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67-542: Latin translations of Averroes' work became widely available at the universities which were springing up in Western Europe in the 13th century, and were received by scholasticists such as Siger of Brabant and Boetius of Dacia , who examined Christian doctrines through reasoning and intellectual analysis. The term Averroist was coined by Thomas Aquinas in the restricted sense of the Averroists' " unity of

134-951: A Muslim known only as "Mohammed" to produce the first Latin translation of the Qur'an (the Lex Mahumet pseudoprophete ). Translations were produced throughout Spain and Provence . Plato of Tivoli worked in Catalonia , Herman of Carinthia in Northern Spain and across the Pyrenees in Languedoc , Hugh of Santalla in Aragon , Robert of Ketton in Navarre and Robert of Chester in Segovia . The most important center of translation

201-461: A pseudo-Aristotle . A pseudo- Mesue 's De consolatione medicanarum simplicum, Antidotarium, was also translated into Latin by an anonymous translator. In the 12th century in southern France and Italy, many Arabic scientific texts were translated into Hebrew. France and Italy had large Jewish communities where there was little knowledge of Arabic, requiring translations to provide access to Arabic science. The translation of Arabic texts into Hebrew

268-487: A major search by European scholars for new learning unavailable in western Europe at the time ; their search led them to areas of southern Europe, particularly in central Spain and Sicily , which recently had come under Christian rule following their reconquest in the late 11th century. These areas had been under Muslim rule for a considerable time, and still had substantial Arabic-speaking populations to support their search. The combination of this accumulated knowledge and

335-682: A much wider audience both within Spain and in other European countries, as many scholars from places like Italy, Germany, England or the Netherlands, who had moved to Toledo in order to translate medical, religious, classical and philosophical texts, brought back to their countries the acquired knowledge. Others were selected and hired with very high salaries by the King himself from many places in Spain, like Seville or Córdoba and foreign places like Gascony or Paris. Michael Scot (c. 1175–1232) translated

402-518: A practical and appealing location for translators to work. As a result, many translators became active in the area and Toledo became the focus of translating activity. However translating efforts were not properly organized until Toledo was reconquered by the Christian forces in 1085. Raymond of Toledo started the first translation efforts at the library of the Cathedral of Toledo , where he led

469-580: A result of their activities, the cathedral became a translations center known as the Escuela de Traductores de Toledo ( Toledo School of Translators ), which was on a scale and importance not matched in the history of western culture. The most productive of the Toledo translators at that time was Gerard of Cremona , who translated 87 books, including Ptolemy 's Almagest , many of the works of Aristotle , including his Posterior Analytics , Physics , On

536-644: A second area of interest including the Qur'an and other Islamic texts. Spanish collections included many scholarly works written in Arabic, so translators worked almost exclusively from Arabic, rather than Greek texts, often in cooperation with a local speaker of Arabic. One of the more important translation projects was sponsored by Peter the Venerable , the abbot of Cluny . In 1142 he called upon Robert of Ketton and Herman of Carinthia , Peter of Poitiers , and

603-458: A symbolic figure in the debate over the decline and proposed revitalization of Islamic thought and Islamic society in the later 20th century. A notable proponent of such a revival of Averroist thought in Islamic society was Mohammed Abed al-Jabri with his Critique of Arab Reason (1982). Latin translations of the 12th century Latin translations of the 12th century were spurred by

670-694: A teacher of logic and philosophy at the Jewish college of Padua, and of theology in the Jewish community of Venice , his teaching post remained in Padua for about a decade recorded in his academic relations with Yehudah Minz and his Minz Yeshivah Academy of Talmudic studies . Also in Padua, between 1481 and 1482, he had procured the constant commitment in a series of works of translation and drafting of original works of exposition of Peripatetic texts . Also, his legacy

737-536: A team of translators that included Mozarabic Toledans, Jewish scholars, Madrasa teachers and monks from the Order of Cluny . They worked in the translation of many works from Arabic into Castilian, from Castilian into Latin, or directly from Arabic into Latin or Greek, and also made available important texts from Arabic and Hebrew philosophers who the Archbishop deemed important for an understanding of Aristotle . As

