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195-584: Originally restricted to areas of Peru , Brazil , Colombia and Ecuador , in the middle of the 20th century it became widespread in Brazil in the context of the appearance of syncretic religions that use ayahuasca as a sacrament, like Santo Daime , União do Vegetal and Barquinha , which blend elements of Amazonian Shamanism , Christianity, Kardecist Spiritism , and African-Brazilian religions such as Umbanda , Candomblé and Tambor de Mina , later expanding to several countries across all continents, notably

390-839: A Panoan language spoken by approximately 26,000 people in Peru and Brazil. This language is commonly sung by the shaman in the form of a chant, called an Icaro , during the Ayahuasca ritual as a way to establish a "balance of energy" during the ritual to help protect and guide the user during their experience. Traditional ayahuasca brews are usually made with Banisteriopsis caapi as an MAOI , while dimethyltryptamine sources and other admixtures vary from region to region. There are several varieties of caapi , often known as different "colors", with varying effects, potencies, and uses. DMT admixtures: Other common admixtures: Common admixtures with their associated ceremonial values and spirits: In

585-658: A Schedule I drug , i.e., having the relatively highest abuse potential and no accepted medical use. Most marijuana at that time came from Mexico, but in 1975 the Mexican government agreed to eradicate the crop by spraying it with the herbicide paraquat, raising fears of toxic side effects. Colombia then became the main supplier. The "zero tolerance" climate of the Reagan and Bush administrations (1981–1993) resulted in passage of strict laws and mandatory sentences for possession of marijuana . The " War on Drugs " thus brought with it

780-439: A constitutional monarchy , a proposal that was turned down. De la Serna abandoned the city, and on 12 July 1821, San Martín occupied Lima and declared Peruvian independence on 28 July 1821. He created the first Peruvian flag. Upper Peru (present-day Bolivia) remained as a Spanish stronghold until the army of Simón Bolívar liberated it three years later. José de San Martín was declared Protector of Peru. Peruvian national identity

975-400: A "devilish potion" cooked from bitter herbs and lianas (called ayaguasca ) and its rituals: "[...] In other nations, they set aside an entire night for divination. For this purpose, they select the most capable house in the vicinity because many people are expected to attend the event. The diviner hangs his bed in the middle and places an infernal potion, known as ayahuasca, by his side, which

1170-457: A $ 900 million deficit. The economic turbulence of the time acerbated social tensions in Peru and partly contributed to the rise of violent rebel rural insurgent movements, like Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path) and MRTA , which caused great havoc throughout the country. The Peruvian armed forces, frustrated with the inability of the García administration to handle the nation's crises, drafted

1365-415: A Landscape: People and Places ), and NFL quarterback Aaron Rodgers . Sections of Banisteriopsis caapi vine are macerated and boiled alone or with leaves from any of a number of other plants, including Psychotria viridis ( chacruna ), Diplopterys cabrerana (also known as chaliponga and chacropanga ), and Mimosa tenuiflora , among other ingredients which can vary greatly from one shaman to

1560-712: A bitter liana used for precognition and sorcery. All these reports were written in context of Jesuit missions in South America, specially the Mainas missions , in Latin and sent only to Rome, so their audience wasn't very large and they were promptly lost in the archives. For this reason, ayahuasca didn't receive interest for the entire subsequent century. In academic discourse, the initial mention of ayahuasca dates back to Manuel Villavicencio 's 1848 book, " Geografía de la República del Ecuador. " This work vividly delineates

1755-424: A characteristic euphoria at moderate doses. High dosages taken to induce recreational drug effects may lead to overdoses. Antihistamines are also consumed in combination with alcohol, particularly by youth who find it hard to obtain alcohol. The combination of the two drugs can cause intoxication with lower alcohol doses. Hallucinations and possibly delirium resembling the effects of Datura stramonium can result if

1950-603: A co-evolutionary relationship with psychotropic plant substances that is millions of years old." The severity of impact and type of risks that come with recreational drug use vary widely with the drug in question and the amount being used. There are many factors in the environment and within the user that interact with each drug differently. Alcohol is sometimes considered one of the most dangerous recreational drugs. Alcoholic drinks , tobacco products and other nicotine -based products (e.g., electronic cigarettes ), and cannabis are regarded by various medical professionals as

2145-618: A high biodiversity with 21,462 species of plants and animals reported as of 2003, 5,855 of them endemic , and is one of the megadiverse countries. Peru has over 1,800 species of birds (120 endemic ), over 500 species of mammals , over 300 species of reptiles, and over 1,000 species of freshwater fishes . The hundreds of mammals include rare species like the puma , jaguar and spectacled bear . The Birds of Peru produce large amounts of guano , an economically important export. The Pacific holds large quantities of sea bass , flounder , anchovies , tuna , crustaceans , and shellfish , and

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2340-524: A large diversity of climates. Elevations above sea level in the country range from −37 to 6,778 m (−121 to 22,238 ft) and precipitation ranges from less than 20 mm (0.79 in) annually in desert areas to more than 8,000 mm (310 in) in tropical rainforest areas. Due to its geography, Peru can be divide into three main climates. The unbroken and relatively slim coastal region has moderate temperatures, low precipitation, and high humidity, except for its warmer, wetter northern reaches. In

2535-448: A large role in the exposure to and availability of certain types of drugs and patterns of use. According to addiction researcher Martin A. Plant, some people go through a period of self-redefinition before initiating recreational drug use. They tend to view using drugs as part of a general lifestyle that involves belonging to a subculture that they associate with heightened status and the challenging of social norms. Plant states: "From

2730-454: A lasting imprint on the country's governance that continues to present day. The 2000s marked economic expansion and poverty reduction, but the subsequent decade revealed long-existing sociopolitical vulnerabilities , exacerbated by a political crisis instigated by Congress and the COVID-19 pandemic , precipitating the period of unrest beginning in 2022 . The sovereign state of Peru

2925-712: A long worldwide history of use within medicinal and religious traditions. They are used in shamanic forms of ritual healing and divination , in initiation rites , and in the religious rituals of syncretistic movements such as União do Vegetal , Santo Daime , Temple of the True Inner Light , and the Native American Church . When used in religious practice, psychedelic drugs, as well as other substances like tobacco , are referred to as entheogens . Hallucinogen-induced psychosis occurs when psychosis persists despite no longer being intoxicated with

3120-583: A mix of cultures and ethnicities that did not exist before the Spanish conquered the Peruvian territory. Even though many of the Inca traditions were lost or diluted, new customs, traditions and knowledge were added, creating a rich mixed Peruvian culture. Two of the most important Indigenous rebellions against the Spanish were that of Juan Santos Atahualpa in 1742, and Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II in 1780 around

3315-616: A number of different pharmacological mechanisms, the most prominent of which include potentiation of GABA or opioid activity, and inhibition of adrenergic , histamine or acetylcholine activity. Some are also capable of inducing feelings of euphoria . The most widely used depressant by far is alcohol (i.e. ethanol ). Stimulants or "uppers", such as amphetamines or cocaine , which increase mental or physical function, have an opposite effect to depressants. Depressants, in particular alcohol, can precipitate psychosis . A 2019 systematic review and meta-analysis by Murrie et al. found that

3510-437: A particular route of administration . Many drugs can be consumed in more than one way. For example, marijuana can be swallowed like food or smoked, and cocaine can be "sniffed" in the nostrils, injected, or, with various modifications, smoked. Many drugs are taken through various routes. Intravenous route is the most efficient, but also one of the most dangerous. Nasal, rectal, inhalation and smoking are safer. The oral route

3705-508: A powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the largest empire in the pre-Columbian Americas with their capital in Cusco . The Incas of Cusco originally represented one of the small and relatively minor ethnic groups, the Quechuas . Gradually, as early as the thirteenth century, they began to expand and incorporate their neighbors. Inca expansion was slow until about the middle of

3900-416: A psychoactive drug enters the user's body, it induces an intoxicating effect . Recreational drugs are commonly divided into three categories: depressants (drugs that induce a feeling of relaxation and calmness), stimulants (drugs that induce a sense of energy and alertness), and hallucinogens (drugs that induce perceptual distortions such as hallucination ). In popular practice, recreational drug use

4095-577: A result of these and other changes, the Spaniards and their creole successors came to monopolize control over the land, seizing many of the best lands abandoned by the massive native depopulation. However, the Spanish did not resist the Portuguese expansion of Brazil across the meridian. The Treaty of Tordesillas was rendered meaningless between 1580 and 1640 while Spain controlled Portugal . The need to ease communication and trade with Spain led to

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4290-631: A reversible way similar to moclobemide (an antidepressant that does not require dietary restrictions). Dietary restrictions are not used by the highly urban Brazilian ayahuasca church União do Vegetal , suggesting the risk is much lower than perceived and probably non-existent. Shamans , curanderos and experienced users of ayahuasca advise against consuming ayahuasca when not in the presence of one or several well-trained shamans. In some areas, there are purported brujos (Spanish for " witches ") who masquerade as real shamans and who entice tourists to drink ayahuasca in their presence. Shamans believe one of

4485-399: A self-imposed exile, initially avoiding prosecution for human rights violations and corruption charges by the new Peruvian authorities. Peru tried to fight corruption while sustaining economic growth at the start of the 21st century, though Fujimorism held power over much of Peruvian society through maintaining control of institutions and legislation created in the 1993 constitution, which

