104-615: Australind is a town in Western Australia , located 12 km north-east of Bunbury 's central business district . Its local government area is the Shire of Harvey . At the 2016 census , Australind had a population of 14,539. Prior to European settlement, the area was home to the Wardandi people. Early explorers and settlers found them to be excellent trackers, and many of them found employment on farms. The first sighting of
208-617: A thin film , its refractive index and colour make it an excellent reflective optical coating for dielectric mirrors ; it is also used in generating decorative thin films such as found in "mystic fire topaz". Some grades of modified titanium based pigments as used in sparkly paints, plastics, finishes and cosmetics – these are man-made pigments whose particles have two or more layers of various oxides – often titanium dioxide, iron oxide or alumina – in order to have glittering, iridescent and or pearlescent effects similar to crushed mica or guanine -based products. In addition to these effects
312-575: A "safe level for daily intake of the food additive could not be established". In 2022, the UK Food Standards Agency and Food Standards Scotland announced their disagreement with the EFSA ruling, and did not follow the EU in banning titanium dioxide as a food additive. Health Canada similarly reviewed the available evidence in 2022 and decided not to change their position on titanium dioxide as
416-683: A capacity of 23,200 cubic metres per day (146,000 barrels per day) until its closure in 2021, producing most of the state's petrol and diesel. Kwinana also hosts alumina and nickel processing plants, port facilities for grain and other bulk exports, and support industries for mining and petroleum such as heavy and light engineering, and metal fabrication. Shipbuilding (e.g. Austal ) and associated support industries are found at nearby Henderson , just north of Kwinana. Significant secondary industries include cement and building product manufacturing, flour milling, food processing, animal feed production, automotive body building and printing. Western Australia has
520-527: A comparative advantage in resource extraction and processing. As a consequence: In 2019 Western Australia's overseas exports accounted for 46% of the nation's total. The state's major export commodities included iron-ore, petroleum, gold, alumina , nickel, wheat, copper, lithium, chemicals and mineral sands. Western Australia is the world's largest iron-ore producer (34% of the world's total), and extracts 66% (6.9% of world production) of Australia's 306 tonnes (9.8 million troy ounces) of gold in 2022. It
624-446: A direct hydrometallurgical process or through the main industrial production processes, the sulfate process and the chloride process . The sulfate process represents 40% of the world’s titanium dioxide production and is protected in 23% of patent families. The chloride process is only mentioned in 8% of patent families, although it provides 60% of the worldwide industrial production of titanium dioxide. Key contributors to patents on
728-671: A diseased or physically damaged dermis could be the true cause of insufficient barrier protection. SCCS research found that when nanoparticles had certain photostable coatings (e.g., alumina , silica , cetyl phosphate, triethoxycaprylylsilane , manganese dioxide ), the photocatalytic activity was attenuated and no notable skin penetration was observed; the sunscreen in this research was applied at amounts of 10 mg/cm2 for exposure periods of 24 hours. Coating TiO 2 with alumina, silica, zircon or various polymers can minimize avobenzone degradation and enhance UV absorption by adding an additional light diffraction mechanism. TiO 2
832-526: A food coloring, it has E number E171. World production in 2014 exceeded 9 million tonnes. It has been estimated that titanium dioxide is used in two-thirds of all pigments, and pigments based on the oxide have been valued at a price of $ 13.2 billion. In all three of its main dioxides, titanium exhibits octahedral geometry , being bonded to six oxide anions. The oxides in turn are bonded to three Ti centers. The overall crystal structures of rutile and anatase are tetragonal in symmetry whereas brookite
936-459: A further 1,196 species currently recognised but unpublished. They occur within 1,543 genera from 211 families ; there are also 1,276 naturalised alien or invasive plant species, more commonly known as weeds. In the southwest region are some of the largest numbers of plant species for its area in the world. Western Australia's ecoregions include the sandstone gorges of the Kimberley on
1040-584: A good roadstead, within Point Casuarina, at the eastern extremity of Geographe Bay. The bay is open only from north or north and by east to west-north-west or west and by north; but as there is a strong undercurrent setting out, ships ride safely even in heavy gales from that quarter. Australind has the Australind Village Shopping Centre, which contains a Coles supermarket , Aldi and various speciality stores. Treendale,
1144-403: A lack of storage and refrigeration facilities favour live animals over imports of processed meat. About half of Australia's live cattle exports come from Western Australia. Resource sector growth in recent years has resulted in significant labour and skills shortages, leading to recent efforts by the state government to encourage interstate and overseas immigration. According to the 2006 census,
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#17327764101671248-506: A limited colour change is possible in certain formulations depending on how and at which angle the finished product is illuminated and the thickness of the oxide layer in the pigment particle; one or more colours appear by reflection while the other tones appear due to interference of the transparent titanium dioxide layers. In some products, the layer of titanium dioxide is grown in conjunction with iron oxide by calcination of titanium salts (sulfates, chlorates) around 800 °C One example of
