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139-504: Bosra is an ancient city mentioned in 14th century BC Egyptian sources. A key Nabatean city, it became the prosperous provincial capital of the Roman province of Arabia Petraea following the dissolvement of the Nabatean kingdom . With the advent of Christianity , Bostra flourished as a Metropolitan Archbishopric, under the jurisdiction of Eastern Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch and All

278-588: A cold semi-arid climate ( Köppen climate classification BSk ). Rainfall is higher in winter than in summer. The average annual temperature in Bosra is 16.4 °C (61.5 °F). About 247 mm (9.72 in) of precipitation falls annually. In the late 1990s, Bosra had an estimated population of 12,000. Its population increased to 19,683 according to the 2004 census by the Syria Central Bureau of Statistics . The population of its metropolitan area

417-516: A Crusader force to capture the city , however, his attempt was thwarted, as the Damascene army led by Mu'in ad-Din Unur managed to garrison into Bosra's citadel. A golden age of political and architectural activity in Bosra began during the reign of Ayyubid sultan al-Adil I (1196–1218). One of the first architectural developments in the city was the construction of eight large external towers in

556-504: A Nabataean perspective, Dhushara was probably associated with the heavens. However, one theory which connects Dushara with the forest gives a different idea of the god. The eagle was one of the symbols of Dushara. It was widely used in Hegra as a source of protection for the tombs against thievery. Nabataean inscriptions from Hegra suggest that Dushara was linked either with the sun, or with Mercury , with which Ruda , another Arabian god,

695-586: A bright red produced from madder . Blue textiles were also found. When it comes to the types of clothing and what can be surmised from these finds are that Nabatean men wore a tunic and a mantle both made of wool.The tunic in a Roman style (sleeveless) and with the mantle cut in a Greek style. This, as stated before, reflects a popular style rather than an ethnic style exclusive to the Nabateans. Nabataean women wore long tunics along with scarves and mantles. These scarves were loosely woven and sported fringes at

834-512: A fierce resistance movement. After defeating his Saudi foes, Muhammad Ali took over governance of Medina and although he did not formally declare independence , his governance took on more of a semi-autonomous style. Muhammad's sons, Towson and Ibrahim, alternated in the governance of the city. Ibrahim renovated the city's walls and the Prophet's Mosque. He established a grand provision distribution center (taqiyya) to distribute food and alms to

973-706: A flat mountain plateau at the tripoint of the three valleys ( wadis ) of Wadi al 'Aql , Wadi al 'Aqiq , and Wadi al Himdh , for this reason, there are large green areas amidst a dry deserted mountainous region. Under the Köppen climate classification , Medina falls in a hot desert climate region (BWh) . Summers are extremely hot and dry with daytime temperatures averaging about 43 °C (109 °F) with nights about 29 °C (84 °F). Temperatures above 45 °C (113 °F) are not unusual between June and September. Winters are milder, with temperatures from 8 °C (46 °F) at night to 25 °C (77 °F) in

1112-484: A general of Trajan , in 106 AD. According to John Malalas , it was called Bostra ( Ancient Greek : Βόστρα ) after Bostras, a Roman general who was sent into the country. Under the Roman Empire Bosra was renamed Nova Trajana Bostra and was the residence of the legio III Cyrenaica . It was made capital of the Roman province of Arabia Petraea . The city flourished and became a major metropolis at

1251-661: A large cavalry force, and occupying Dium . After this defeat, the Nabataean forces regrouped near Canatha in Syria, but were attacked and routed. Cleopatra's general, Athenion , sent Canathans to the aid of the Nabataeans, and this force crushed Herod's army, which then fled to Ormiza. One year later, Herod's army overran Nabataea. After an earthquake in Judaea, the Nabateans rebelled and invaded Judea, but Herod at once crossed

1390-655: A new floor added to the interior staircase tower. With the coming to power of the Burid dynasty in Damascus, the general Kumushtakin was allotted the entire Hauran plain as a fief by the atabeg Tughtakin . Under Kumushtakin, efforts to enhance the Muslim nature of the city increased with the construction of a number of Islamic edifices. Of these projects was the restoration of the Umari Mosque , which had been built by

1529-543: A new threat, the Hashemite Sharifate of Mecca in the south. Medina witnessed the longest siege in its history during and after World War I . The Sharif of Mecca, Husayn ibn Ali , first attacked Medina on 6 June 1916, in the middle of World War I . Four days later, Husayn held Medina in a bitter 3-year siege, during which the people faced food shortages, widespread disease and mass emigration . Fakhri Pasha , governor of Medina, tenaciously held on during