4680-533: A sense of belonging to a group, family and attachment issues, history of trauma, failure at school or work, socioeconomic stressors, peer pressure, juvenile delinquency, availability, historical factors, or socio-cultural influences. There has been no consensus on a single cause. Instead, experts tend to apply the biopsychosocial model . Any number of factors may influence an individual's drug use, as they are not mutually exclusive . Regardless of genetics, mental health, or traumatic experiences, social factors play

4875-632: A shift from reliance on imported supplies to domestic cultivation, particularly in Hawaii and California . Beginning in 1982, the Drug Enforcement Administration turned increased attention to marijuana farms in the United States, and there was a shift to the indoor growing of plants specially developed for small size and high yield. After over a decade of decreasing use, marijuana smoking began an upward trend once more in

5070-550: A social category formed by people with mixture of European and native ancestry, who were an important part of the economy and culture of the region. According to Peter Gow, the ayahuasca shamanism (the use of ayahuasca by a trained shaman to diagnose and cure illnesses) was developed by these mestizos in the processes of colonial transformation. The Amazon rubber cycles (1879–1912 and 1945–1945) sped up these transformations, due to slavery, genocide and brutality against indigenous populations and large migratory movements, specially from

5265-472: A substitute for the ayahuasca vine, and the DMT-rich Mimosa hostilis is used in place of chacruna . Australia has several indigenous plants which are popular among modern ayahuasqueros there, such as various DMT-rich species of Acacia . The name "ayahuasca" specifically refers to a botanical decoction that contains Banisteriopsis caapi . A synthetic version, known as pharmahuasca ,

5460-597: A wide diversity of expressions in fields such as art , cuisine , literature , and music . The name of the country may be derived from Birú , the name of a local ruler who lived near the Bay of San Miguel , Panama City, in the early 16th century. Spanish conquistadors , who arrived in 1522, believed this was the southernmost part of the New World . When Francisco Pizarro invaded the regions farther south, they came to be designated Birú or Perú . An alternative history

5655-684: A word that originates from the Quechuan languages , which are spoken in the Andean states of Ecuador , Bolivia , Peru , and Colombia . Speakers of Quechuan languages who use modern Quechuan orthography spell it ayawaska . The word refers both to the liana Banisteriopsis caapi , and to the brew prepared from it. In the Quechua languages, aya means "spirit, soul", or "corpse, dead body", and waska means "rope" or "woody vine", " liana ". The word ayahuasca has been variously translated as "liana of

5850-605: Is a representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions . Its main economic activities include mining , manufacturing , agriculture and fishing, along with other growing sectors such as telecommunications and biotechnology . The country forms part of The Pacific Pumas , a political and economic grouping of countries along Latin America's Pacific coast that share common trends of positive growth, stable macroeconomic foundations, improved governance and an openness to global integration. Peru ranks high in social freedom ; it

6045-525: Is a big part of Scarface: The World Is Yours ). In the Fallout video game franchise, drugs ("chems" in the game) can fill the role of any above mentioned. Drug trafficking , gang rivalries , and their related criminal underworld also play a big part in the Grand Theft Auto video game franchise. The following substances are commonly used recreationally: Drugs are often associated with

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6240-499: Is a combination of an appropriate MAOI and typically DMT. In this usage, the DMT is generally considered the main psychoactive active ingredient, while the MAOI merely preserves the psychoactivity of orally ingested DMT, which would otherwise be destroyed in the gut before it could be absorbed in the body. In contrast, traditionally among Amazonian tribes, the B. Caapi vine is considered to be

6435-830: Is an active member of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation , the Pacific Alliance , the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership and the World Trade Organization ; and is considered as a middle power . Peru's population includes Mestizos , Amerindians , Europeans , Africans and Asians . The main spoken language is Spanish , although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechuan languages , Aymara , or other Indigenous languages . This mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in

6630-511: Is an important precedent. Since then groups that are not affiliated to the Santo Daime have used ayahuasca, and a number of different "styles" have been developed, including non-religious approaches. In modern Europe and North America, ayahuasca analogs are often prepared using non-traditional plants which contain the same alkaloids. For example, seeds of the Syrian rue plant can be used as

6825-571: Is consumed socially among friends, in order to learn more about the natural environment, and even in order to visit friends and family who are far away. Nonetheless, people who work with ayahuasca in non-traditional contexts often align themselves with the philosophies and cosmologies associated with ayahuasca shamanism , as practiced among Indigenous peoples like the Urarina of the Peruvian Amazon . Dietary taboos are often associated with

7020-533: Is defined as the degree to which a psychoactive drug has the potential to cause harm to the user and is measured in several ways, such as by addictiveness and the potential for physical harm. More objectively harmful drugs may be colloquially referred to as "hard drugs", and less harmful drugs as "soft drugs". The term "soft drug" is considered controversial by critics as it may imply the false belief that soft drugs cause lesser or insignificant harm. Responsible drug use advocates that users should not take drugs at

7215-518: Is estimated that about 5% of people worldwide aged 15 to 65 (158 million to 351 million) had used controlled drugs at least once. Common recreational drugs include caffeine , commonly found in coffee , tea , soft drinks , and chocolate ; alcohol , commonly found in beer , wine , cocktails , and distilled spirits ; nicotine , commonly found in tobacco , tobacco-based products , and electronic cigarettes ; cannabis and hashish (with legality of possession varying inter/intra-nationally); and

7410-582: Is generally tolerated as a social behaviour, rather than perceived as the medical condition of self-medication . However, drug use and drug addiction are severely stigmatized everywhere in the world. Many people also use prescribed and controlled depressants such as opioids , opiates , and benzodiazepines . What controlled substances are considered generally unlawful to possess varies by country, but usually includes cannabis , cocaine , opioids , MDMA , amphetamine , methamphetamine , psychedelics , benzodiazepines , and barbiturates . As of 2015, it

7605-510: Is home to many sharks, sperm whales , and whales. The invertebrate fauna is far less inventoried; at least beetles (Coleoptera) have been surveyed in the "Beetles of Peru" project, led by Caroline S. Chaboo, University of Nebraska, USA and this revealved more 12,000 documented and many new species for Peru. Peru also has an equally diverse flora . The coastal deserts produce little more than cacti , apart from hilly fog oases and river valleys that contain unique plant life. The Highlands above

7800-862: Is no unequivocal evidence of this date referring directly to ayahuasca. Banisteriopsis caapi use is suggested from a pouch containing carved snuffing trays, bone spatulas and other paraphernalia with traces of harmine and DMT , discovered in a cave in southwestern Bolivia in 2008, and chemical traces of harmine in the hair of two mummies found in northern Chile. Both cases are linked to Tiwanaku people, circa 900 CE. There are several reports of oral and nasal use of Anadenanthera spp. (rich in bufotenin ) ritualistically and therapeutically during labor and infancy, and researchers suggest that addition of Banisteriopsis spp. to catalyze its psychoactivity emerged later, due to contact between different groups of Amazon and Altiplano . Despite claims by numerous anthropologists and ethnologists, such as Plutarco Naranjo, regarding

7995-446: Is one of the safest and most comfortable, but of little bioavailability . Depressants are psychoactive drugs that temporarily diminish the function or activity of a specific part of the body or mind. Colloquially, depressants are known as "downers", and users generally take them to feel more relaxed and less tense. Examples of these kinds of effects may include anxiolysis, sedation, and hypotension. Depressants are widely used throughout

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8190-446: Is particularly effective at altering one's senses. They prepare a brew from bitter vines or herbs, which, when boiled sufficiently, must become quite potent. Since it's so strong at altering one's judgment in small quantities, the precaution is not excessive, and it fits into two small pots. The witch doctor drinks a very small amount each time and knows well how many times he can sample the brew without losing his senses to properly conduct

8385-422: Is provided by the contemporary writer Inca Garcilaso de la Vega , son of an Inca princess and a conquistador. He said the name Birú was that of a common Amerindian who was happened upon by the crew of a ship on an exploratory mission for governor Pedro Arias Dávila and went on to relate more instances of misunderstandings due to the lack of a common language. The Spanish crown gave the name legal status with

8580-451: Is rich with harmala alkaloids , such as harmine , harmaline and tetrahydroharmine (THH), which can act as monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOi). This halts the liver and gastrointestinal metabolism of DMT, allowing it to reach the systemic circulation and the brain, where it activates 5-HT 1A/2A/2C receptors in frontal and paralimbic areas. Ayahuasca is the hispanicized spelling (i.e., spelled according to Spanish orthography) of

8775-535: Is suspected of triggering psychosis in people with a predisposition to the condition, and there is a lack of safety information for Ayahuasca's possible effects on pregnancy and breastfeeding. People who have consumed ayahuasca report having mystical experiences and spiritual revelations regarding their purpose on earth, the true nature of the universe , and deep insight into how to be the best person they possibly can. Many people also report therapeutic effects, especially around depression and personal traumas. This

8970-594: Is the selva (jungle), a wide expanse of flat terrain covered by the Amazon rainforest that extends east. Almost 60 percent of the country's area is located within this region. The country has fifty-four hydrographic basins, fifty-two of which are small coastal basins that discharge their waters into the Pacific Ocean. The final two are the endorheic basin of Lake Titicaca , and the Amazon basin, which empties into

9165-529: Is usually accompanied with purging which include vomiting and diarrhea, which is believed to release built-up emotions and negative energy . It is believed that the Shipibo-Konibo are among the earliest practitioners of Ayahuasca ceremonies, with their connection to the brew and ceremonies surrounding it dating back centuries, perhaps a millennium. Some members of the Shipibo community have taken to