1352-443: A local structure in which each Ti is coordinated to, on average, about 5 oxygen atoms. This is distinct from the crystalline forms in which Ti coordinates to 6 oxygen atoms. Synthetic TiO 2 is mainly produced from the mineral ilmenite . Rutile , and anatase , naturally occurring TiO 2 , occur widely also, e.g. rutile as a 'heavy mineral' in beach sand. Leucoxene , fine-grained anatase formed by natural alteration of ilmenite,
1456-544: A long time. Widely-occurring minerals and even gemstones are composed of TiO 2 . All natural titanium, comprising more than 0.5% of the Earth's crust, exists as oxides. As of 2006, titanium dioxide had been regarded as "completely nontoxic when orally administered". However, concerns persist. TiO 2 whitener in food was banned in France from 2020, due to uncertainty about safe quantities for human consumption. In 2021,
1560-661: A mill and a public hall. Marshall Waller Clifton , who arrived on Parkfield in 1841, was appointed leader of the 440 settlers. However, in January 1841, the Swan River Colony 's Methodist minister Rev. John Smithies wrote in the following terms to the Wesleyan Missionary Society in London: If any of your friends are thinking of Austral-Ind as a point of emigration tell them to Stop . It
1664-423: A pearlescent pigment is Iriodin, based on mica coated with titanium dioxide or iron (III) oxide. The iridescent effect in these titanium oxide particles is unlike the opaque effect obtained with usual ground titanium oxide pigment obtained by mining, in which case only a certain diameter of the particle is considered and the effect is due only to scattering. In cosmetic and skin care products, titanium dioxide
1768-495: A photocatalyst, attempts have been made to mineralize pollutants (to convert into CO 2 and H 2 O) in waste water. The photocatalytic destruction of organic matter could also be exploited in coatings with antimicrobial applications. Although nanosized anatase TiO 2 does not absorb visible light, it does strongly absorb ultraviolet (UV) radiation ( hv ), leading to the formation of hydroxyl radicals. This occurs when photo-induced valence bond holes (h vb ) are trapped at
1872-468: A pigment, titanium dioxide can be added to paints, cements, windows, tiles, or other products for its sterilizing, deodorizing, and anti-fouling properties, and is used as a hydrolysis catalyst . It is also used in dye-sensitized solar cells , which are a type of chemical solar cell (also known as a Graetzel cell). The photocatalytic properties of nanosized titanium dioxide were discovered by Akira Fujishima in 1967 and published in 1972. The process on
1976-892: A residential estate in Australind, is the location of the Treendale Shopping Centre, including a Woolworths supermarket which opened in February 2012. A 24/7 Spudshed supermarket opened off Paris Road in 2016. The 18-hole Bunbury Golf Club, which hosts the annual South West Open each June, is located within the Clifton Park estate in Australind. Australind has two high schools: Australind Senior High School and Our Lady of Mercy College , as well as six primary schools: Australind (1980), Treendale (2014), Clifton Park (1988), Parkfield (1993), Kingston (2009), and Leschenault Catholic Primary School. Australind
2080-477: A result, biphasic titanium dioxide is often considered to possess enhanced functionality as a photocatalyst. It has been reported that titanium dioxide, when doped with nitrogen ions or doped with metal oxide like tungsten trioxide, exhibits excitation also under visible light. The strong oxidative potential of the positive holes oxidizes water to create hydroxyl radicals . It can also oxidize oxygen or organic materials directly. Hence, in addition to its use as
2184-517: A result, the South West region of the state has a higher concentration of rare, threatened or endangered flora and fauna than many areas of Australia, making it one of the world's biodiversity "hot spots". Large areas of the state's wheatbelt region have problems with dryland salinity and the loss of fresh water. The southwest coastal area has a Mediterranean climate . It was originally heavily forested, including large stands of karri , one of
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#17327764101672288-486: A scientific paper, General view of the botany of the vicinity of Swan River . It discusses the vegetation of the Swan River Colony . Europeans began to settle permanently in 1826 when Albany was claimed by Britain to forestall French claims to the western third of the continent. Perth was founded as the Swan River Colony in 1829 by British and Irish settlers, though the outpost languished. Its officials eventually requested convict labour to augment its population. By
2392-628: A significant fishing industry. Products for local consumption and export include western rock lobsters , prawns, crabs, shark and tuna, as well as pearl fishing in the Kimberley region of the state. Processing is conducted along the west coast. Whaling was a key marine industry but ceased at Albany in 1978. Western Australia has the world's biggest plantations of both Indian sandalwood (northern WA) and Australian sandalwood (semi-arid regions), which are used to produce sandalwood oil and incense . The WA sandalwood industry provides about 40% of
2496-458: A small number of crystallites from the mean crystal size and modifies the physical behaviour of TiO 2 . The optical properties of the finished pigment are highly sensitive to purity. As little as a few parts per million (ppm) of certain metals (Cr, V, Cu, Fe, Nb) can disturb the crystal lattice so much that the effect can be detected in quality control. Approximately 4.6 million tons of pigmentary TiO 2 are used annually worldwide, and this number