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1668-574: A number of hotels surrounding the Al-Masjid an-Nabawi , which unlike the Masjid Al-Ḥarām , is equipped with an underground parking. The old city's walls have been destroyed and replaced with the three ring roads that encircle Medina today, named in order of length, King Faisal Road, King Abdullah Road and King Khalid Road. Medina's ring roads generally see less traffic overall compared to the four ring roads of Mecca. An international airport, named

1807-663: A period of a few months for sanctuary in Yathrib, an event that transformed the religious and political landscape of the city completely; the longstanding enmity between the Aus and Khazraj tribes was dampened as many of the two Arab tribes and some local Jews embraced the new religion of Islam. Muhammad, linked to the Khazraj through his great-grandmother, was agreed on as the leader of the city. The natives of Yathrib who had converted to Islam of any background— pagan Arab or Jewish—were called

1946-750: A pilgrimage known as Ziyarat , although this is not obligatory. The original name of the city before the advent of Islam was Yathrib ( Arabic : يَثْرِب ), and it is referred to by this name in Chapter 33 ( Al-Aḥzāb , lit.   ' The Confederates ' ) of the Quran . It was renamed to Madīnat an-Nabī ( lit.   ' City of the Prophet ' or ' The Prophet's City ' ) after Muhammad's death and later to al-Madinah al-Munawwarah ( lit.   ' The Enlightened City ' ) before being simplified and shortened to its modern name, Madinah ( lit.   ' The City ' ), from which

2085-428: A population of 19,683 in the 2004 census. It is the administrative center of the nahiyah ("subdistrict") of Bosra which consisted of nine localities with a collective population of 33,839 in 2004. Bosra's inhabitants are predominantly Sunni Muslim , although the town has a small Shia Muslim community. Bosra was the first Nabatean city in the 2nd century BC. The Nabatean Kingdom was conquered by Cornelius Palma ,

2224-585: A probable candidate. However, John F. Healey states that: "The Nabataean origin of the Arabic script is now almost universally accepted". In surviving Nabataean documents, Aramaic legal terms are followed by their equivalents in Arabic. That could suggest that the Nabataeans used Arabic in their legal proceedings but recorded them in Aramaic. The name may be derived from the same root as Akkadian nabatu , to shine brightly. Although not as dry as at present,

2363-687: A prophet of the Quraysh would migrate in time to come, and it would be his home and resting-place." The Yemenite king thus did not destroy the town and converted to Judaism . He took the rabbis with him, and in Mecca , they reportedly recognized the Ka'bah as a temple built by Abraham and advised the king "to do what the people of Mecca did: to circumambulate the temple, to venerate and honor it, to shave his head and to behave with all humility until he had left its precincts." On approaching Yemen, tells Ibn Ishaq,

2502-560: A recipe for fermented Nabatean water bread ( khubz al-ma al-nabati ). The yeast-leavened bread is made with a high quality wheat flour called samidh that is finely milled and free of bran and is baked in a tandoor . Based on coins, inscriptions and non-Nabatean contemporary sources, Nabataean women seem to have had many legal rights. Inscriptions on tombs demonstrate the equality of property rights between man and woman and women's rights in matters of inheritance and also their ability to make decisions about their own property. That set

2641-575: A village during the Ottoman era, only to be revitalized in the 20th century with the construction of the Hijaz railway and due to growing archaeological interest, later prompting tourism -focused development by the Syrian government. Today, it is a major archaeological site and has been declared by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site . According to the Syria Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), Bosra had

2780-400: A village settled among the ruins. The 2nd century Roman theater , constructed probably under Trajan , is the only monument of this type with its upper gallery in the form of a covered portico which has been integrally preserved. It was fortified between 481 and 1231. Further, Nabatean and Roman monuments, Christian churches, mosques and Madrasahs are present within the half-ruined enceinte of

2919-512: Is also used to refer to the city in the popular folk song, " Ya Taybah! " (O Taybah!). The two names are combined in another name the city is known by, Taybat at-Tabah (the Kindest of the Kind). The city has also simply been called Al-Madinah (i.e. 'The City') in some ahadith . The names al-Madīnah an-Nabawiyyah ( ٱلْمَدِيْنَة ٱلنَّبَوِيَّة ) and Madīnat un-Nabī (both meaning "City of

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3058-528: Is considered to be the second- serving as the holiest and third-holiest cities respectively. Al-Masjid al-Nabawi ( lit.   ' The Prophet's Mosque ' ) is of exceptional importance in Islam and serves as burial site of the prophet Muhammad , by whom the mosque was built in 622 CE (first year of the Hijrah ). Observant Muslims usually visit his tomb, or rawdhah , at least once in their lifetime during