9360-511: Is viewed by many as a spiritual awakening and what is often described as a near-death experience or rebirth. It is often reported that individuals feel they gain access to higher spiritual dimensions and make contact with various spiritual or extra-dimensional beings who can act as guides or healers. The experiences that people have while under the influence of ayahuasca are also culturally influenced. Westerners typically describe experiences with psychological terms like " ego death " and understand

9555-466: The auto-golpe ("self-coup") of 5 April 1992. He then revised the constitution, called new congressional elections, and implemented substantial economic reform, including privatization of numerous state-owned companies, creation of an investment-friendly climate, and sound management of the economy. Nonetheless, these policies did not benefit the poorest much, and inequality persisted despite Fujimori's economic achievements. Fujimori's administration

9750-468: The 2006 elections . In 2006, Alberto Fujimori's daughter, Keiko Fujimori , entered Peru's political arena to continue her father's legacy and espouse Fujimorism. In May 2008, Peru became a member of the Union of South American Nations . In April 2009, former president Alberto Fujimori was convicted of human rights violations and sentenced to 25 years in prison for his role in killings and kidnappings by

9945-551: The Amsterdam Santo Daime community). Bogers and Fijneman were charged with distributing a controlled substance (DMT); however, the prosecution was unable to prove that the use of ayahuasca by members of the Santo Daime constituted a sufficient threat to public health and order such that it warranted denying their rights to religious freedom under ECHR Article 9 . The 2001 verdict of the Amsterdam district court

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10140-519: The Ayacucho massacre and Juliaca massacre occurring at this time, resulting with the most violence experienced in the nation in over two decades. The strong response by the political elite in Lima raised concerns that they sought to establish an authoritarian or civilian-military government . Peru is located on the central western coast of South America facing the Pacific Ocean. It lies wholly in

10335-473: The Grupo Colina death squad during his government's battle against leftist guerrillas in the 1990s. During the presidencies of Ollanta Humala , Pedro Pablo Kuczynski and Martín Vizcarra , the right-wing Congress led by Keiko Fujimori obstructed much of the actions performed by the presidents. On 5 June 2011, Ollanta Humala was elected president, with his cabinet being successfully censured by

10530-537: The Huaca Prieta settlement. Andean societies were based on agriculture, using techniques such as irrigation and terracing ; camelid husbandry and fishing were also important. Organization relied on reciprocity and redistribution because these societies had no notion of market or money. The oldest known complex society in Peru, the Caral/Norte Chico civilization , flourished along the coast of

10725-677: The Imperial College London , who stated that studies showing benefits for "moderate" alcohol consumption in "some middle-aged men" lacked controls for the variable of what the subjects were drinking beforehand. Experts in the United Kingdom have suggested that some psychoactive drugs that may be causing less harm to fewer users (although they are also used less frequently in the first place) are cannabis, psilocybin mushrooms , LSD , and MDMA ; however, these drugs have risks and side effects of their own. Drug harmfulness

10920-810: The Inca Empire , the largest known state in the pre-Columbian Americas. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and Charles V established a viceroyalty with the official name of the Kingdom of Peru that encompassed most of its South American territories, with its capital in Lima . Higher education started in the Americas with the official establishment of the National University of San Marcos in Lima in 1551. Peru formally proclaimed independence from Spain in 1821, and following

11115-666: The International Petroleum Corporation (IPC), the North American company that exploited Peruvian oil, and then launched a reform of the state apparatus, an agrarian reform. It was the biggest agrarian reform ever undertaken in Latin America: it abolished the latifunda system and modernized agriculture through a more equitable redistribution of land (90% of the peasants formed cooperatives or agricultural societies of social interest). Land

11310-585: The Plan Verde , which involved the genocide of impoverished and indigenous Peruvians, the control or censorship of the media in Peru , and the establishment of a neoliberal economy controlled by a military junta . Alberto Fujimori assumed the presidency in 1990 and, according to the head of the National Intelligence Service (SIN) Rospigliosi, an understanding was established between Fujimori, Vladimiro Montesinos , and some of

11505-584: The Republic of Peru , is a country in western South America . It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia , in the east by Brazil , in the southeast by Bolivia , in the south by Chile , and in the south and west by the Pacific Ocean. Peru is a megadiverse country , with habitats ranging from the arid plains of the Pacific coastal region in the west, to the peaks of the Andes mountains extending from

11700-550: The Sapa Inca , to be the " child of the sun ." Atahualpa (or Atahuallpa), the last Sapa Inca , became emperor when he defeated and executed his older half-brother Huáscar in a civil war sparked by the death of their father, Inca Huayna Capac. In December 1532, a party of conquistadors (supported by the Chankas , Huancas , Cañaris and Chachapoyas as Indian auxiliaries ) led by Francisco Pizarro defeated and captured

11895-482: The Southern Hemisphere , its northernmost extreme reaching to 1.8 minutes of latitude or about 3.3 kilometres (2.1 mi) south of the equator , covers 1,285,216 km (496,225 sq mi) of western South America. It borders Ecuador and Colombia to the north, Brazil to the east, Bolivia to the southeast, Chile to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. The Andes mountains run parallel to

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12090-520: The Vaupés River . Subsequently, Spruce uncovered the usage and cultivation of B. caapi among various indigenous groups dispersed across the Amazon and Orinoco basins, like the Guahibo and Sápara . These multifarious encounters, together with Spruce's personal accounts of subjective ayahuasca experiences, were collated in his 1873 work, "Notes of a Botanist On The Amazon and Andes.". By the end of

12285-506: The War of the Pacific , which lasted until 1884. Bolivia invoked its alliance with Peru against Chile. The Peruvian Government tried to mediate the dispute by sending a diplomatic team to negotiate with the Chilean government, but the committee concluded that war was inevitable. Peruvian historiography is unanimous in maintaining that the deep cause of this war was Chile's ambition to take over

12480-667: The controlled substances listed as controlled drugs in the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs (1961) and the Convention on Psychotropic Substances (1971) of the United Nations (UN). Since the early 2000s, the European Union (EU) has developed several comprehensive and multidisciplinary strategies as part of its drug policy in order to prevent the diffusion of recreational drug use and abuse among

12675-529: The human rights violations committed in the last years of violence. His Programa Nacional de Población also resulted with the forced sterilization of at least 300,000 poor and indigenous women. In early 1995, once again Peru and Ecuador clashed in the Cenepa War , but in 1998 the governments of both nations signed a peace treaty that clearly demarcated the international boundary between them. In November 2000, Fujimori resigned from office and went into

12870-654: The war of independence in North America , and Native uprisings all contributed to a favorable climate to the development of emancipation ideas among the C riollo population in South America. However, the Criollo oligarchy in Peru enjoyed privileges and remained loyal to the Spanish Crown. The liberation movement started in Argentina where autonomous juntas were created as a result of the loss of authority of

13065-544: The "spirit" of ayahuasca, the gatekeeper, and guide to the otherworldly realms. Brews similar to ayahuasca may be prepared using several plants not traditionally used in South America: DMT admixtures: MAOI admixtures: Ingesting Ayahuasca can cause nausea, vomiting and diarrhea in the short term. Other short-term side effects include increased blood pressure and tachycardia . Rarer side effects include dyspnea , seizures and serotonin syndrome . Ayahuasca

13260-650: The 1529 Capitulación de Toledo , which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru. In 1561, the rebel Lope de Aguirre declared himself the "Prince" of an independent Peru, which was cut short by his arrest and execution. Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination Viceroyalty of Peru , which became the Peruvian Republic from its independence until 1979 , when it adopted its current name of Republic of Peru . The earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated to approximately 12,500 BCE in

13455-481: The 1860s Peru enjoyed a period of stability under the presidency of Ramón Castilla , through increased state revenues from guano exports. In 1864, a Spanish expedition occupied the Chincha Islands (guano producers) and unleashed an international incident with great consequences in Peruvian internal politics, which led to a coup d'état against President Juan Antonio Pezet , Mariano's government. Peru, with

13650-422: The 20th century, Peru grappled with political and social instability, including the internal conflict between the state and guerrilla groups, interspersed with periods of economic growth. Implementation of Plan Verde shifted Peru towards neoliberal economics under the authoritarian rule of Alberto Fujimori and Vladimiro Montesinos in the 1990s, with the former's political ideology of Fujimorism leaving

13845-569: The Amazon. The largest lake in Peru , Lake Titicaca between Peru and Bolivia high in the Andes, is also the largest of South America. The largest reservoirs , all in the coastal region of Peru, are the Poechos , Tinajones, San Lorenzo, and El Fraile reservoirs. Although Peru is located entirely in the tropics , the combination of tropical latitude, mountain ranges, topography variations, and two ocean currents ( Humboldt and El Niño ) gives Peru

14040-539: The Atlantic Ocean. Both are delimited by the Andes mountain range. The Amazon basin is particularly noteworthy as it is the source of the Amazon River, which at 6872 km, is the longest river in the world, and covers 75% of Peruvian territory. Peru contains 4% of the planet's freshwater. Most Peruvian rivers originate in the peaks of the Andes and drain into one of three basins . Those that drain toward

14235-652: The Brazilian Northeast Region as a workforce for the rubber plantations . The mestizo practices became deeply intertwined with the culture of rubber workers, called caucheros (in Spanish) or seringueiros (in Portuguese). Ayahuasca use with therapeutic goals is the main result of result of this Trans-cultural diffusion , with some practitioners pointing the caucheros as the main responsible for using ayahuasca to cure all sort of ailments of