2600-490: Is 1,862 km (1,157 mi). There are 20,781 km (12,913 mi) of coastline, including 7,892 km (4,904 mi) of island coastline. The total land area occupied by the state is 2.5 million km (970 thousand sq mi). The bulk of Western Australia consists of the extremely old Yilgarn craton and Pilbara craton which merged with the Deccan Plateau of India, Madagascar and
2704-450: Is a major world producer of bauxite, which is processed into alumina at four refineries providing 11% of total world production. Until 2020 diamonds were extracted from the world's largest diamond mine in the far north Kimberley region. Coal mined at Collie is the main fuel for baseload electricity generation in the state's south-west. Agricultural production in WA is a major contributor to
2808-469: Is attributed by historians as an important factor driving the state's population and economic growth. Following a campaign led by Forrest, electors of the colony of Western Australia voted in favour of federation with the five other Australian colonies, resulting in Western Australia officially becoming a state on 1 January 1901. Western Australia is bounded to the east by longitude 129°E,
2912-573: Is currently tilted 10 degrees away from the South Pole towards Western Australia, allowing for aurora australis displays as far north as Geraldton . Western Australia is home to around 630 species of birds (depending on the taxonomy used). Of these around 15 are endemic to the state. The best areas for birds are the southwestern corner of the state and the area around Broome and the Kimberley. The Flora of Western Australia comprises 10,162 published native vascular plant species, along with
3016-478: Is expected to increase as use continues to rise. TiO 2 is also an effective opacifier in powder form, where it is employed as a pigment to provide whiteness and opacity to products such as paints , coatings , plastics , papers , inks , foods , supplements , medicines (i.e. pills and tablets), and most toothpastes ; in 2019 it was present in two-thirds of toothpastes on the French market. In paint, it
3120-562: Is found as a mineral in magmatic rocks and hydrothermal veins, as well as weathering rims on perovskite . TiO 2 also forms lamellae in other minerals. The largest TiO 2 pigment processors are Chemours , Venator , Kronos [ de ] , and Tronox . Major paint and coating company end users for pigment grade titanium dioxide include Akzo Nobel , PPG Industries , Sherwin Williams , BASF , Kansai Paints and Valspar . Global TiO 2 pigment demand for 2010
3224-765: Is found in the majority of physical sunscreens because of its strong UV light absorbing capabilities and its resistance to discolouration under ultraviolet light. This advantage enhances its stability and ability to protect the skin from ultraviolet light. Nano-scaled (particle size of 20–40 nm) titanium dioxide particles are primarily used in sunscreen lotion because they scatter visible light much less than titanium dioxide pigments, and can give UV protection. Sunscreens designed for infants or people with sensitive skin are often based on titanium dioxide and/or zinc oxide , as these mineral UV blockers are believed to cause less skin irritation than other UV absorbing chemicals. Nano-TiO 2 , which blocks both UV-A and UV-B radiation,
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3328-447: Is generally used in cosmetic and sunscreen products due to it not possessing any observed ability to damage the skin under normal conditions and having a higher UV absorption . In 2016 Scientific Committee on Consumer Safety (SCCS) tests concluded that the use of nano titanium dioxide (95–100% rutile, ≦5% anatase) as a UV filter can be considered to not pose any risk of adverse effects in humans post-application on healthy skin, except in
3432-520: Is known as riesite. Both of which can be found at the Ries crater in Bavaria . It is mainly sourced from ilmenite , which is the most widespread titanium dioxide-bearing ore around the world. Rutile is the next most abundant and contains around 98% titanium dioxide in the ore. The metastable anatase and brookite phases convert irreversibly to the equilibrium rutile phase upon heating above temperatures in
3536-504: Is now known as Cape Inscription, Dirk Hartog Island . For the rest of the 17th century, other Dutch and British navigators encountered the coast of what Abel Tasman named New Holland in 1644, usually unintentionally as demonstrated by the many shipwrecks along the coast of ships that deviated from the Brouwer Route (because of poor navigation and storms). By the late 18th century, British and French sailors had begun to explore
3640-413: Is often referred to offhandedly as "brilliant white", "the perfect white", "the whitest white", or other similar terms. Opacity is improved by optimal sizing of the titanium dioxide particles. In food, it is commonly found in ice creams, chocolates, all types of candy, creamers, desserts, marshmallows, chewing gum, pastries, spreads, dressings, cakes, some cheeses, and many other foods. When deposited as
3744-402: Is one of the greatest puffs that there has been for some time. I should be sorry if any of our Methodist friends or others should be so deluded as to embark for such a place. Before long, the settlement began to fail owing to poor soils and climate — no water in summer and too much of it in winter — and the settlers drifted away. Little of the planned town was ever developed. The company folded,
3848-415: Is orthorhombic. The oxygen substructures are all slight distortions of close packing : in rutile, the oxide anions are arranged in distorted hexagonal close-packing, whereas they are close to cubic close-packing in anatase and to "double hexagonal close-packing" for brookite. The rutile structure is widespread for other metal dioxides and difluorides, e.g. RuO 2 and ZnF 2 . Molten titanium dioxide has
3952-532: Is produced in varying particle sizes which are both oil and water dispersible, and in certain grades for the cosmetic industry. It is also a common ingredient in toothpaste. The exterior of the Saturn V rocket was painted with titanium dioxide; this later allowed astronomers to determine that J002E3 was likely the S-IVB stage from Apollo 12 and not an asteroid . Titanium dioxide is an n-type semiconductor and