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804-622: A work combining the medical writings of Avicenna and Averroes , as Cantica cum commento . Other texts translated during this period include a number of alchemical works , the first of which appears to have been the Liber de compositione alchemiae ("Book on the Composition of Alchemy"), translated by Robert of Chester in 1144 and containing a dialogue between Morienus and Khālid ibn Yazīd . Also notable are translations from alchemical works attributed to Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber), such as

871-478: A “school of translation,” however the representation of Toledo translating activity creates a false sense that a formal school arose around the Archbishop Raymond. Only one translation, by John of Seville , can be definitively dedicated to the archbishop. It is more accurate to consider Toledo as a geographically bilingual environment where local interests were favorable to translation efforts, making it

938-583: Is recorded as a tutor to the young count Pico della Mirandola at the Paduan Studio from 1480 to 1482. Del Medigo had a traditional religious upbringing in Candia, demonstrating considerable breadth. In addition to rabbinic learning, he studied philosophy, and had a good knowledge of Italian, Greek , as well as Latin and Hebrew . It is likely that he also studied medicine, and it may have been with that intention that he originally went to Padua , where

1005-586: The Anglo-Saxon monk Alcuin and others reintroduced some Greek ideas during the Carolingian Renaissance . After Charlemagne 's death, however, intellectual life again fell into decline. Excepting a few persons promoting Boethius , such as Gerbert of Aurillac , philosophical thought was developed little in Europe for about two centuries. By the 12th century, however, scholastic thought

1072-613: The Book of the Seventy (Arabic: Kitāb al-Sabʿīn , translated by Gerard of Cremona , before 1187, as Liber de Septuaginta ), The Great Book of Mercy (Arabic: Kitāb al-Raḥma al-Kabīr , anonymously translated as Liber Misericordiae ), and The Book of the Kingship (Arabic: Kitāb al-Mulk , translated as Liber Regni ). Another work translated during this period was De Proprietatibus Elementorum , an Arabic work on geology written by

1139-532: The Crusader Kingdoms contributed very little to the translation efforts, though Sicily, still largely Greek-speaking, was more productive. Sicilians, however, were less influenced by Arabic than the other regions and instead are noted more for their translations directly from Greek to Latin. Spain, on the other hand, was an ideal place for translation from Arabic to Latin because of a combination of rich Latin and Arab cultures living side by side. Unlike

1206-556: The De Medicinis Simplicibus by Abu al-Salt (Albuzali), and Costa ben Luca 's De Physicis Ligaturis . In 13th century Portugal, Giles of Santarém translated Rhazes ' De Secretis Medicine, Aphorismi Rasis and Mesue 's De Secretis Medicine . In Murcia , Rufin of Alexandria translated the Liber questionum medicinalium discentium in medicina by Hunayn ibn Ishaq (Hunen), and Dominicus Marrochinus translated

1273-532: The Epistola de cognitione infirmatum oculorum by Ali Ibn Isa (Jesu Haly). In 14th century Lerida , John Jacobi translated Alcoati's medical work Libre de la figura del uyl into Catalan and then Latin. Willem van Moerbeke , known in the English speaking world as William of Moerbeke (c. 1215–1286) was a prolific medieval translator of philosophical, medical, and scientific texts from Greek into Latin. At

1340-570: The Introduction to Astrology of Abu Ma'shar , as well as Euclid's Elements . Adelard associated with other scholars in Western England such as Peter Alfonsi and Walcher of Malvern who translated and developed the astronomical concepts brought from Spain. Abu Kamil 's Algebra was also translated into Latin during this period, but the translator of the work is unknown. Alfred of Sareshel 's (c. 1200–1227) translations include

1407-601: The Liber de Simplicibus Medicamentis by a pseudo-Serapion As early as the end of the 10th century, European scholars travelled to Spain to study. Most notable among these was Gerbert of Aurillac (later Pope Sylvester II) who studied mathematics in the region of the Spanish March around Barcelona . Translations, however, did not begin in Spain until after 1085 when Toledo was reconquered by Christians. The early translators in Spain focused heavily on scientific works , especially mathematics and astronomy , with