14430-623: The Chimu flourished from about 1140 to 1450. Their capital was at Chan Chan outside of modern-day Trujillo . In the highlands, both the Tiahuanaco culture, near Lake Titicaca in both Peru and Bolivia, and the Wari culture, near the present-day city of Ayacucho , developed large urban settlements and wide-ranging state systems between 500 and 1000 CE. In the 15th century, the Incas emerged as

14625-631: The Devil, who was working "through them to frustrate" their foundations. It only took a generation to convert the population. They built churches in every city and replaced some of the Inca temples with churches, such as the Coricancha in the city of Cusco. The church employed the Inquisition , making use of torture to ensure that newly converted Catholics did not stray to other religions or beliefs, and monastery schools, educating girls, especially of

14820-725: The European population and raise public awareness on the adverse effects of drugs among all member states of the European Union , as well as conjoined efforts with European law enforcement agencies, such as Europol and EMCDDA , in order to counter organized crime and illegal drug trade in Europe. Many researchers have explored the etiology of recreational drug use. Some of the most common theories are: genetics , personality type, psychological problems, self-medication, sex, age, depression, curiosity, boredom, rebelliousness,

15015-717: The FBI reported that between the years 1966 and 1968, the number of arrests for marijuana possession, which had been outlawed throughout the United States under Marijuana Tax Act of 1937 , had increased by 98%. Despite acknowledgement that drug use was greatly growing among America's youth during the late 1960s, surveys have suggested that only as much as 4% of the American population had ever smoked marijuana by 1969. By 1972, however, that number would increase to 12%. That number would then double by 1977. The Controlled Substances Act of 1970 classified marijuana along with heroin and LSD as

15210-585: The Fujimorist Congress. Beginning with Pedro Pablo Kuczynski , Congress used broadly interpreted impeachment wording in the 1993 Constitution of Peru that allowed impeachment of the president without cause to place pressure on the president, forcing him to resign in 2018 amid various controversies surrounding his administration. Vice president Martín Vizcarra then assumed office in March 2018 with generally favorable approval ratings as he led

15405-606: The God of the Sun who ruled from a magnificently rebuilt Cusco. From 1438 to 1533, the Incas used a variety of methods, from conquest to peaceful assimilation, to incorporate a large portion of western South America, centered on the Andean mountain ranges, from southern Colombia to northern Chile, between the Pacific Ocean in the west and the Amazon rainforest in the east. The official language of

15600-628: The Inca Emperor Atahualpa in the Battle of Cajamarca . After years of preliminary exploration and military conflicts, it was the first step in a long campaign that took decades of fighting but ended in Spanish victory and colonization of the region known as the Viceroyalty of Peru with its capital at Lima , which was then known as "La Ciudad de los Reyes" (The City of Kings). The conquest of Peru led to spin-off campaigns throughout

15795-473: The Inca nobility and upper class, "until they were old enough either to profess [to become a nun] or to leave the monastery and assume the role ('estado') in the Christian society that their fathers planned to erect" in Peru. Peruvian Catholicism follows the syncretism found in many Latin American countries, in which religious native rituals have been integrated with Christian celebrations. In this endeavor,

15990-532: The Jesuit and Franciscan missions in the region), no matter the linguistic background of the group, with similar language structures between different ícaros that are markedly different from other indigenous songs. Moreover, often the cosmology of ayahuasca often mirrors the Catholicism, with particular similarities in the belief that ayahuasca is thought to be the body of ayahuascamama that is imbibed as part of

16185-624: The McKenna brothers published their experience in the Amazon in True Hallucinations . Dennis McKenna later studied pharmacology, botany , and chemistry of ayahuasca and oo-koo-he , which became the subject of his master's thesis. Richard Evans Schultes allowed Claudio Naranjo to make a special journey by canoe up the Amazon River to study ayahuasca with the South American Indians. He brought back samples of

16380-532: The National Library ( in favor of knowledge), the approval of the National Anthem, and the abolition of the mita (in favor of the indigenous people). On December 27, 1821, San Martín created three ministries: Ministry of State and Foreign Affairs, committing Juan García del Río; Ministry of War and Navy , to Bernardo de Monteagudo; and Ministry of Finance, to Hipólito Unanue. From the 1840s to

16575-841: The Pacific Ocean are steep and short, flowing only intermittently. Tributaries of the Amazon River have a much larger flow, and are longer and less steep once they exit the sierra . Rivers that drain into Lake Titicaca are generally short and have a large flow. Peru's longest rivers are the Ucayali , the Marañón , the Putumayo , the Yavarí , the Huallaga , the Urubamba , the Mantaro , and

16770-404: The Pacific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BCE. These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures that developed mostly around the coastal and Andean regions throughout Peru. The Cupisnique culture which flourished from around 1000 to 200 BCE along what is now Peru's Pacific coast was an example of early pre- Inca culture . The Chavín culture that developed from 1500 to 300 BCE

16965-478: The Pacific Ocean; they define the three regions traditionally used to describe the country geographically. The costa (coast), to the west, is a narrow, largely arid plain except for valleys created by seasonal rivers. The sierra (highlands) is the region of the Andes; it includes the Altiplano plateau as well as the highest peak of the country, the 6,768 m (22,205 ft) Huascarán . The third region

17160-519: The Pacific War. The casus belli was the confrontation between Bolivia and Chile over a tax problem in which Peru was compromised by the Treaty of Defensive Alliance signed with Bolivia in 1873. However, Peruvian historiography is unanimous in maintaining that the deep cause of This war was Chile's ambition to take over the nitrate and guano territories of southern Peru.92 In the first stage of the war,

17355-553: The Peruvian Amazon. In the rainforest, these taboos tend towards the purification of one's self—abstaining from spicy and heavily seasoned foods, excess fat, salt, caffeine, acidic foods (such as citrus) and sex before, after, or during a ceremony. A diet low in foods containing tyramine has been recommended, as the speculative interaction of tyramine and MAOIs could lead to a hypertensive crisis ; however, evidence indicates that harmala alkaloids act only on MAO-A , in

17550-584: The Philippines. The commercial and population exchanges between Latin America and Asia undergone via the Manila Galleons transiting through Acapulco, had Callao at Peru as the furthest endpoint of the trade route in the Americas. In relation to this, Don Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera , governor of Panama was also responsible for settling Zamboanga City in the Philippines by employing Peruvian soldiers and colonists. African slaves were added to

17745-598: The Santo Daime and Barquinha, in Rio Branco and the União do Vegetal (UDV) in Porto Velho , three denominations that, notwithstanding shared characteristics besides ayahuasca utilization, have several particularities regarding its practices, conceptions and processes building social legitimacy and relationships with Brazilian government, media, science and other society stances. Since the latter half of twentieth century,

17940-584: The Spanish government over its colonies. After fighting for the independence of the Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata, José de San Martín created the Army of the Andes and crossed the Andes in 21 days. Once in Chile, he joined forces with Chilean army General Bernardo O'Higgins and liberated the country in the battles of Chacabuco and Maipú in 1818. On 7 September 1820, a fleet of eight warships arrived in

18135-469: The Treaty, and neither of the countries could determine the statutory framework. The War of the Pacific was the bloodiest war Peru has fought in. After the War of the Pacific, an extraordinary effort of rebuilding began. The government started to initiate a number of social and economic reforms to recover from the damage of the war. Political stability was achieved only in the early 1900s. Internal struggles after

18330-1012: The US as acetaminophen), the nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as the salicylates (e.g. aspirin ), and opioid drugs such as hydrocodone , codeine , heroin and oxycodone . Some further examples of the brand name prescription opiates and opioid analgesics that may be used recreationally include Vicodin, Lortab, Norco (hydrocodone), Avinza, Kapanol (morphine), Opana, Paramorphan (oxymorphone), Dilaudid, Palladone (hydromorphone), and OxyContin (oxycodone). The following are examples of tranquilizers ( GABAergics ): Stimulants, also known as "psychostimulants", induce euphoria with improvements in mental and physical function, such as enhanced alertness, wakefulness, and locomotion. Stimulants are also occasionally called "uppers". Depressants or "downers", which decrease mental or physical function, are in stark contrast to stimulants and are considered to be their functional opposites. Stimulants enhance

18525-622: The United States and Western Europe, and, more incipiently, in Eastern Europe, South Africa, Australia, and Japan. More recently, new phenomena regarding ayahuasca use have evolved and moved to urban centers in North America and Europe, with the emergence of neoshamanic hybrid rituals and spiritual and recreational drug tourism . Also, anecdotal evidence, studies conducted among ayahuasca consumers and clinical trials suggest that ayahuasca has therapeutic potential, especially for

18720-616: The United States during the late 1980s–early 1990s. In video games , for example, drugs are portrayed in a variety of ways: including power-ups ( cocaine gum replenishes stamina in Red Dead Redemption 2 ), obstacles to be avoided (such as the Fuzzies in Super Mario World 2: Yoshi's Island that distort the player's view when accidentally consumed), items to be bought and sold for in-game currency (coke dealing

18915-417: The Viceroyalty of Peru. Eventually, the viceroyalty would dissolve, as with much of the Spanish empire, when challenged by national independence movements at the beginning of the nineteenth century. These movements led to the formation of the majority of modern-day countries of South America in the territories that at one point or another had constituted the Viceroyalty of Peru. The conquest and colony brought

19110-409: The above reasons, the use of medicinal scopolamine for recreational uses is also observed. Analgesics (also known as "painkillers") are used to relieve pain (achieve analgesia ). The word analgesic derives from Greek "αν-" ( an- , "without") and "άλγος" ( álgos , "pain"). Analgesic drugs act in various ways on the peripheral and central nervous systems; they include paracetamol (also known in