4056-406: Is reportedly most pronounced at the {001} planes of anatase, although the {101} planes are thermodynamically more stable and thus more prominent in most synthesised and natural anatase, as evident by the often observed tetragonal dipyramidal growth habit . Interfaces between rutile and anatase are further considered to improve photocatalytic activity by facilitating charge carrier separation and as
4160-558: Is served by the 841 (Australind) route from Bunbury's central bus station, with a journey time of approximately 32 minutes. The route is operated by TransBunbury for the Public Transport Authority . Despite the name, the Transwa Australind rail service does not stop in or transit the town. Western Australia Western Australia (WA) is the westernmost state of Australia . It is bounded by
4264-405: Is surpassed only by a few other materials (see list of indices of refraction ). Titanium dioxide crystal size is ideally around 220 nm (measured by electron microscope) to optimize the maximum reflection of visible light. However, abnormal grain growth is often observed in titanium dioxide, particularly in its rutile phase. The occurrence of abnormal grain growth brings about a deviation of
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4368-401: Is the inorganic compound derived from titanium with the chemical formula TiO 2 . When used as a pigment , it is called titanium white , Pigment White 6 ( PW6 ), or CI 77891 . It is a white solid that is insoluble in water, although mineral forms can appear black. As a pigment, it has a wide range of applications, including paint , sunscreen , and food coloring . When used as
4472-400: Is the northern tropical regions. The Kimberley has an extremely hot monsoonal climate with average annual rainfall ranging from 500 to 1,500 millimetres (20–60 in), but there is a very long almost rainless season from April to November. Eighty-five percent of the state's runoff occurs in the Kimberley, but because it occurs in violent floods and because of the insurmountable poverty of
4576-716: Is used as a pigment, sunscreen and a thickener . As a sunscreen, ultrafine TiO 2 is used, which is notable in that combined with ultrafine zinc oxide , it is considered to be an effective sunscreen that lowers the incidence of sun burns and minimizes the premature photoaging , photocarcinogenesis and immunosuppression associated with long term excess sun exposure. Sometimes these UV blockers are combined with iron oxide pigments in sunscreen to increase visible light protection. Titanium dioxide and zinc oxide are generally considered to be less harmful to coral reefs than sunscreens that include chemicals such as oxybenzone , octocrylene and octinoxate . Nanosized titanium dioxide
4680-436: Is used extensively in plastics and other applications as a white pigment or an opacifier and for its UV resistant properties where the powder disperses light – unlike organic UV absorbers – and reduces UV damage, due mostly to the particle's high refractive index. In ceramic glazes , titanium dioxide acts as an opacifier and seeds crystal formation. It is used as a tattoo pigment and in styptic pencils . Titanium dioxide
4784-528: Is used in dye-sensitized solar cells . It is also used in other electronics components such as electrodes in batteries. Between 2002 and 2022, there were 459 patent families that describe the production of titanium dioxide from ilmenite . The majority of these patents describe pre-treatment processes, such as using smelting and magnetic separation to increase titanium concentration in low-grade ores, leading to titanium concentrates or slags. Other patents describe processes to obtain titanium dioxide, either by
4888-406: Is used in fiber and paper applications. The sulfate process is run as a batch process ; the chloride process is run as a continuous process . In chloride process , the ore is treated with chlorine and carbon to give titanium tetrachloride , a volatile liquid that is further purified by distillation. The TiCl4 is treated with oxygen to regenerate chlorine and produce the titanium dioxide. In
4992-429: Is used in sunscreens and other cosmetic products. The EU Scientific Committee on Consumer Safety considered nano sized titanium dioxide to be safe for skin applications, in concentrations of up to 25 percent based on animal testing. The risk assessment of different titanium dioxide nanomaterials in sunscreen is currently evolving since nano-sized TiO 2 is different from the well-known micronized form. The rutile form
5096-408: Is yet another ore. Star sapphires and rubies get their asterism from oriented inclusions of rutile needles. Titanium dioxide occurs in nature as the minerals rutile and anatase . Additionally two high-pressure forms are known minerals: a monoclinic baddeleyite -like form known as akaogiite , and the other has a slight monoclinic distortion of the orthorhombic α-PbO 2 structure and
5200-551: The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) ruled that as a consequence of new understandings of nanoparticles , titanium dioxide could "no longer be considered safe as a food additive", and the EU health commissioner announced plans to ban its use across the EU, with discussions beginning in June 2021. EFSA concluded that genotoxicity —which could lead to carcinogenic effects—could not be ruled out, and that
5304-641: The Group Settlement Scheme of the 1920s, which encouraged farmers to settle the southwest—increased awareness of Australia's western third as a destination for colonists. Led by immigrants from the British Isles, Western Australia's population developed at a faster rate during the twentieth century than it had previously. After World War II , both the eastern states and Western Australia received large numbers of Italians , Croatians and Macedonians . Despite this, Britain has contributed
