulletin, he reported the discovery of a prehistoric workshop in Hassi-El-M'Kadden, near Ouargla . In 1876,
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