19305-497: The active extract of ayahuasca as telepathine, a name latter used by the Colombian chemist Guillermo Fischer Cárdenas when he isolated the substance in 1932. Contemporaneously, Lewin and Gunn were independently studying the properties of the banisterine, extracted of the B. caapi, and its effects on animal models. Further clinical trials were being conducted, exploring the effects of banisterine on Parkinson's disease. Later it

19500-436: The activity of the central and peripheral nervous systems . Common effects may include increased alertness , awareness , wakefulness , endurance , productivity , and motivation , arousal , locomotion , heart rate , and blood pressure , and a diminished desire for food and sleep . Use of stimulants may cause the body to significantly reduce its production of endogenous compounds that fulfill similar functions. Once

19695-630: The ancient and medieval periods, and has one of the longest histories of civilization of any country, tracing its heritage back to the 10th millennium BCE. Notable pre-colonial cultures and civilizations include the Caral–Supe civilization (the earliest civilization in the Americas and considered one of the cradles of civilization ), the Nazca culture , the Wari and Tiwanaku empires, the Kingdom of Cusco , and

19890-517: The anti-corruption constitutional referendum movement. The COVID-19 pandemic resulted with Peru experiencing the highest death rate from COVID-19 in the world, exposing much of the inequality that persisted since the Fujimori administration and triggering an economic crisis that led to Vizcara's removal from the presidency by Congress . Widely seen as a coup by Congress, its head, the newly seated President Manuel Merino , faced protests across

20085-589: The attention of Western ethnographers in the mid-nineteenth century" The first western references of the ayahuasca beverage dates back to seventeenth century, during the European colonization of the Americas . The earlier report is a letter from Vincente de Valverde to the Holy Office of the Inquisition . Jose Chantre y Herrera still in the seventeenth century, provided the first detailed description of

20280-620: The authorities – to a status equivalent to that of Spanish and established equal rights for natural children. Peru wished to free itself from any dependence and carried out a third-world foreign policy. The United States responded with commercial, economic and diplomatic pressure. In 1973 Peru seemed to triumph over the financial blockade imposed by Washington by negotiating a loan from the International Development Bank to finance its agricultural and mining development policy. The relations with Chile became very tense after

20475-472: The ayahuasca religious expanded to other parts of Brazil and several countries in the world, notably in the West. Beat writer William S. Burroughs read a paper by Richard Evans Schultes on the subject and while traveling through South America in the early 1950s sought out ayahuasca in the hopes that it could relieve or cure opiate addiction (see The Yage Letters ). Ayahuasca became more widely known when

20670-586: The basins of Madeira , Juruá and Purus River ) within the cauchero/seringueiro cultural complex, resignifying and adapting both the vegetalista and mestizo shamanism to new urban formations, unifying essential elements to building a cosmology for the new emerging cult/faith, merging with elements of folk Catholicism, African-Brazilian religions and Kardecist spiritism. These new cults arise from charismatic leaderships, often messianic and prophetic, who came from rural areas after migration movements, sometimes called ayahuasqueiros , in semi-urban communities across

20865-610: The beverage and published the first scientific description of the effects of its active alkaloids. In recent years, the brew has been popularized by Wade Davis ( One River), English novelist Martin Goodman in I Was Carlos Castaneda , Chilean novelist Isabel Allende , writer Kira Salak , author Jeremy Narby ( The Cosmic Serpent ), author Jay Griffiths ( Wild: An Elemental Journey ), American novelist Steven Peck, radio personality Robin Quivers ,, writer Paul Theroux ( Figures in

21060-450: The body to allergens , such as the pollen released by grasses and trees. An allergic reaction causes release of histamine by the body. Other uses of antihistamines are to help with normal symptoms of insect stings even if there is no allergic reaction. Their recreational appeal exists mainly due to their anticholinergic properties, that induce anxiolysis and, in some cases such as diphenhydramine , chlorpheniramine , and orphenadrine ,

21255-456: The body, mind and soul , with even some regions using the term Yerba de Cauchero ("rubber-worker herb"). As a result, the ayahuasca shamans in urban areas and mestizo settlements, specially in the regions of Iquitos and Pucallpa (in Peru), became the vegetalistas, folk healers who are said to gain all their knowledge from the plants and the spirits bound to it. So the vegetalist movement

21450-502: The bombings of Tarata and Frecuencia Latina by Sendero Luminoso. Fujimori would also broaden the definition of terrorism in an effort to criminalize as many actions possible to persecute left-wing political opponents. Using the terruqueo , a fearmongering tactic that was used to accuse opponents of terrorism, Fujimori established a cult of personality by portraying himself as a hero and made left-wing ideologies an eternal enemy in Peru. Those incidents subsequently came to symbolize

21645-406: The bordes of Brazil, Bolívia and Peru (a region that will later form the state of Acre ). This new configuration os these belief systems is refereed by Goulart as   tradição religiosa ayahuasqueira urbana amazônica ("urban-amazonian ayahuasqueiro religious tradition") or campo ayahuasqueiro brasileiro ("brazilian ayahuasqueiro field") by Labate, emerging as three main structured religions,

21840-501: The boundary between those two countries. In a military coup on 29 October 1948, General Manuel A. Odría became president. Odría's presidency was known as the Ochenio . He came down hard on APRA, momentarily pleasing the oligarchy and all others on the right, but followed a populist course that won him great favor with the poor and lower classes. A thriving economy allowed him to indulge in expensive but crowd-pleasing social policies. At

22035-610: The brew takes several hours, often taking place over the course of more than one day. After adding the plant material, each separately at this stage, to a large pot of water, it is boiled until the water is reduced by half in volume. The individual brews are then added together and brewed until reduced significantly. This combined brew is what is taken by participants in ayahuasca ceremonies. The uses of ayahuasca in traditional societies in South America vary greatly. Some cultures do use it for shamanic purposes, but in other cases, it

22230-621: The century, other explorers and anthropologists contributed more extensive documentation concerning ayahuasca, notably the Theodor Koch-Grünberg 's documents about Tucano and Arecuna 's rituals and ceremonies, Stradelli 's first-hand reports of ayahuasca rituals and mythology along the Jurupari and Vaupés and Alfred Simson's first description of admixture of several ingredients in the making of ayahuasca in Putumayo region, published in 1886. In 1905, Rafael Zerda Bayón named

22425-660: The church came to play an important role in the acculturation of the Natives, drawing them into the cultural orbit of the Spanish settlers. By the 18th century, declining silver production and economic diversification greatly diminished royal income. In response, the Crown enacted the Bourbon Reforms , a series of edicts that increased taxes and partitioned the Viceroyalty . The new laws provoked Túpac Amaru II's rebellion and other revolts, all of which were suppressed. As

22620-453: The command of Gregorio Escobedo. Because Peru was the stronghold of the Spanish government in South America, San Martín's strategy to liberate Peru was to use diplomacy. He sent representatives to Lima urging the Viceroy that Peru be granted independence, however, all negotiations proved unsuccessful. The Viceroy of Peru, Joaquín de la Pazuela named José de la Serna commander-in-chief of

22815-529: The condition. Ayahuasca is a hallucinogen commonly made by the prolonged decoction of the stems of the Banisteriopsis caapi vine and the leaves of the Psychotria viridis shrub, although hundreds of species are used in addition or substitution (See "Preparation" below). P. viridis contains N , N -Dimethyltryptamine (DMT), a highly psychedelic substance. Although orally inactive, B. caapi

23010-466: The consequences of irresponsible drug use to users. Another issue is that the illegality of drugs causes social and economic consequences for users—the drugs may be "cut" with adulterants and the purity varies wildly, making overdoses more likely—and legalization of drug production and distribution could reduce these and other dangers of illegal drug use. In efforts to curtail recreational drug use, governments worldwide introduced several laws prohibiting

23205-639: The consumption of club drugs is highly associated with the presence of criminal behaviors and recent alcohol abuse or dependence . The prevalence of recreational drugs in human societies is widely reflected in fiction, entertainment, and the arts, subject to prevailing laws and social conventions. For instance, in the music industry , the musical genres hip hop , hardcore rap , and trap , alongside their derivative subgenres and subcultures , are most notorious for having continuously celebrated and promoted drug trafficking , gangster lifestyle , and consumption of alcohol and other drugs since their inception in

23400-448: The country in the 1570s with gold and silver mining as its main economic activity and Amerindian forced labor as its primary workforce. With the discovery of the great silver and gold lodes at Potosí (present-day Bolivia) and Huancavelica , the viceroyalty flourished as an important provider of mineral resources. Peruvian bullion provided revenue for the Spanish Crown and fueled a complex trade network that extended as far as Europe and

23595-589: The country, and after five days, Merino resigned from the presidency. Merino was replaced by President Francisco Sagasti , who led a provisional, centrist government, and enforced many of Vizcarra's former policies. Elections were held on 11 April 2021, and Pedro Castillo of the Free Peru party won the first round, followed closely by Keiko Fujimori, with right-wing parties allied with Fujimori maintaining positions in Congress. On 28 July 2021, Pedro Castillo

23790-460: The country. After the country experienced chronic inflation , the Peruvian sol was replaced by the inti in mid-1985, which itself was replaced by the nuevo sol in July 1991 (the new sol had a cumulative value of one billion old soles). At the end of the 1980s, the per capita annual income of Peruvians fell to $ 720 (below the level of 1960) and Peru's GDP dropped 20%, with national reserves running