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#17327764101675408-588: The Kaapvaal and Zimbabwe cratons of Southern Africa, in the Archean Eon to form Ur , one of the oldest supercontinents on Earth (3 – 3.2 billion years ago). In May 2017, evidence of the earliest known life on land may have been found in 3.48-billion-year-old geyserite and other related mineral deposits (often found around hot springs and geysers ) uncovered in the Pilbara craton. Because
5512-588: The Sorel-Tracy plant of QIT-Fer et Titane and the Eramet Titanium & Iron smelter in Tyssedal Norway. The Becher process is another method for the production of synthetic rutile from ilmenite. It first oxidizes the ilmenite as a means to separate the iron component. For specialty applications, TiO 2 films are prepared by various specialized chemistries. Sol-gel routes involve
5616-496: The Swan River Colony with Perth as its capital in 1829. The Western Australian gold rushes of the late 19th century resulted in a significant population influx. The colony was granted responsible government in 1890, the last of the Australian colonies to become self-governing, and federated with the other colonies in 1901. Western Australia's mining sector is a key driver of the state economy . The late 20th century saw
5720-555: The Wheatbelt and temperate southern coastal regions, pastoralism in marginal grassland areas, forestry in the south-west and fishing (including pearling and, historically, whaling ). Western Australia has a geological history dating back to 4.4 billion years ago when Hadean zircons were formed. The earliest direct known life on land, known as stromatolites , started to be created by microbes at around 3.48 billion years ago. The first human inhabitants of Australia arrived from
5824-489: The tallest trees in the world. This agricultural region is one of the nine most bio-diverse terrestrial habitats, with a higher proportion of endemic species than most other equivalent regions. Thanks to the offshore Leeuwin Current , the area is one of the top six regions for marine biodiversity and contains the most southerly coral reefs in the world. Average annual rainfall varies from 300 millimetres (12 in) at
5928-576: The 1890s around Kalgoorlie . In 1887, a new constitution was drafted, providing for the right of self-governance of European Australians, and in 1890, the act granting self-government to the colony was passed by the British Parliament . John Forrest became the first Premier of Western Australia . In 1896, after discoveries of gold at Coolgardie and Kalgoorlie , the Western Australian Parliament authorised
6032-433: The 2016 census, 75.2% of inhabitants spoke only English at home, with the next most common languages being Mandarin (1.9%), Italian (1.2%), Vietnamese (0.8%), Cantonese (0.8%) and Tagalog (0.6%). According to the 2021 census, Christianity is the major religious affiliation in WA, followed by 41.1% of its population. In 1971, Christianity was followed by 85.5% of the population and it has been declining since, while
6136-772: The Indian Ocean to the north and west, the Southern Ocean to the south, the Northern Territory to the north-east, and South Australia to the south-east. Western Australia is Australia’s largest state, with a land area of 2,527,013 square kilometres (975,685 sq mi), and is also the second-largest subdivision of any country on Earth, surpassed only by the Sakha Republic in eastern Russia, and formerly Northwest Territories in Canada, before
6240-587: The Western Australian coast. The Baudin expedition of 1800–03 included the coast of Western Australia and resulted in the Freycinet Map of 1811 , the first published map featuring the full outline of Australia. The name New Holland remained in popular and semi-official use until at least the mid-1850s; that is, it was in use for about 206 years in comparison to the name Australia which to date has been in use for about 195 years. The origins of
6344-504: The case the application method would lead to substantial risk of inhalation (ie; powder or spray formulations). This safety opinion applied to nano TiO 2 in concentrations of up to 25%. Initial studies indicated that nano-TiO 2 particles could penetrate the skin, causing concern over its use. These studies were later refuted, when it was discovered that the testing methodology couldn't differentiate between penetrated particles and particles simply trapped in hair follicles and that having
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#17327764101676448-596: The coast and explored the estuary and nearby rivers. He named Point Casuarina in Bunbury after one of his ships Casuarina , and the Leschenault Inlet after on-board botanist Jean Baptiste Leschenault de la Tour . The name Australind is a combination of Australia and India , which was chosen due to the belief that the area could be used for breeding horses for the British Indian Army , as
6552-805: The coast around the Margaret River wine-growing area. Going east along the Southern Ocean coast is the Goldfields-Esperance region, including the Esperance mallee and the Coolgardie woodlands inland around town of Coolgardie . Deserts occupy the interior, including the Great Sandy-Tanami desert , Gibson Desert , Great Victoria Desert , and Nullarbor Plain . In 1831 Scottish botanist Robert Brown produced
6656-685: The coast of Western Australia. On 7 March 1831 it was transferred to the control of the Swan River Colony, and named Albany in 1832. In 1829 the Swan River Colony was established on the Swan River by Captain James Stirling . By 1832, the British settler population of the colony had reached around 1,500, and the official name of the colony was changed to Western Australia on 6 February that year. The two separate townsites of