3197-578: Is in the hands of the present-day Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (1925–present). In addition to visiting for Ziyarah, tourists come to visit the other prominent mosques and landmarks in the city that hold religious significance such as Mount Uhud , Al-Baqi' cemetery and the Seven Mosques among others. The Saudi government has also carried out the destruction of several historical structures and archaeological sites , both in Medina and Mecca . Before

3336-479: Is possibly a collage of different agreements, oral rather than written, of different dates, and that it is not clear exactly when they were made. Other scholars, however, both Western and Muslim, argue that the text of the agreement—whether a single document originally or several—is possibly one of the oldest Islamic texts we possess. In Yemenite Jewish sources, another treaty was drafted between Muhammad and his Jewish subjects, known as Kitāb Dimmat al-Nabi , written in

3475-517: Is the capital of Medina Province (formerly known as Yathrib) in the Hejaz region of western Saudi Arabia . It is one of the oldest and most important places in Islamic history. One of the most sacred cities in Islam , the population as of 2022 is 1,411,599, making it the fourth-most populous city in the country . Around 58.5% of the population are Saudi citizens and 41.5% are foreigners. Located at

3614-628: The Ansar ("the Patrons" or "the Helpers"). According to Ibn Ishaq , all parties in the area agreed to the Constitution of Medina , which committed all parties to mutual cooperation under the leadership of Muhammad. The nature of this document as recorded by Ibn Ishaq and transmitted by Ibn Hisham is the subject of dispute among modern Western historians, many of whom maintain that this "treaty"

3753-654: The Sahabah —gained huge influence. Medina is home to three prominent mosques , namely al-Masjid an-Nabawi , Quba Mosque , and Masjid al-Qiblatayn , with the Quba Mosque being the oldest in Islam. A larger portion of the Qur'an was revealed in Medina in contrast to the earlier Meccan surahs . Much like most of the Hejaz , Medina has seen numerous exchanges of power within its comparatively short existence. The region has been controlled by Jewish-Arabian tribes (up until

3892-419: The 1914 Ottoman population statistics , the district of Busra had a total population of 26.355, consisting of 22.485 Muslims, 3.096 Orthodox Greeks , 594 Catholic Greeks and 180 Protestants . Today, Bosra is a major archaeological site, containing ruins from Roman , Byzantine , and Muslim times, its main feature being the well preserved Roman theatre. Every year there is a national music festival hosted in

4031-673: The English-language spelling of "Medina" is derived. Saudi road signage uses Madinah and al-Madinah al-Munawwarah interchangeably. The city existed for over 1,500 years before Muhammad's migration from Mecca, known as the Hijrah . Medina was the capital of a rapidly increasing Muslim caliphate under Muhammad's leadership , serving as its base of operations and as the cradle of Islam, where Muhammad's ummah ( lit.   ' nation ' )—composed of Medinan citizens ( Ansar ) as well as those who immigrated with Muhammad ( Muhajirun ), who were collectively known as

4170-706: The Nafud desert and the Red Sea . Located approximately 720 km (450 mi) northwest of Riyadh which is at the center of the Saudi desert, the city is 250 km (160 mi) away from the west coast of Saudi Arabia and at an elevation of approximately 620 m (2,030 ft) above sea level . It lies at 39º36' longitude east and 24º28' latitude north. It covers an area of about 589 km (227  sq mi ). The city has been divided into twelve districts, 7 of which have been categorized as urban districts, while

4309-797: The Prince Mohammed Bin Abdulaziz International Airport , now serves the city and is located on Highway 340, known locally as the Old Qassim Road. The city now sits at the crossroads of two major Saudi Arabian highways, Highway 60, known as the Qassim–Medina Highway, and Highway 15 which connects the city to Mecca in the south and onward and Tabuk in the north and onward, known as the Al Hijrah Highway or Al Hijrah Road, after Muhammad's journey. The old Ottoman railway system

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4448-554: The Qasr al Bint i temple was dedicated to Dushara then the other major temple must have been al-Uzzas. This is just a theory however, based on conjecture, and it can only be said that the temple is likely dedicated to the supreme goddess figure of the Nabateans, but the exact identity of this goddess is uncertain. Excavated from The Temple of the Winged Lions was the "Eye Baetyl " or "Eye-Idol". Numerous Nabatean bas-relief busts of