23985-789: The coup d'état of the general Pinochet . General Edgardo Mercado Jarrin (Prime Minister and Commander-in-Chief of the Army) and Admiral Guillermo Faura Gaig (Minister of the Navy) both escaped assassination attempts within weeks of each other. In 1975 General Francisco Morales Bermúdez Cerruti seized power and broke with the policies of his predecessor. His regime occasionally participated in Operation Condor in collaboration with other American military dictatorships. President Alan García 's economic policies distanced Peru from international markets further, resulting in lower foreign investment in

24180-414: The drug is taken in much higher than therapeutic doses. Antihistamines are widely available over the counter at drug stores (without a prescription), in the form of allergy medication and some cough medicines . They are sometimes used in combination with other substances such as alcohol. The most common unsupervised use of antihistamines in terms of volume and percentage of the total is perhaps in parallel to

24375-632: The drug. It is estimated that 26% of people with hallucinogen-induced psychosis will transition to a diagnosis of schizophrenia. This percentage is less than the psychosis transition rate for cannabis (34%) but higher than that of amphetamines (22%). Starting in the mid-20th century, psychedelic drugs have been the object of extensive attention in the Western world. They have been and are being explored as potential therapeutic agents in treating depression , post-traumatic stress disorder , obsessive–compulsive disorder , alcoholism , and opioid addiction . Yet

24570-581: The early 1990s, especially among teenagers, but by the end of the decade this upswing had leveled off well below former peaks of use. Many movements and organizations are advocating for or against the liberalization of the use of recreational drugs , most notably regarding the legalization of marijuana and cannabinoids for medical and/or recreational use. Subcultures have emerged among users of recreational drugs, as well as alternative lifestyles and social movements among those who abstain from them, such as teetotalism and " straight edge ". Since

24765-498: The early 2000s, medical professionals have acknowledged and addressed the problem of the increasing consumption of alcoholic drinks and club drugs (such as MDMA , cocaine , rohypnol , GHB , ketamine , PCP , LSD , and methamphetamine ) associated with rave culture among adolescents and young adults in the Western world . Studies have shown that adolescents are more likely than young adults to use multiple drugs , and

24960-1022: The effect of the ingested stimulant has worn off the user may feel depressed, lethargic, confused, and dysphoric. This is colloquially termed a "crash" and may promote reuse of the stimulant. Amphetamines are a significant cause of drug-induced psychosis. Importantly, a 2019 meta-analysis found that 22% of people with amphetamine-induced psychosis transition to a later diagnosis of schizophrenia. Examples of stimulants include: Hallucinogens can be divided into three broad categories: psychedelics , dissociatives , and deliriants . They can cause subjective changes in perception , thought , emotion and consciousness . Unlike other psychoactive drugs such as stimulants and opioids , hallucinogens do not merely amplify familiar states of mind but also induce experiences that differ from those of ordinary consciousness, often compared to non-ordinary forms of consciousness such as trance , meditation , conversion experiences, and dreams . Psychedelics, dissociatives, and deliriants have

25155-539: The effects run their course, and the intoxication subsides. After this, they reflect on what their imagination revealed, which occasionally remains with them for delirium. This is what they consider accomplished and propagate as an oracle." Latter reports were produced by Juan Magnin in 1740, describing ayahuasca use as a medicinal plant by the Jivaroan peoples (called ayahuessa ) and by Franz Xaver Veigl in 1768, that reports about several "dangerous plants", including

25350-500: The empire was Quechua , although hundreds of local languages and dialects were spoken. The Inca referred to their empire as Tawantinsuyu which can be translated as "The Four Regions" or "The Four United Provinces." Many local forms of worship persisted in the empire, most of them concerning local sacred Huacas , but the Inca leadership encouraged the worship of Inti , the sun god and imposed its sovereignty above other cults such as that of Pachamama . The Incas considered their King,

25545-510: The employment and rituals involving ayahuasca by the Jivaro people. Concurrently, Richard Spruce embarked on an Amazonian expedition in 1852 to collect and classify previously unidentified botanical specimens. During this journey, Spruce encountered and documented Banisteriopsis caapi (at time named Banisteria caapi ) and observed an ayahuasca ceremony among the Tucano community situated along

25740-461: The fifteenth century, when the pace of conquest began to accelerate, particularly under the rule of the emperor Pachacuti . Under his rule and that of his son, Topa Inca Yupanqui , the Incas came to control most of the Andean region, with a population of 9 to 16 million inhabitants under their rule. Pachacuti also promulgated a comprehensive code of laws to govern his far-flung empire, while consolidating his absolute temporal and spiritual authority as

25935-412: The first parliament was assembled. The newly founded Peruvian Congress named Bolívar dictator of Peru, giving him the power to organize the military. With the help of Antonio José de Sucre , they defeated the larger Spanish army in the Battle of Junín on 6 August 1824 and the decisive Battle of Ayacucho on 9 December of the same year, consolidating the independence of Peru and Upper Peru. Upper Peru

26130-672: The following three decades. A final peace treaty in 1929, signed between Peru and Chile called the Treaty of Lima , returned Tacna to Peru. Between 1932 and 1933, Peru was engulfed in a year-long war with Colombia over a territorial dispute involving the Amazonas Department and its capital Leticia . In 1941 Peru and Ecuador fought the Ecuadorian–Peruvian War , after which the Rio Protocol sought to formalize

26325-449: The fray and since then became Peru's greatest hero. Almost five years of war ended with the loss of the department of Tarapacá and the provinces of Tacna and Arica , in the Atacama region. Francisco Bolognesi and Miguel Grau are both renowned heros of the war. Originally Chile committed to a referendum for the cities of Arica and Tacna to be held years later, to self determine their national affiliation. However, Chile refused to apply

26520-459: The function of endogenous neurotransmitters may have improved survival rates, conferring an evolutionary advantage. A typically restrictive prehistoric diet may have emphasized the apparent benefit of consuming psychoactive drugs , which had themselves evolved to imitate neurotransmitters. Chemical–ecological adaptations and the genetics of hepatic enzymes , particularly cytochrome P450 , have led researchers to propose that "humans have shared

26715-442: The hallucinations as repressed memories or metaphors of mental states. However, at least in Iquitos , Peru (a center of ayahuasca ceremonies), those from the area describe the experiences more in terms of the actions in the body and understand the visions as reflections of their environment, sometimes including the person who they believe caused their illness, as well as interactions with spirits. Peru Peru , officially

26910-407: The help of Bolivia , Chile and Ecuador , sent a declaration of war on Spain. After the battle of Callao on May 2, 1866, the Spanish Navy withdrew from Peru. The government of José Balta was lavish in infrastructure works (construction of the Central Railway ) although the first signs of excess government spending were already perceived. By the 1870s the guano resources had been depleted, the country

27105-430: The highlands near Cuzco. In the early 19th century, while most South American nations were swept by wars of independence , Peru remained a royalist stronghold. As the elite vacillated between emancipation and loyalty to the Spanish monarchy, independence was achieved only after the occupation by military campaigns of José de San Martín and Simón Bolívar . The economic crises, the loss of power of Spain in Europe,

27300-408: The labor population to expand the workforce. The expansion of a colonial administrative apparatus and bureaucracy paralleled the economic reorganization. With the conquest started the spread of Christianity in South America; most people were forcefully converted to Catholicism , with Spanish clerics believing like Puritan divines of English colonies later that the Native Peoples "had been corrupted by

27495-466: The last decades, two new important terminologies emerged. Both are commonly used in the Western world in neoshamanic , recreative or pharmaceutical contexts to address ayahuasca-like substances created without the traditional botanical species, due to it being expensive and/or hard to find in these countries. These concepts are surrounded by some controversies involving ethnobotany , patents, commodification and biopiracy : Archaeological evidence of

27690-421: The last three centuries, as it promoted a deep reshape in traditional ways of life in the region. Many indigenous groups moved into the Missions, seeking protection from death and slavery promoted by the Bandeiras , inter-tribal violence, starvation and disease ( smallpox ). This movement resulted in an intense cultural exchange and resulted in the formation of mestizos (in Spanish) or caboclos (in Portuguese),

27885-401: The late 20th century, the practice of ayahuasca drinking began spreading to Europe, North America and elsewhere. The first ayahuasca churches, affiliated with the Brazilian Santo Daime , were established in the Netherlands . A legal case was filed against two of the Church's leaders, Hans Bogers (one of the original founders of the Dutch Santo Daime community) and Geraldine Fijneman (the head of

28080-410: The loyalist army to protect Lima from the threatened invasion by San Martín. On 29 January, de la Serna organized a coup against de la Pazuela, which was recognized by Spain and he was named Viceroy of Peru. This internal power struggle contributed to the success of the liberating army. To avoid a military confrontation, San Martín met the newly appointed viceroy, José de la Serna, and proposed to create

28275-999: The lungs. While some "inhalant" drugs are used for medical purposes , as in the case of nitrous oxide , a dental anesthetic, inhalants are used as recreational drugs for their intoxicating effect. Most inhalant drugs that are used non-medically are ingredients in household or industrial chemical products that are not intended to be concentrated and inhaled, including organic solvents (found in cleaning products, fast-drying glues, and nail polish removers), fuels ( gasoline (petrol) and kerosene ), and propellant gases such as Freon and compressed hydrofluorocarbons that are used in aerosol cans such as hairspray, whipped cream, and non-stick cooking spray. A small number of recreational inhalant drugs are pharmaceutical products that are used illicitly, such as anesthetics ( ether and nitrous oxide) and volatile anti- angina drugs ( alkyl nitrites , more commonly known as "poppers"). The most serious inhalant abuse occurs among children and teens who "[...] live on