6760-487: The coast was by Captain A. P. Jonk in the VOC ship Emeloort , who sighted land at 33°12' S (most likely opposite the estuary from Australind) on 24 February 1658 while looking for Vergulde Draeck , but did not land. A few months later, Elburg , under Capt. J. P. Peereboom, anchored off what is now Bunbury. Peerboom met three Aboriginal people , and returned to Batavia on 16 July 1658. In 1802–03, Nicolas Baudin visited
6864-730: The coastal plains, in some cases forming a sharp escarpment (as with the Darling Range/ Darling Scarp near Perth). The extreme age of the landscape has meant that the soils are remarkably infertile and frequently laterised . Even soils derived from granitic bedrock contain an order of magnitude less available phosphorus and only half as much nitrogen as soils in comparable climates in other continents. Soils derived from extensive sandplains or ironstone are even less fertile, nearly devoid of soluble phosphate and deficient in zinc , copper, molybdenum and sometimes potassium and calcium . The infertility of most of
6968-425: The colony developed slowly into the port city of Fremantle and the state's capital, Perth . York was the first inland settlement in Western Australia, situated 97 kilometres (60 mi) east of Perth and settled on 16 September 1831. York was the staging point for early explorers who discovered the rich gold reserves of Kalgoorlie. Population growth was very slow until significant discoveries of gold were made in
7072-471: The creation of Nunavut. It is also the largest proper subnational entity, being a state rather than a territory or an autonomous region. Western Australia has a diverse range of climates, including tropical conditions in the Kimberley , deserts in the interior (including the Great Sandy Desert , Little Sandy Desert , Gibson Desert , and Great Victoria Desert ) and a Mediterranean climate on
7176-432: The development of the state's significant iron ore mining industry – the world's largest – as well as primarily offshore petroleum and natural gas resources . Gold mining retains a significant presence and many other mineral commodities are mined, with Perth being a major centre for associated services. Outside of mining, primary industry is the other significant contributor to the state's economy, including agriculture in
7280-569: The edge of the Wheatbelt region to 1,400 millimetres (55 in) in the wettest areas near Northcliffe , but from November to March, evaporation exceeds rainfall, and it is generally very dry. Plants are adapted to this as well as the extreme poverty of all soils. The central two-thirds of the state is arid and sparsely inhabited. The only significant economic activity is mining. Annual rainfall averages less than 300 millimetres (8–10 in), most of which occurs in sporadic torrential falls related to cyclone events in summer. An exception to this
7384-510: The focus of development to agricultural and timber towns further inland. The population of Australind fell to 33 (15 males and 18 females) in 1898. In the 1971 census, 418 people lived in the Australind area. The Parkfield name lives on in a nearby rural locality and in a primary school in northern Australind. A handful of historic buildings, including St Nicholas Church (1848) and Henton Cottage (1841) on Paris Road, and Clifton's former residence Upton House (1847) on Old Coast Road , still exist in
7488-611: The generally shallow soils, the only development has taken place along the Ord River . Snow is rare in the state and typically occurs only in the Stirling Range near Albany , as it is the only mountain range far enough south and sufficiently elevated. More rarely, snow can fall on the nearby Porongurup Range . Snow outside these areas is a major event; it usually occurs in hilly areas of southwestern Australia. The most widespread low-level snow occurred on 26 June 1956 when snow
7592-415: The greatest number of immigrants to this day. Western Australia—particularly Perth—has the highest proportion of British-born of any state: 10.3% in 2011, compared to a national average of 5.1%. This group is heavily concentrated in certain parts, where they account for a quarter of the population. Perth's metropolitan area (including Mandurah ) had an estimated population of 2,043,138 in June 2017 (79% of
7696-421: The hydrolysis of titanium alkoxides such as titanium ethoxide : A related approach that also relies on molecular precursors involves chemical vapor deposition . In this method, the alkoxide is volatilized and then decomposed on contact with a hot surface: First mass-produced in 1916, titanium dioxide is the most widely used white pigment because of its brightness and very high refractive index , in which it
7800-610: The international sandalwood oil market. In recent years, tourism has grown in importance, with significant numbers of visitors to the state coming from the UK and Ireland (28%), other European countries (14%) Singapore (16%), Japan (10%) and Malaysia (8%). Revenue from tourism is a strong economic driver in many of the smaller population centres outside of Perth, especially in coastal locations. Titanium dioxide 3.15 eV (rutile) Titanium dioxide , also known as titanium(IV) oxide or titania / t aɪ ˈ t eɪ n i ə / ,
7904-586: The land was mostly resumed by the Crown, and the settlement plans were officially abandoned in 1875. A bridge was built over the Brunswick River to allow nearby settlers to make use of the township's services, so that in the 1860s, Australind was surviving with a school, post office and store. However, growth was negligible and, in the 1890s, construction of the Perth to Bunbury railway via Pinjarra shifted
8008-739: The lattice structure of the surface layer of titanium dioxide nanocrystals, permitting infrared absorption. Visible-light-active nanosized anatase and rutile has been developed for photocatalytic applications. In 1995 Fujishima and his group discovered the superhydrophilicity phenomenon for titanium dioxide coated glass exposed to sun light. This resulted in the development of self-cleaning glass and anti-fogging coatings. Nanosized TiO 2 incorporated into outdoor building materials, such as paving stones in noxer blocks or paints, could reduce concentrations of airborne pollutants such as volatile organic compounds and nitrogen oxides . A TiO 2 -containing cement has been produced. Using TiO 2 as