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1474-474: The " unity of the intellect " doctrine held by the Averroists in his book De unitate intellectus contra Averroistas . Although condemned in 1277, many Averroistic theses survived to the sixteenth century, particularly in the University of Padua , and can be found in the philosophies of Giordano Bruno , Pico della Mirandola , and Cesare Cremonini . These theses talk about the superiority of philosophers to

1541-592: The Byzantine Empire until 878, was under Muslim control from 878–1060, and came under Norman control between 1060 and 1090. As a consequence the Norman Kingdom of Sicily maintained a trilingual bureaucracy, which made it an ideal place for translations. Sicily also maintained relations with the Greek East , which allowed for exchange of ideas and manuscripts. A copy of Ptolemy 's Almagest

1608-623: The Greek texts have since disappeared, without him the works would be lost. William also translated mathematical treatises by Hero of Alexandria and Archimedes . Especially important was his translation of the Elements of Theology of Proclus (made in 1268), because the Elements of Theology is one of the fundamental sources of the revived Neo-Platonic philosophical currents of the 13th century. The Vatican collection holds William's own copy of

1675-810: The Heavens , On Generation and Corruption , and Meteorology , al-Khwarizmi 's On Algebra and Almucabala , Archimedes ' On the Measurement of the Circle , Euclid 's Elements of Geometry , Jabir ibn Aflah 's Elementa Astronomica , al-Kindi 's On Optics , al-Farghani 's On Elements of Astronomy on the Celestial Motions , al-Farabi 's On the Classification of the Sciences , the chemical and medical works of al-Razi (Rhazes),

1742-741: The Medical Art (as Liber Pantegni ), the ancient medicine of Hippocrates and Galen as adapted by Arabic physicians , and the Isagoge ad Tegni Galeni by Hunayn ibn Ishaq (Johannitius) and his nephew Hubaysh ibn al-Hasan. Other medical works he translated include Isaac Israeli ben Solomon 's Liber Febribus, Liber de Dietis universalibus et particularibus and Liber de Urinis ; Ishaq ibn Imran's psychological work al-Maqala fi al-Malikhukiya as De Melancolia ; and Ibn al-Jazzar 's De Gradibus, Viaticum, Liber de Stomacho, De Elephantiasi, De Coitu and De Oblivione . Sicily had been part of

1809-719: The University of Paris. It has been pointed out that Tempier's main accusations are almost identical to those brought by al-Ghazali against philosophers in general in his The Incoherence of the Philosophers , which Averroës had tried to demonstrate to be unjustified in The Incoherence of the Incoherence . In his preamble to the 1277 condemnations, Tempier accuses the philosophers of maintaining philosophical stances irreconcilable with Catholic dogmas while at

1876-575: The University was the most important center for traditional Aristotelian philosophy in Italy. By 1480, he was in Venice , where he wrote Quaestio utrum mundus sit effectus , and supported himself by giving classes in Aristotelian philosophy attended by the sons of wealthy and important families. He moved to Perugia and taught classes in "radical Aristotelianism," that is, heavily interpreted with

1943-570: The Younger 's Liber de Simplicibus Medicamentis and Abulcasis ' al-Tasrif as Liber Servitoris . In 1126, Muhammad al-Fazari 's Great Sindhind (based on the Sanskrit works of Surya Siddhanta and Brahmagupta 's Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta ) was translated into Latin. In addition to philosophical and scientific literature, the Jewish writer Petrus Alphonsi translated a collection of 33 tales from Arabic literature into Latin . Some of

2010-484: The attempts to synthesize them with Christian doctrines. St. Jerome , for example, was hostile to Aristotle , and St. Augustine had little interest in exploring philosophy, only applying logic to theology. For centuries, ancient Greek ideas in Western Europe were all but non-existent. Only a few monasteries had Greek works, and even fewer of them copied these works. There was a brief period of revival, when