28470-427: The media to express their views on Ayahuasca entering the mainstream, with some calling it "the commercialization of ayahuasca." Some of them have even expressed their worry regarding the increased popularity, saying "the contemporary 'ayahuasca ceremony' may be understood as a substitute for former cosmogonical rituals that are nowadays not performed anymore." The Shipibo have their own language, called Shipibo ,

28665-423: The medicinal use of some antihistamines to extend and intensify the effects of opioids and depressants. The most commonly used are hydroxyzine , mainly to extend a supply of other drugs, as in medical use, and the above-mentioned ethanolamine and alkylamine-class first-generation antihistamines, which are – once again as in the 1950s – the subject of medical research into their anti-depressant properties. For all of

28860-430: The mid-19th century to the 1930s, American physicians prescribed Cannabis sativa as a prescription drug for various medical conditions. In the 1960s, the counterculture movement introduced the use of psychoactive drugs, including cannabis. Young adults and college students reported the recreational prevalence of cannabis, among other drugs, at 20-25% while the cultural mindset of using was open and curious. In 1969,

29055-421: The military campaigns of Bernardo O'Higgins , José de San Martín , and Simón Bolívar , as well as the decisive battle of Ayacucho , it completed its independence in 1824 . In the ensuing years, the country first suffered from political instability until a period of relative economic and political stability began due to the exploitation of guano that ended with the War of the Pacific (1879–1884). Throughout

29250-473: The military officers involved in Plan Verde to abide by the military's demands prior to Fujimori's inauguration. Fujimori would go on to adopt many of the policies outlined in Plan Verde, which led to a precitious drop in infliation from 7,650% at the start of 1990 to 139% in 1991 and 57% in 1992. When Fujimori faced opposition to his reform efforts, he dissolved Congress, suspending the judiciary, arresting several opposition leaders and assuming full powers in

29445-399: The millennial usage of ayahuasca, compelling evidence substantiating its pre-Columbian consumption is yet to be firmly established. As articulated by Dennis McKenna : "No one can say for certain where the practice may have originated, and about all that can be stated with certainty is that is already spread among numerous indigenous tribes throughout Amazon basin by the time ayahuasca came to

29640-420: The more outstanding Chimu and Moche . The Moche, who reached their apogee in the first millennium CE, were renowned for their irrigation system which fertilized their arid terrain, their sophisticated ceramic pottery, their lofty buildings, and clever metalwork. The Chimu were the great city builders of pre-Inca civilization; as a loose confederation of walled cities scattered along the coast of northern Peru,

29835-717: The most common and widespread gateway drugs . In the United States , Australia , and New Zealand , the general onset of drinking alcohol , tobacco smoking , cannabis smoking , and consumption of multiple drugs most frequently occurs during adolescence and in middle school and secondary school settings. Some scientific studies in the early 21st century found that a low to moderate level of alcohol consumption, particularly of red wine , might have substantial health benefits such as decreased risk of cardiovascular diseases , stroke , and cognitive decline . This claim has been disputed, specifically by British researcher David Nutt , professor of neuropsychopharmacology at

30030-483: The most commonly used method for drug use education; however, the success rates of these intervention programs are highly dependent on the commitment of participants and are limited in general. Alcohol is the most widely used recreational drug in Australia . 86.2% of Australians aged 12 years and over have consumed alcohol at least once in their lifetime, compared to 34.8% of Australians aged 12 years and over who have used cannabis at least once in their lifetime. From

30225-531: The most popular, and at the same time most stigmatized, use of psychedelics in Western culture has been associated with the search for direct religious experience , enhanced creativity , personal development, and "mind expansion". The use of psychedelic drugs was a major element of the 1960s counterculture , where it became associated with various social movements and a general atmosphere of rebellion and strife between generations. Inhalants are gases , aerosols , or solvents that are breathed in and absorbed through

30420-451: The mountain region, which covers almost a third of the country, rain is frequent in summer, and temperature and humidity diminish with altitude up to the frozen peaks of the Andes. The Peruvian Amazon , covering more than half of the total area of Peru, is characterized by heavy rainfall and high temperatures, except for its southernmost part, which has cold winters and seasonal rainfall. Because of its varied geography and climate, Peru has

30615-418: The naval campaign, the Peruvian navy repelled the Chilean attack until October 8, 1879, the day in which the naval combat of Angamos was fought, where the Chilean navy with its ships Cochrane, Blanco Encalada, Loa and Covadonga cornered the monitor Huáscar, the main ship of the Peruvian navy commanded by Admiral AP Miguel Grau, who died in the fray and since then became Peru's greatest hero. In 1879 Peru entered

30810-429: The next, both in potency and psychoactive effect, based mainly on the skill of the shaman or brewer, as well as other admixtures sometimes added and the intent of the ceremony. Natural variations in plant alkaloid content and profiles also affect the final concentration of alkaloids in the brew, and the physical act of cooking may also serve to modify the alkaloid profile of harmala alkaloids. The actual preparation of

31005-825: The next. The resulting brew may contain the powerful psychedelic drug dimethyltryptamine and monoamine oxidase inhibiting harmala alkaloids , which are necessary to make the DMT orally active by allowing it (DMT) to be processed by the liver . The traditional making of ayahuasca follows a ritual process that requires the user to pick the lower Chacruna leaf at sunrise, then say a prayer. The vine must be "cleaned meticulously with wooden spoons" and pounded "with wooden mallets until it's fibre." Brews can also be made with plants that do not contain DMT, Psychotria viridis being replaced by plants such as Justicia pectoralis , Brugmansia , or sacred tobacco, also known as mapacho ( Nicotiana rustica ), or sometimes left out with no replacement. This brew varies radically from one batch to

31200-442: The nitrate and guano territories of southern Peru and Bolivia. In the first stage of the war, the naval campaign, the Peruvian navy repelled the Chilean attack until October 8, 1879, the day in which the naval combat of Angamos was fought, where the Chilean navy with its ships Cochrane, Blanco Encalada, Loa and Covadonga cornered the monitor Huáscar , the main ship of the Peruvian navy, commanded by Admiral AP Miguel Grau, who died in

31395-411: The north to the southeast of the country, to the tropical Amazon basin rainforest in the east with the Amazon River . Peru has a population of over 32 million, and its capital and largest city is Lima . At 1,285,216 km (496,225 sq mi), Peru is the 19th largest country in the world , and the third largest in South America . Peruvian territory was home to several cultures during

31590-417: The opposition-controlled legislature and create an "exceptional emergency government." In response, Congress quickly held an emergency session on the same day, during which it voted 101–6 (with 10 abstentions) to remove Castillo from office and replace him with Vice President Dina Boluarte . She became the country's first female president. Castillo was arrested after trying to flee to the Mexican embassy and

31785-433: The port of Paracas under the command of General José de San Martín and Thomas Cochrane , who was serving in the Chilean Navy. Immediately on 26 October, they took control of the town of Pisco . San Martín settled in Huacho on 12 November, where he established his headquarters while Cochrane sailed north and blockaded the port of Callao in Lima. At the same time in the north, Guayaquil was occupied by rebel forces under

31980-460: The possession of almost all varieties of recreational drugs during the 20th century. The " War on Drugs " promoted by the United States, however, is now facing increasing criticism. Evidence is insufficient to tell if behavioral interventions help prevent recreational drug use in children. One in four adolescents has used an illegal drug, and one in ten of those adolescents who need addiction treatment get some type of care. School-based programs are

32175-426: The purposes for this is to steal one's energy and/or power, of which they believe every person has a limited stockpile. The shamans lead the ceremonial consumption of the ayahuasca beverage, in a rite that typically takes place over the entire night. During the ceremony, the effect of the drink lasts for hours. Prior to the ceremony, participants are instructed to abstain from spicy foods, red meat and sex. The ceremony

32370-504: The rate of transition from opioid, alcohol and sedative induced psychosis to schizophrenia was 12%, 10% and 9% respectively. Antihistamines (or "histamine antagonists") inhibit the release or action of histamine . "Antihistamine" can be used to describe any histamine antagonist, but the term is usually reserved for the classical antihistamines that act upon the H 1 histamine receptor . Antihistamines are used as treatment for allergies . Allergies are caused by an excessive response of

32565-407: The ritual and lead the choir". Another report produced in 1737 by the missionary Pablo Maroni , describes the use of a psychoactive liana called ayahuasca for divination in the Napo River , Ecuador: "For divination, they use a beverage, some of white datura flowers, which they also call Campana due to its shape, and others from a vine commonly known as Ayahuasca, both highly effective at numbing

32760-429: The ritual, like wine and bread are taken as being the body and blood of Jesus Christ during Christian Eucharist . Brabec de Mori called this “Christian camouflage” and suggested that rather than being a way for disguising the ayahuasca ritual, it suggests that practice evolved entirely within these contexts. Indeed, the colonial processes in Western Amazon are intrinsically related with the development of ayahuasca use in

32955-399: The same time as activities such as driving, swimming, operating machinery, or other activities that are unsafe without a sober state. Responsible drug use is emphasized as a primary prevention technique in harm-reduction drug policies. Harm-reduction policies were popularized in the late 1980s, although they began in the 1970s counter-culture, through cartoons explaining responsible drug use and

