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28-749: Avogadro is an Italian surname, derived from avogaro , a Venetian term for a diocese official (equivalent to avvocato , advocatus , "advocate"). In 1389, bishop Nicolò Beruti, made the office of avogaro hereditary, and a number of noble families with the name Avogaro or Avogadro developed over the following centuries, in Brescia, Vercelli and Treviso. Albert Avogadro (d. 1214), canon lawyer and Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem Amedeo Avogadro (1776–1856), chemist. Named after him are: Avogadro constant Avogadro's law , an ideal gas law Avogadro project ,

56-532: A difference in dress distinguishes the Jews or Saracens from the Christians, but in certain others such a confusion has grown up that they cannot be distinguished by any difference. Thus it happens at times that through error Christians have relations with the women of Jews or Saracens, and Jews and Saracens with Christian women. Therefore, that they may not, under pretext of error of this sort, excuse themselves in

84-534: A project to base the standard kilogram mass on the Avogadro constant, rather than an arbitrary block of metal Avogadro (crater) , lunar crater Avogadro (software) , molecular editor Lucia Albani Avogadro (1534–1568), poet Oscar Avogadro (1951–2010), lyricist Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Avogadro . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change

112-412: A range of themes including Church reform and elections, taxation, matrimony, tithing, simony , and Judaism . After being recorded in the papal registers, the canons were quickly circulated in law schools. Effective application of the decrees varied according to local conditions and customs. While the precise application and levels of conformity to Lateran IV were variable, it is argued that it created

140-605: A significant problem by the Papacy. Implementation of the council's reforms was included within the Canons, with instructions that local councils should be held in order to create plans for their adoption. Provinces held councils to instruct Bishops to hold local synods, however the evidence suggests that this mechanism did not result in Bishops holding meetings and organising reforms in the manner intended. Henry of Segusio likened

168-418: A wide range of legal measures with long term repercussions, which were used to persecute minorities and helped usher in a specifically intolerant kind of European society, or as historian R. I. Moore defines it, a "persecuting society". These measures applied with vigour first to heretics, and then increasingly to other minorities, such as Jews and lepers. In the case of Jews, antisemitism had been rising since

196-468: Is now housed at the University of Giessen . Dissemination of the Canons themselves was often patchy and incomplete, as it relied on handwritten records kept by local bishops, while it is unclear if the Papacy ever provided official copies. Local adaptations of the Canons could reflect disagreements or differences of priorities, and the incompleteness of the transmission of the canons was recognised as

224-1010: The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Kingdom of Cyprus and between the Knights Templar and the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia . In 1214 he had been invited to the Fourth Lateran Council , but the Master of the Hospital of the Holy Spirit, whom he had rebuked and deposed for immorality, stabbed him to death on 14 September while taking part in a procession on the Feast of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross . He

252-592: The Lateran Palace in Rome on 11 November 1215. Due to the great length of time between the council's convocation and its meeting, many bishops had the opportunity to attend this council, which is considered by the Catholic Church to be the twelfth ecumenical council . The council addressed a number of issues, including the sacraments , the role of the laity , the treatment of Jews and heretics , and

280-669: The organization of the church . In the case of Jews and Muslims , this included compelling them to wear distinctive badges to prevent social contact "through error". The council is viewed by medievalists as both opening up many reforms, and as formalising and enforcing intolerance in European society, both to heretics and Jews, and thus playing a role in the development of systemic European antisemitism . Innocent III first mooted organizing an ecumenical council in November 1199. In his letter titled Vineam Domini , dated 19 April 1213,

308-466: The Crusades in different parts of Europe, and the measures of Lateran IV gave the legal means to implement active systemic persecution, such as physical separation of Jews and Christians, enforced through Jews being obliged to wear distinctive badges or clothing. The Council mandated that Jews separate and distinguish themselves, in order to "protect" Christians from their influence. In some provinces

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336-768: The Crusades. Innocent for example waged a novel campaign against the Talmud as part of the campaign against heresy, claiming that the Talmud was an invention of the Rabbis, and the Jews should be restricted to using Biblical texts for their faith. This was the first time that the Catholic church had tried to directly regulate the practice of Judaism. Innocent III deliberately chose for the Fourth Council to meet in November, during which there were numerous feast days . A preliminary legal session took place on 4 November, while

364-600: The Latin Emperor of Constantinople, John, King of England , Andrew II of Hungary , Philip II of France , and the kings of Aragon, Cyprus, and Jerusalem. This made it the largest ecumenical council between the Council of Chalcedon and the Second Vatican Council ; Anne J. Duggan writes that "it was the largest, most representative, and most influential council assembled under papal leadership before

392-567: The Pope writes of the urgent need to recover the Holy Land and reform the Church. The letter, which also served as a summons to an ecumenical council , was included alongside the Pope's papal bull Quia maior . In preparing for the council, the Pope spearheaded the extensive refurbishment of the old St. Peter's Basilica , which he designated as the "centrepiece for display and decoration" during