8112-488: The median individual income was A$ 500 per week in Western Australia (compared to A$ 466 in Australia as a whole). The median family income was A$ 1246 per week (compared to A$ 1171 for Australia). Recent growth has also contributed to significant rises in average property values in 2006, although values plateaued in 2007. Located south of Perth, the heavy industrial area of Kwinana had the nation's largest oil refinery with
8216-426: The meridian 129 degrees east of Greenwich, which defines the border with South Australia and the Northern Territory , and bounded by the Indian Ocean to the west and north. The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) designates the body of water south of the continent as part of the Indian Ocean; in Australia it is officially gazetted as the Southern Ocean . The total length of the state's eastern border
8320-598: The mid-1980s the State Government and the Shire of Harvey made plans to relocate most of the industries to a new industrial park at nearby Kemerton. By 2001, Australind was predominantly residential, the census reporting over 10,000 residents, more than half of whom were first- or second-generation British immigrants, with a notable Italian minority. Australind is bordered to the south by the Collie River , to
8424-513: The north "over 50,000 years ago and possibly as much as 70,000 years ago". Over thousands of years they eventually spread across the whole landmass. These Indigenous Australians were long established throughout Western Australia by the time European explorers began to arrive in the early 17th century. The first Europeans to visit Western Australia were those of the Dutch Dirk Hartog expedition, who on 25 October 1616 landed at what
8528-538: The northern coast, and below that the drier Victoria Plains tropical savanna inland, and the semi-desert Pilbara shrublands , Carnarvon xeric shrublands , and Western Australian mulga shrublands to the southwest. Southwards along the coast are the Southwest Australia savanna and the Swan Coastal Plain around Perth, with the jarrah-karri forest and shrublands on the southwest corner of
8632-582: The only mountain-building since then has been of the Stirling Range with the rifting from Antarctica , the land is extremely eroded and ancient, with no part of the state above 1,249 metres (4,098 ft) AHD (at Mount Meharry in the Hamersley Range of the Pilbara region). Most of the state is a low plateau with an average elevation of about 400 metres (1,200 ft), very low relief, and no surface runoff . This descends relatively sharply to
8736-443: The percentage of people who identified as having no religious affiliation has increased from 8.7% in 1971 to 42.9% in 2021. A small minority of the population are Muslims (2.5%), Buddhists (2.2%) and Hindus (2.0%). Western Australia's economy is largely driven by extraction and processing of a diverse range of mineral and petroleum commodities. The structure of the economy is closely linked to these natural resources, providing
8840-474: The present state began with the establishment by Lockyer of a convict-supported settlement from New South Wales at King George III Sound . The settlement was formally annexed on 21 January 1827 by Lockyer when he commanded the Union Jack be raised and a feu de joie fired by the troops. The settlement was founded in response to British concerns about the possibility of a French colony being established on
8944-476: The production of titanium dioxide are companies from China, Australia and the United States, reflecting the major contribution of these countries to industrial production. Chinese companies Pangang and Lomon Billions Groups hold major patent portfolios. Nanosized titanium dioxide, particularly in the anatase form, exhibits photocatalytic activity under ultraviolet (UV) irradiation. This photoactivity
9048-550: The raising of a loan to construct a pipeline to transport 23 megalitres (5 million imperial gallons) of water per day to the burgeoning population on the goldfields. The pipeline, known as the Goldfields Water Supply Scheme , was completed in 1903. C. Y. O'Connor , Western Australia's first engineer-in-chief, designed and oversaw the construction of the pipeline. It carries water 530 km (330 mi) from Perth to Kalgoorlie , and
9152-423: The range 600–800 °C (1,110–1,470 °F). Titanium dioxide has twelve known polymorphs – in addition to rutile, anatase, brookite, akaogiite and riesite, three metastable phases can be produced synthetically ( monoclinic , tetragonal , and orthorhombic ramsdellite-like), and four high-pressure forms (α-PbO 2 -like, cotunnite -like, orthorhombic OI, and cubic phases) also exist: The cotunnite -type phase
9256-401: The soils has required heavy application by farmers of fertilisers. These have resulted in damage to invertebrate and bacterial populations. The grazing and use of hoofed mammals and, later, heavy machinery through the years have resulted in compaction of soils and great damage to the fragile soils. Large-scale land clearing for agriculture has damaged habitats for native flora and fauna. As
9360-533: The south-west and southern coastal areas. As of 2021, the state has 2.91 million inhabitants—11 percent of the national total. Over 90 percent of the state's population live in the south-west corner and around 80 percent live in the state capital Perth , leaving the remainder of the state sparsely populated. The Trans-Australian Railway and the Eyre Highway traverse the Nullarbor Plain in
9464-555: The state and national economy. In the period 2010–2019 wheat production in WA has averaged nearly 10 million tonnes (22 billion pounds), valued at $ 2.816 billion in 2019, accounting for half the nation's total and providing $ 2–3 billion in export income. Other significant farm output includes wool, beef, lamb, barley, canola, lupins, oats and pulses. There is a high level of overseas demand for live animals from WA, driven mainly by southeast Asia's feedlots and Middle Eastern countries, where Islamic dietary laws and