33150-492: The same time, however, civil rights were severely restricted and corruption was rampant throughout his regime. Odría was succeeded by Manuel Prado Ugarteche . However, widespread allegations of fraud prompted the Peruvian military to depose Prado and install a military junta, via a coup d'état led by Ricardo Pérez Godoy . Godoy ran a short transitional government and held new elections in 1963, which were won by Fernando Belaúnde Terry who assumed presidency until 1968. Belaúnde

33345-451: The senses and even at taking one's life if taken in excess. They also occasionally use these substances for the treatment of common illnesses, especially headaches. So, the person who wants to divine drinks the chosen substance with certain rituals, and while deprived of their senses from the mouth downwards, to prevent the strength of the plant from harming them, they remain in this state for many hours and sometimes even two or three days until

33540-402: The soul", "liana of the dead", and "spirit liana". In the cosmovision of its users, the ayahuasca is the vine that allows the spirit to wander detached from the body, entering the spiritual world, otherwise forbidden for the alive. Although ayahuasca is the most widely used term in Peru , Bolivia , Ecuador and Brazil, the brew is known by many names throughout northern South America: In

33735-423: The split of the viceroyalty and the creation of new viceroyalties of New Granada and Rio de la Plata at the expense of the territories that formed the Viceroyalty of Peru ; this reduced the power, prominence and importance of Lima as the viceroyal capital and shifted the lucrative Andean trade to Buenos Aires and Bogotá , while the fall of the mining and textile production accelerated the progressive decay of

33930-401: The streets completely without family ties". Inhalant users inhale vapor or aerosol propellant gases using plastic bags held over the mouth or by breathing from a solvent-soaked rag or an open container. The effects of inhalants range from an alcohol-like intoxication and intense euphoria to vivid hallucinations , depending on the substance and the dosage. Some inhalant users are injured due to

34125-456: The treatment of substance dependence, anxiety, and mood disorders. Thus, currently, despite continuing to be used in a traditional way, ayahuasca is also consumed recreationally worldwide, and is considered as a potential future treatment in modern medicine. Ayahuasca often causes nausea and vomiting and has a number of rarer more serious possible side effects including breathing difficulties and seizure; it may cause psychosis in those predisposed to

34320-404: The tree-line known as puna is home to bushes, cactus , drought-resistant plants such as ichu , and the largest species of bromeliad  – the spectacular Puya raimondii . Recreational drug use Recreational drug use is the use of one or more psychoactive drugs to induce an altered state of consciousness , either for pleasure or for some other casual purpose or pastime. When

34515-418: The use of ayahuasca, although these seem to be specific to the culture around Iquitos , Peru , a major center of ayahuasca tourism. Ayahuasca retreats or healing centers can also be found in the Sacred Valley of Peru, in areas such as Cusco and Urubamba , where similar dietary preparations can be observed. These retreats often employ members of the Shipibo-Konibo tribe, an indigenous community native to

34710-479: The use of psychoactive plants in northeastern Amazon dates back to 1500–2000 B.C. Anthropomorphic figurines, snuffing trays and pottery vessels, often adorned with mythological figures and sacred animals, offer a glimpse of the pre-Columbian culture regarding use of the sacred plants, their preparation and ritual consumption [citar naranjo 86]. Although several botanical specimens (like tobacco, coca and Anadenanthera spp. ) were identified among these objects, there

34905-506: The user's point of view there are many positive reasons to become part of the milieu of drug taking. The reasons for drug use appear to have as much to do with needs for friendship, pleasure and status as they do with unhappiness or poverty. Becoming a drug taker, to many people, is a positive affirmation rather than a negative experience". Anthropological research has suggested that humans "may have evolved to counter-exploit plant neurotoxins ". The ability to use botanical chemicals to serve

35100-457: The viceroyalty as well as expeditions towards the Amazon Basin as in the case of Spanish efforts to quell Amerindian resistance. The last Inca resistance was suppressed when the Spaniards annihilated the Neo-Inca State in Vilcabamba in 1572. The Indigenous population dramatically collapsed overwhelmingly due to epidemic diseases introduced by the Spanish as well as exploitation and socio-economic change. Viceroy Francisco de Toledo reorganized

35295-427: The war were followed by a period of stability under the Civilista Party , which lasted until the onset of the authoritarian regime of Augusto B. Leguía . The Great Depression caused the downfall of Leguía, renewed political turmoil, and the emergence of the American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRA). The rivalry between this organization and a coalition of the elite and the military defined Peruvian politics for

35490-411: The world as prescription medicines and as illicit substances . When these are used, effects may include anxiolysis (reduction of anxiety), analgesia (pain relief), sedation , somnolence , cognitive/memory impairment, dissociation , muscle relaxation, lowered blood pressure / heart rate , respiratory depression , anesthesia , and anticonvulsant effects. Depressants exert their effects through

35685-470: Was a heterogeneous mixture of Western Amazon ( mestizo shamanic practices and cauchero culture) and Andean elements (shaped by other migratory movements, like those originated from Cuzco through Urubamba Valley and from western Ecuador), influenced by Christian aspects derived from the Jesuit missions, as reflected by the mythology, rituals and moral codes related to vegetalista ayahuasca use. Although mestizo , vegetalista and indigenous ayahuasca use

35880-423: Was charged with the crime of rebellion. The Boluarte government proved unpopular as she allied herself with the right-wing Congress and the military, betraying her constituents. This resentment led to the 2022–2023 Peruvian political protests , which sought the removal of Boluarte and Congress, immediate general elections and the writing of a new constitution. Authorities responded to the protests violently, with

36075-440: Was dogged by insurgent groups, most notably Shining Path, which carried out attacks across the country throughout the 1980s and 1990s. Fujimori cracked down on the insurgents and was successful in largely quelling them by the late 1990s, but the fight was marred by atrocities committed by both the Peruvian security forces and the insurgents: the Barrios Altos massacre and La Cantuta massacre by Government paramilitary groups, and

36270-486: Was forged during this period, as Bolivarian projects for a Latin American Confederation floundered and a union with Bolivia proved ephemeral. Simón Bolívar launched his campaign from the north, liberating the Viceroyalty of New Granada in the Battles of Carabobo in 1821 and Pichincha a year later. In July 1822, Bolívar and San Martín gathered in the Guayaquil Conference . Bolívar was left in charge of fully liberating Peru while San Martín retired from politics after

36465-462: Was found that both telepathine and banisterine are the same substance, identical to a chemical already isolated from Peganum harmala and given the name Harmine . Researchers like Peter Gow and Brabec de Mori argue that ayahuasca use indeed developed alongside the Jesuit missions after the 17th century. By examining the ícaros (ayahuasca-related healing chants), they found that the chants are always sung in Quechua (a lingua franca along

36660-543: Was heavily indebted, and political in-fighting was again on the rise. By 1859, some 41,000 Peruvians had died in the constant civil wars that shook the country since 1829. Thanks to the money from the sale of guano, Peru began to modernize with different public works such as railways; the civil and military bureaucracy grew; The indigenous people stopped paying tribute and the slaves achieved their freedom; The migration policy of Germans, Austrians, Irish and Italians began. On April 5, 1879, Chile declared war on Peru, unleashing

36855-413: Was later established as Bolivia. During the early years of the Republic, endemic struggles for power between military leaders caused political instability. Once independence was proclaimed, San Martín assumed military-political command of the free departments of Peru, under the title of Protector, according to a decree given on August 3, 1821. 74 The works of the Protectorate contributed to the creation of

37050-527: Was part a longer tradition, these several configurations of mestizo vegetalismo were not isolated phenomena. In the end of the nineteenth century several messianic/ millennialist cults sparkled across semi-urban areas across the entire Amazon region, merging different elements of indigenous and mestizo folk culture with Catholicism, Spiritism and Protestantism . In this context, the use of ayahuasca will take form of urban, organized non-indigenous religions in outskirts of main cities of northwest of Brazil, (along

37245-418: Was probably more of a religious than a political phenomenon, with their religious center in Chavín de Huantar . After the decline of the Chavin culture around the beginning of the 1st century CE, a series of localized and specialized cultures rose and fell, both on the coast and in the highlands, during the next thousand years. On the coast, these included the civilizations of the Paracas , Nazca , Wari , and

37440-432: Was recognized for his commitment to the democratic process. On 3 October 1968 another coup d'état led by a group of officers led by General Juan Velasco Alvarado brought the army to power with the aim of applying a doctrine of "social progress and integral development", nationalist and reformist, influenced by the CEPAL theses on dependence and underdevelopment. Six days after the golpe, Velasco proceeded to nationalize

37635-434: Was sworn in as the new president of Peru after a narrow win in a tightly contested run-off election. That same year, Peru celebrated the bicentenary of independence . Castillo faced multiple impeachment votes during his presidency from the right-wing controlled Congress and on 7 December 2022, just hours before Congress was set to begin a third impeachment effort , Castillo tried to prevent this by attempting to dissolve

37830-431: Was to be owned by those who cultivated it, and large landowners were expropriated. The only large properties allowed were cooperatives. Between 1969 and 1976, 325,000 families received land from the state with an average size of 73.6 acres (29.8 hectares). The "revolutionary government" also planned massive investments in education, elevated the Quechua language – spoken by nearly half the population but hitherto despised by

38025-580: Was written by Fujimori and his supporters without opposition participation. In spite of human rights progress since the time of insurgency, many problems are still visible and show the continued marginalization of those who suffered through the violence of the Peruvian conflict. A caretaker government presided over by Valentín Paniagua took on the responsibility of conducting new presidential and congressional elections. Afterwards Alejandro Toledo became president in 2001 to 2006. On 28 July 2006, former president Alan García became President of Peru after winning

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