4587-665: The Qur'an . and is thus known to have been the name of the city up to the Battle of the Trench . According to Islamic tradition, Muhammad later forbade calling the city by this name. Sometime after the battle, Muhammad renamed the city Taybah (the Kind or the Good) ( Arabic pronunciation: [ˈtˤajba] ; طَيْبَة ) and Tabah ( Arabic : طَابَة ) which is of similar meaning. This name

4726-545: The Qurayshi army with an estimated 1,000 troops, but just as the army approached the battlefield, 300 men under 'Abd Allah ibn Ubayy withdrew, dealing a severe blow to the Muslim army's morale . Muhammad continued marching with his now 700-strong force and ordered a group of 50 archers to climb a small hill, now called Jabal ar-Rummaah (The Archers' Hill) to keep an eye on the Meccan's cavalry and to provide protection to

4865-559: The Rashidun Caliphate under general Khalid ibn Walid captured the city from the Byzantines in the Battle of Bosra in 634. Throughout Islamic rule, Bosra would serve as the southernmost outpost of Damascus, its prosperity being mostly contingent on the political importance of that city. Bosra held additional significance as a center of the pilgrim caravan between Damascus and the Muslim holy cities of Mecca and Medina ,

5004-714: The Seleucids , marrying a female member of the Nabatean royal family reinforced a ruler's position or one whose claim to the throne was not as strong as his wife's. The Nabatean royal house like the Ptolemaic and Seleucids later adopted sibling marriage. Not much is known for certain about the fashions of ancient Nabateans and before the Hellenization and Romanization of the region but based on extant clothes and textiles found in graves and tombs on Nabatean territory,

5143-703: The Siege of Medina from 10 June 1916 and refused to surrender and held on another 72 days after the Armistice of Moudros , until he was arrested by his own men and the city was taken over by the Sharifate on 10 January 1919. Husayn largely won the war due to his alliance with the British . In anticipation of the plunder and destruction to follow, Fakhri Pasha secretly dispatched the Sacred Relics of Muhammad to

5282-522: The Young Turks period and in the Syrian parliament during the French Mandate period. As of the late 1990s, members of the al-Miqdad clan occupied the positions of mayor, the chief imam of the main al-Omari Mosque , the chief of the town's bureau of antiquities as well as manager of Bosra's carpet workshop and the owner of the principal coffeehouse. While their members traditionally resided in

5421-419: The main theatre . Significant social and economic changes have affected Bosra since the end of the French Mandate in 1946. While up until the 1950s the shopkeepers of Bosra were from Damascus , since then most shop owners are residents of the town. In the late Ottoman era and the French Mandate period, the agricultural relationship was between the small landowner and the sharecroppers, since agrarian reforms in

5560-464: The 3rd century, states that in Dūmah , a boy was sacrificed annually and was buried underneath an altar. Some scholars have extrapolated this practice to the rest of the Nabataeans, but this view is contested due to the lack of evidence. The Nabataeans used to represent their gods as featureless pillars or blocks . Their most common monuments to the gods, commonly known as "god blocks", involved cutting away

5699-706: The 3rd year of the Hijra (625), and which gave express liberty to Jews living in Arabia to observe the Sabbath and to grow-out their side-locks. In return, they were to pay the jizya annually for protection by their patrons, while the Muslims would pay the Zakat tax. In the year 625, Abu Sufyan ibn Harb , a senior chieftain of Mecca who later converted to Islam, led a Meccan force against Medina. Muhammad marched out to meet

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5838-794: The 9th century BCE. By the fourth century, Arab tribes began to encroach from Yemen , and there were three prominent Jewish tribes that inhabited the city around the time of Muhammad: the Banu Qaynuqa , the Banu Qurayza , and Banu Nadir . Ibn Khordadbeh later reported that during the Persian Empire 's domination in Hejaz, the Banu Qurayza served as tax collectors for the Persian Shah . The situation changed after

5977-723: The Abbasids. From 974 to 1151, the Sharifate of Medina was in a liaison with the Fatimids, even though the political stand between the two remained turbulent and did not exceed the normal allegiance. From 1151 onwards, Medina paid allegiance to the Zengids , and the Emir Nuruddin Zengi took care of the roads used by pilgrims and funded the fixing of the water sources and streets. When he visited Medina in 1162, he ordered

6116-473: The Banu Qaynuqa sided with the Khazraj. They fought a total of four wars. Their last and bloodiest known battle was the Battle of Bu'ath , fought a few years prior to the arrival of Muhammad. The outcome of the battle was inconclusive, and the feud continued. 'Abd Allah ibn Ubayy , one Khazraj chief, had refused to take part in the battle, which earned him a reputation for equity and peacefulness. He