2077-423: The close of the 12th and the beginning of the 13th centuries, Mark of Toledo translated the Qur'an (once again) and various medical works . He also translated Hunayn ibn Ishaq 's medical work Liber Isagogarum . Under King Alfonso X of Castile , Toledo rose even higher in importance as a translation center. By insisting that the translated output was "llanos de entender" ("easy to understand"), they reached

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2144-502: The common people and the relation between the intellect and human dignity. In the centuries following Averroes' death there were many Jewish Averroist philosophers, notably Elijah Delmedigo ; Gersonides wrote a supercommentary on Averroes' Aristotelian commentaries. Some Averroist influence has been traced in Leone Ebreo 's Dialoghi d'Amore , and Baruch Spinoza was likely influenced by Averroes' commentaries on Aristotle. There

2211-448: The early Renaissance (especially Giovanni Pico della Mirandola ), and his treatise on Jewish philosophy, Sefer Beḥinat ha-Dat ( The Examination of Religion ), published many years after his death, in 1629. He was well recorded as an itinerant teacher of Talmudic Philosophy Sciences and Mathematics, also called professor or doctor during those days, alternating with some trips between Florence , Perugia , and Bassano , his activity as

2278-516: The end of the 10th century, when European scholars traveled to Spain to study subjects that were not readily available in the rest of Europe. Among the early translators at Toledo were an Avendauth (who some have identified with Abraham ibn Daud ), who translated Avicenna 's encyclopedia, the Kitāb al-Shifa ( The Book of Healing ), in cooperation with Domingo Gundisalvo , Archdeacon of Cuéllar. The translating efforts at Toledo are often overemphasized into

2345-715: The ideas of Averroes and other Islamic commentators. Del Medigo became quite well known as a major Averroist in Italy. While in Perugia, he met Pico della Mirandola , and wrote two pamphlets for him. Another important student of del Medigo's at that time was Domenico Grimani , a Venetian, who eventually became the Cardinal of San Marco . Grimani proved to be a consistent patron, and with his encouragement, del Medigo wrote several manuscripts that received wide distribution among Italian philosophers. He stayed in close contact with Pico della Mirandola , traveling to Florence ,

2412-527: The intellect " doctrine in his book De unitate intellectus contra Averroistas . Based on this, Averroism came to be near-synonymous with atheism in late medieval usage. As a historiographical category, Averroism was first defined by Ernest Renan in Averroès et l'averroïsme (1852) in the sense of radical or heterodox Aristotelianism . The reception of Averroes in Jewish thought has been termed "Jewish Averroism". Jewish Averroist thought flourished in

2479-613: The interest in the literature and history of classical antiquity during the Renaissance , 12th century translators sought new scientific , philosophical and, to a lesser extent, religious texts. The latter concern was reflected in a renewed interest in translations of the Greek Church Fathers into Latin , a concern with translating Jewish teachings from Hebrew , and an interest in the Qur'an and other Islamic religious texts. In addition, some Arabic literature

2546-561: The last years of his life. During this period, del Medigo returned to Jewish thought, writing the Sefer Bechinat Ha-dath for his students, in which he clarified his disagreement with the magical and Kabbalistic theories that inspired Pico's Oration on the Dignity of Man , and expounded his belief that a human being cannot aspire to become a god, and that Judaism requires that a man must "fight for rationality, sobriety and

2613-539: The later 14th century, and gradually declined in the course of the 15th century. The last representative of Jewish Averroism was Elia del Medigo , writing in 1485. The standpoints listed above resulted in the Condemnations of 1210–1277 by Bishop Etienne Tempier of the Catholic Church . Tempier specified 219 unacceptable theses, some of which were clearly directed against the supposed "Averroists" at