9568-431: The state's south-east, providing the principal connection between Western Australia and the population centres in the eastern states . Western Australia's Indigenous peoples have been present for tens of thousands of years. Dutch explorers visited Western Australia from the 17th century, with Dirk Hartog 's 1616 expedition the first Europeans to make landfall. The British claimed Western Australia in 1827 and established
9672-451: The state). Other significant population centres include Bunbury (73,989), Geraldton (37,961), Kalgoorlie-Boulder (30,420), Albany (33,998), Karratha (16,446), Broome (14,501) and Port Hedland (14,285). At the 2016 census, the most commonly nominated ancestries were: 3.1% of the population, or 75,978 people, identified as Indigenous Australians ( Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders ) in 2016. At
9776-413: The sulfate process, ilmenite is treated with sulfuric acid to extract iron(II) sulfate pentahydrate . This process requires concentrated ilmenite (45–60% TiO 2 ) or pretreated feedstocks as a suitable source of titanium. The resulting synthetic rutile is further processed according to the specifications of the end user, i.e. pigment grade or otherwise. Examples of plants using the sulfate process are
9880-561: The surface of TiO 2 leading to the formation of trapped holes (h tr ) that cannot oxidize water. Anatase can be converted into non-carbon nanotubes and nanowires . Hollow TiO 2 nanofibers can be also prepared by coating carbon nanofibers by first applying titanium butoxide . Titanium dioxide is insoluble in water, organic solvents, and inorganic acids. It is slightly soluble in alkali , soluble in saturated potassium acid carbonate, and can be completely dissolved in strong sulfuric acid and hydrofluoric acid after boiling for
9984-558: The surface of the titanium dioxide was called the Honda-Fujishima effect [ ja ] . In thin film and nanoparticle form, titanium dioxide has the potential for use in energy production: As a photocatalyst, it can break water into hydrogen and oxygen. With the hydrogen collected, it could be used as a fuel. The efficiency of this process can be greatly improved by doping the oxide with carbon. Further efficiency and durability has been obtained by introducing disorder to
10088-550: The time transportation ceased in 1868, convicts outnumbered free settlers 9,700 to 7,300. In the 1890s, interstate immigration, resulting from a mining boom in the Goldfields region , resulted in a sharp population increase. Western Australia did not receive significant flows of immigrants from Britain, Ireland or elsewhere in the British Empire until the early 20th century. At that time, its local projects—such as
10192-409: The town. The Historic St Nicholas Church building, originally a worker's cottage, is 3.6 metres in width and 8.2 metres in length, and is believed to be the smallest church in Australia, while Henton Cottage was the town's first hotel. In the 20th century, the district's residential and recreational appeal gradually attracted more development as Bunbury expanded to become a city. The Bunbury Golf Course
10296-532: The west by the Leschenault Estuary and to the east by the Brunswick River. It includes the estates of Galway Green and Clifton Park. The suburbs of Leschenault and Kemerton have seceded from Australind since the 1980s. James Battye described the area thus: Australind is beautifully situated on the eastern side of Leschenault Inlet, at a distance of about six miles (10 km) from Koombanah Bay, or, as it has been generally called, Port Leschenault,
10400-399: Was 5.3 Mt with annual growth expected to be about 3–4%. The production method depends on the feedstock. In addition to ores, other feedstocks include upgraded slag . Both the chloride process and the sulfate process (both described below) produce titanium dioxide pigment in the rutile crystal form, but the sulfate process can be adjusted to produce the anatase form. Anatase, being softer,
10504-415: Was built in 1948 at nearby Clifton Park. Industries including a titanium dioxide pigment factory and waste-water plant were established there, and suburban development as part of "Greater Bunbury" saw the town quadruple in size by 1981. A primary school opened in 1980, relieving pressure on that of nearby Eaton , and was followed by a high school which opened in 1987. New residential estates opened, and in
10608-515: Was claimed to be the hardest known oxide with the Vickers hardness of 38 GPa and the bulk modulus of 431 GPa (i.e. close to diamond's value of 446 GPa) at atmospheric pressure. However, later studies came to different conclusions with much lower values for both the hardness (7–20 GPa, which makes it softer than common oxides like corundum Al 2 O 3 and rutile TiO 2 ) and bulk modulus (~300 GPa). Titanium dioxide (B)
10712-499: Was later done at Cervantes , Northampton and Madura . In 1840, the Western Australian Land Company purchased 103,000 acres (420 km) of land with a plan to create an English-style village populated by settlers. The area had been mapped in 1831 by John Septimus Roe and explored by land by Lieutenant Henry Bunbury in 1836. A detailed plan of the town included a town square, church, a school, stores,
10816-653: Was reported in the Perth Hills , as far north as Wongan Hills and as far east as Salmon Gums . However, even in the Stirling Range, snowfalls rarely exceed 5 cm (2 in) and rarely settle for more than one day. The highest observed temperature of 50.7 °C (123.3 °F) was recorded in Onslow on 13 January 2022. The lowest temperature recorded was −7.2 °C (19.0 °F) at Eyre Bird Observatory on 17 August 2008. The south geomagnetic pole
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