420-595: The council to the "four great councils of antiquity". Lateran IV is sometimes referred to as the "Great Council of the Lateran" due to the presence of 404 or 412 bishops (including 71 cardinals and archbishops ) and over 800 abbots and priors representing some eighty ecclesiastical provinces , together with 23 Latin-speaking prelates from the Eastern Orthodox Church and representatives of several monarchs , including Frederick II, Otto IV ,

448-510: The council. The lunette of the main door leading to the tomb of St. Peter had engravings of Old Testament prophets and twenty-four bishops, alongside the messages, "Feed your Sheep" and "This is the Door of the Sheep". The measures against the Jews were the culmination of hostility during Innocent's reign as Pope, itself informed by a background of greater hostility to the Jews generated in part by

476-422: The events have been found in various manuscripts by observers of the council. The Chronica Majora by Matthew Paris contains a line drawing of one of the sessions at the council which his abbot William of St Albans had personally attended. An extensive eyewitness account by an anonymous German cleric was copied into a manuscript that was published in 1964, in commemoration of the Second Vatican Council , and

504-484: The future for the excesses of such prohibited intercourse, we decree that such Jews and Saracens of both sexes in every Christian province and at all times shall be marked off in the eyes of the public from other peoples through the character of their dress. Particularly, since it may be read in the writings of Moses [ Numbers 15:37–41 ], that this very law has been enjoined upon them. While the proceedings were not officially recorded, unlike in previous councils, evidence of

532-460: The link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Avogadro&oldid=1146026945 " Categories : Disambiguation pages Disambiguation pages with surname-holder lists Hidden categories: Short description is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Albert Avogadro Born at Castel Gualtieri , Italy , he

560-585: The opening ceremony of the council was held on St. Martin's Day and began with a private morning Mass. Afterwards, at the start of the first plenary session in the Lateran Palace, the Pope led the singing of " Veni Creator Spiritus " and preached about Jesus' words to his disciples at the Last Supper , quoting from Luke 22 . In his next two sermons, one on the need to recover the Holy Land and

588-505: The other on dealing with heretics, the Pope was joined on stage by Raoul of Mérencourt and Thedisius of Agde respectively. On 14 November, there were violent scenes between the partisans of Simon de Montfort among the French bishops and those of the Count of Toulouse. Raymond VI of Toulouse , his son (afterwards Raymond VII ), and Raymond-Roger of Foix attended the council to dispute

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616-584: The premises. The second plenary session was held on 20 November; the Pope was scheduled to preach about church reform, but proceedings were disrupted by bishops who opposed the designation of Frederick II as Holy Roman Emperor. The council concluded on 30 November, Saint Andrew's Day , during which the Pope preached on the Nicene Creed and concluded his remarks by raising up a relic of the True Cross . The archbishop of Mainz attempted to interrupt

644-415: The speech, although he complied with the Pope's raising of his hand—a command to stay silent. Lateran IV had three objectives: crusading , Church reform, and combating heresy. The seventy-one Lateran canons, which were not debated, were only formally adopted on the last day of the council; according to Anne J. Duggan, the "scholarly consensus" is that they were drafted by Innocent III himself. They cover

672-405: The threatened confiscation of their territories; Bishop Foulques and Guy de Montfort (brother of Simon de Montfort) argued in favour of the confiscation. All of Raymond VI's lands were confiscated, save Provence, which was kept in trust to be restored to Raymond VII. Pierre-Bermond of Sauve's claim to Toulouse was rejected and Toulouse was awarded to de Montfort, while the lordship of Melgueil

700-647: The war between Parma and Piacenza . In 1205 he was made Patriarch of Jerusalem by Pope Innocent III , whom he also served as papal legate in the Holy Land . As patriarch, Albert helped found the Carmelites around 1209, in particular by his composition of what came to be called the Carmelite Rule of St. Albert . This order was based on Mount Carmel , across the Bay of Haifa from Acre where he resided as patriarch. Additionally, he mediated disputes between

728-462: Was educated in theology and law. He entered the Canons Regular of the Holy Cross at Mortara and was elected prior in 1180. He became Bishop of Bobbio in 1184, and a year later was appointed Bishop of Vercelli . He served the papacy as a mediator and diplomat between Pope Clement III and Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa . Albert served as papal legate in 1199 and helped end

756-520: Was separated from Toulouse and entrusted to the bishops of Maguelonne . The next day, in a ceremony attended by many council participants, the Pope consecrated the Basilica of Santa Maria in Trastevere , which had been rebuilt by Callixtus II . Four days later, the anniversary celebration at St. Peter's Basilica brought together such a large gathering that the Pope himself had trouble entering

784-471: Was succeeded by Raoul of Merencourt . [REDACTED]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain :  Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Blessed Albert". Catholic Encyclopedia . New York: Robert Appleton Company. Fourth Lateran Council The Fourth Council of the Lateran or Lateran IV was convoked by Pope Innocent III in April 1213 and opened at

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