2680-806: The mid-12th century, thus making the complete Aristotelian logical corpus, the Organon , available in Latin for the first time. In 13th century Padua , Bonacosa translated Averroes ' medical work Kitab al-Kulliyyat as Colliget , and John of Capua translated the Kitab al-Taysir by Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) as Theisir . In 13th century Sicily , Faraj ben Salem translated Rhazes ' al-Hawi as Continens as well as Ibn Butlan 's Tacuinum Sanitatis . Also in 13th century Italy, Simon of Genoa and Abraham Tortuensis translated Abulcasis ' Al-Tasrif as Liber Servitoris , Alcoati's Congregatio sive Liber de Oculis , and

2747-487: The non-Jewish students of Delmedigo may have classified him as an “ Averroist ”, he clearly saw himself as a follower of Maimonides ". But, according to other scholars, Delmedigo was clearly a strong follower of Averroes' doctrines, even the more radical ones: unity of intellect, eternity of the world, and autonomy of reason from the boundaries of revealed religion. Born in Candia , on the island of Crete (which at that time

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2814-403: The philosophical training to appreciate the true meaning of the passages in question were obliged to believe the literal meaning. Modern scholarship showed, however, that no Latin Christian medieval thinker ever upheld the "double truth" theory. Whether bishop Etienne Tempier accused them of doing so because of malice or ignorance remains unclear. The later philosophical concept of Averroism

2881-461: The rationalist Averroes , who was suspected of being a source of philosophical and theological errors found in the earlier translations of Aristotle. Moerbeke's translations have had a long history; they were already standard classics by the 14th century, when Henricus Hervodius put his finger on their enduring value: they were literal ( de verbo in verbo ), faithful to the spirit of Aristotle and without elegance. For several of William's translations,

2948-645: The realization of [his] human limitations." Delmedigo argued against the antiquity of the Kabbalah, noting that it was not known to the sages of the Talmud, or to the geonim, or to Rashi . He also denies that Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai was the author of the Zohar , since that work mentions people who lived after the death of Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai. In addition, he attacks the esoteric allegorists among Jewish philosophers. In another section of his work Delmedigo discusses

3015-543: The request of Aquinas, so it is assumed—the source document is not clear—he undertook a complete translation of the works of Aristotle or, for some portions, a revision of existing translations. He was the first translator of the Politics (c. 1260) from Greek into Latin. The reason for the request was that the many copies of Aristotle in Latin then in circulation had originated in Spain (see Gerard of Cremona ). These earlier translations were assumed to have been influenced by

3082-538: The same time upholding their Catholic faith. Modern historians called this the "double truth" theory, the idea of the existence of two simultaneous yet contradictory truths: a factual or "hard" truth that is reached through science and philosophy, and a "religious" truth that is reached through religion. This idea differed from that of Averroes: he taught that there is only one truth, but reached in two different ways, not two truths. He did however believe that Scripture sometimes uses metaphorical language, but that those without

3149-441: The site of Marsilio Ficino 's Platonic Academy, to give classes and to translate manuscripts from Hebrew to Latin for Pico. In the end, however, Del Medigo was no Kabbalist , and he became disenchanted with the syncretic direction Pico and his colleagues were moving in, a tendency to combine concepts of magic, Hermeticism and Kabbalah with Plato and Neoplatonism . In addition to his increasing disappointment with Pico, he

3216-582: The study of the Latins, nevertheless, because of his love for the Almagest , which he did not find at all amongst the Latins, he made his way to Toledo , where seeing an abundance of books in Arabic on every subject, and pitying the poverty he had experienced among the Latins concerning these subjects, out of his desire to translate he thoroughly learnt the Arabic language. Many Christian theologians were highly suspicious of ancient philosophies and especially of

3283-405: The substantial numbers of Arabic-speaking scholars there made these areas intellectually attractive, as well as culturally and politically accessible to Latin scholars. A typical story is that of Gerard of Cremona (c. 1114–87), who is said to have made his way to Toledo, well after its reconquest by Christians in 1085, because he: arrived at a knowledge of each part of [philosophy] according to

3350-579: The tales he drew on were from the Panchatantra and Arabian Nights , such as the story cycle of " Sinbad the Sailor ". The Pseudo-Platonic Book of the Cow , a 9th-century Arabic work on natural magic , was translated into Latin in the 12th century, probably in Spain. Toledo, with a large population of Arabic-speaking Christians ( Mozarabs ) had been an important center of learning since as early as

3417-734: The task. Accursius of Pistoja 's translations included the works of Galen and Hunayn ibn Ishaq . Gerard de Sabloneta translated Avicenna 's The Canon of Medicine and al-Razi 's Almansor . Fibonacci presented the first complete European account of the Hindu–Arabic numeral system from Arabic sources in his Liber Abaci (1202). The Aphorismi by Masawaiyh (Mesue) was translated by an anonymous translator in late 11th or early 12th century Italy. James of Venice , who probably spent some years in Constantinople, translated Aristotle's Posterior Analytics from Greek into Latin in

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3484-508: The time, moved from the Germanic area around the end of 1300, probably first passing through Venetian Italy where he acquired the nickname Delmedigo. In Crete, R'Yeliudah had three sons: He is remembered for several translations, commentaries on Averroes ( Ibn Rushd in Arabic) (notably a commentary on Averroes ' Substantia Orbis in 1485), for his influence on many Italian Platonists of

3551-483: The translation he made of the greatest Hellenistic mathematician, Archimedes , with commentaries of Eutocius , which was made in 1269 at the papal court in Viterbo. William consulted two of the best Greek manuscripts of Archimedes, both of which have since disappeared. Adelard of Bath 's ( fl. 1116–1142) translations into Latin included al-Khwarizmi 's astronomical and trigonometrical work Astronomical Tables and his arithmetical work Liber Isagogarum Alchorismi ,

3618-443: The works of Nicolaus of Damascus and Hunayn ibn Ishaq . Antonius Frachentius Vicentinus' translations include the works of Ibn Sina (Avicenna). Armengaud Blaise 's translations include the works of Avicenna, Averroes , Hunayn ibn Ishaq, and Maimonides . Berengarius of Valentia translated the works of Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis). Drogon (Azagont) translated the works of al-Kindi . Farragut (Faradj ben Salam) translated

3685-486: The works of Thabit ibn Qurra and Hunayn ibn Ishaq , and the works of al-Zarqali , Jabir ibn Aflah , the Banu Musa , Abu Kamil , Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi , and Ibn al-Haytham (Not including the Book of Optics , because the catalog of the works of Gerard of Cremona does not list that title; however the Risner compilation of Opticae Thesaurus Septem Libri also includes a work by Witelo and also de Crepusculis , which Risner incorrectly attributed to Alhazen, and which

3752-424: The works of (Alpetragius) al-Betrugi ' On the Motions of the Heavens in 1217, and Averroes ' influential commentaries on the scientific works of Aristotle . David the Jew (c. 1228–1245) translated the works of al-Razi (Rhazes) into Latin. Arnaldus de Villa Nova 's (1235–1313) translations include the works of Galen and Avicenna (Including his Maqala fi Ahkam al-Adwiya al-Qalbiya as De Viribus Cordis ),

3819-426: The works of Hunayn ibn Ishaq, ibn Zezla (Byngezla), Masawaiyh (Mesue), and al-Razi (Rhazes). Andreas Alphagus Bellnensis' translations include the works of Avicenna, Averroes, Serapion , al-Qifti, and Albe'thar. In 13th century Montpellier , Profatius and Bernardus Honofredi translated the Kitab al-Aghdhiya by Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) as De regimine sanitatis ; and Armengaud translated the al-Urjuza fi al-Tibb ,

3886-604: Was translated by Gerard of Cremona). The medical works he translated include Haly Abenrudian 's Expositio ad Tegni Galeni ; Practica, Brevarium Medicine by Yuhanna ibn Sarabiyun (Serapion); Alkindus ' De Gradibus ; Rhazes ' Liber ad Almansorem, Liber Divisionum, Introductio in Medicinam, De egritudinibus iuncturarum, Antidotarium and Practica Puerorum ; Isaac Israeli ben Solomon 's De Elementis and De Definitionibus ; Abulcasis ' Al-Tasrif as Chirurgia ; Avicenna 's The Canon of Medicine as Liber Canonis ; and Liber de Medicamentis Simplicus by Abenguefit . At

3953-408: Was also translated into Latin. Just before the burst of translations in the 12th century, Constantine the African , a Christian from Carthage who studied medicine in Egypt and ultimately became a monk at the monastery of Monte Cassino in Italy, translated medical works from Arabic. Constantine's many translations included Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi 's medical encyclopedia The Complete Book of

4020-481: Was beginning to develop, leading to the rise of universities throughout Europe. These universities gathered what little Greek thought had been preserved over the centuries, including Boethius' commentaries on Aristotle. They also served as places of discussion for new ideas coming from new translations from Arabic throughout Europe. By the 12th century, Toledo , in Spain, had fallen from Arab hands in 1085, Sicily in 1091, and Jerusalem in 1099. The small population of

4087-599: Was brought back to Sicily by Henry Aristippus , as a gift from the Emperor to King William I . Aristippus, himself, translated Plato 's Meno and Phaedo into Latin, but it was left to an anonymous student at Salerno to travel to Sicily and translate the Almagest , as well as several works by Euclid , from Greek to Latin. Although the Sicilians generally translated directly from the Greek, when Greek texts were not available, they would translate from Arabic. Admiral Eugene of Sicily translated Ptolemy's Optics into Latin, drawing on his knowledge of all three languages in

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4154-461: Was no formal school or movement of Rushdiyya ("Averroism") in the Islamic tradition. The decline of Kalam or "Islamic scholastic theology" and Muʿtazila or "Islamic rationalism" has precluded a reception of Averroes in Islamic thought that would parallel that in Christian or Jewish philosophy. Nevertheless, a revival of rationalist traditions in medieval Islamic philosophy has been called for in modern Arab nationalism . Averroes became something of

4221-471: Was somewhat discredited himself by the backlash from Pico's imprisonment and the interdiction by the Vatican of his 900 Theses. Furthermore, tension arose between del Medigo and the Italian Jewish community over his secular intellectual interests and his associations with gentile scholars. As a consequence of the financial difficulties he experienced in the wake of Pico's disfavor, del Medigo decided to leave Italy for good. He went back to Crete, where he spent

4288-500: Was the great cathedral library of Toledo . Plato of Tivoli's translations into Latin include al-Battani 's astronomical and trigonometrical work De Motu Stellarum , Abraham bar Hiyya 's Liber Embadorum , Theodosius of Bithynia 's Spherics , and Archimedes ' Measurement of a Circle . Robert of Chester's translations into Latin included al-Khwarizmi 's Algebra and astronomical tables (also containing trigonometric tables). Abraham of Tortosa's translations include Serapion

4355-539: Was the idea that the philosophical and religious worlds are separate entities. However, upon scrutinizing the 219 theses condemned by Tempier, it was obvious that not many of them originated in Averroes. Radical Aristotelianism and heterodox Aristotelianism were the terms commonly used for a while to refer to the actual philosophical movement started by Siger of Brabant and Boetius of Dacia and differentiate it from Averroism; nowadays most scholars just call it Averroism as well. Thomas Aquinas specifically attacked

4422-408: Was under the control of the Venetian Republic ), the son of Moses Abba Gieger, whither his family had emigrated from Germany a branch of the Geiger family that settled first in Crete and then in Italy ; he spent ten years in Rome and in Padua in northern Italy , returning to Candia at the end of his life. The founder of the family, R'Yehudah Gieger, like other Jews living on the island at

4489-573: Was used by translators, such as Profatius Judaeus , as an intermediate step between translation from Arabic into Latin. This practice was most widely used from the thirteenth to the sixteenth centuries. This list is of translations after c. 1100 of works written originally in Greek. Elijah Delmedigo Elia del Medigo , also called Elijah Delmedigo or Elias ben Moise del Medigo and sometimes known to his contemporaries as Helias Hebreus Cretensis or in Hebrew Elijah Mi-Qandia (c. 1458 – c. 1493). According to Jacob Joshua Ross, "while

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