6255-625: The Battle of the Trench and the Battle of the Confederates. After a month-long siege and various skirmishes, the Meccans withdrew again due to the harsh winter. During the siege, Abu Sufyan contacted the Jewish tribe of Banu Qurayza and formed an agreement with them, to attack the Muslim defenders and effectively encircle the defenders. It was however discovered by the Muslims and thwarted. This

6394-442: The Diadochi ; at that time Hieronymus of Cardia , a Seleucid officer, mentioned the Nabataeans in a battle report. About 50 BC, the Greek historian Diodorus Siculus cited Hieronymus in his report, and added the following: "Just as the Seleucids had tried to subdue them, so the Romans made several attempts to get their hands on that lucrative trade." They wrote a letter to Antigonus in Syriac letters, and Aramaic continued as

6533-406: The East . It also became a Latin Catholic titular see and the episcopal see of a Melkite Catholic Archeparchy. Throughout its history under various Muslim rulers, the city maintained its strategic importance as Syria's southern gateway. It attracted attention from Damascus ' rulers and was governed by various lords, serving as a hub for Islamic learning and endowments. However, it declined into

6672-399: The Hauran province. After the end of the Umayyad era in 750, major activity in Bosra ceased for around 300 years until the late 11th-century. In the last years of Fatimid rule, in 1068, a number of building projects were commissioned. With the advent of Seljuk rule in 1076, increasing focus was paid to Bosra's defenses. In particular, the Roman theater was transformed into a fortress, with

6811-403: The Islamic pilgrimage ( Hajj ), Muhammad returned to Medina, which remained for some years the most important city of Islam and the base of operations of the early Rashidun Caliphate . The city is presumed to have been renamed Madinat al-Nabi ("City of the Prophet" in Arabic ) in honor of Muhammad's prophethood and the city being the site of his burial . Alternatively, Lucien Gubbay suggests

6950-441: The Jordan river to Philadelphia (modern Amman ) and both sides set up camp. The Nabataeans under Elthemus refused to give battle, so Herod forced the issue when he attacked their camp . A confused mass of Nabataeans gave battle but were defeated. Once they had retreated to their defences, Herod laid siege to the camp and over time some of the defenders surrendered. The remaining Nabataean forces offered 500 talents for peace, but this

7089-432: The Madanis pledged alliance to Saud bin Abdulaziz , founder of the First Saudi state in 1805, who quickly took over the city. In 1811, Muhammad Ali of Egypt , Ottoman commander and Wali of Egypt, commanded two armies under each of his two sons to seize Medina, the first one, under the elder Towson Pasha, failed to take Medina. But the second one, a larger army under the command of Ibrahim Pasha , succeeded after battling

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7228-400: The Nabataean Arabs , and was the official god of the Nabataean Kingdom who enjoyed special royal patronage. His official position is reflected in multiple inscriptions that render him as "The god of our lord" (The King). The name Dushara is from the Arabic "Dhu ash-Shara": which simply means "the one of Shara", a mountain range south-east of Petra also known as Mount Seir . Therefore, from

7367-426: The Nabataean towns of Moab and Gilead and imposed a tribute of an unknown amount. Obodas I knew that Alexander would attack, so was able to ambush Alexander's forces near Gaulane destroying the Judean army (90 BC). The Roman military was not very successful in their campaigns against the Nabataeans. In 62 BC, Marcus Aemilius Scaurus accepted a bribe of 300 talents to lift the siege of Petra, partly because of

7506-413: The Nabataeans had already some trace of Aramaic culture when they first appear in history. Some of the authors of Safaitic inscriptions identified themselves as Nabataeans. The extent of Nabataean trade resulted in cross-cultural influences that reached as far as the Red Sea coast of southern Arabia. The major gods worshiped at Petra were notably Dushara and Al-‘Uzzá . Dushara was the supreme deity of

7645-405: The Nabataeans' trade routes and the origins of their goods were regarded as trade secrets, and disguised in tales that should have strained outsiders' credulity. Diodorus Siculus (book II) described them as a strong tribe of some 10,000 warriors, preeminent among the nomads of Arabia, eschewing agriculture, fixed houses, and the use of wine, but adding to pastoral pursuits a profitable trade with

7784-470: The Nabateans apart from the attitudes on a woman's role in society by their neighbours in the region. Women also participated in religious activities, and had a right to visit the temples and make sacrifices. Archeological evidence strongly suggest that the Nabataean women had a role in the social and political life by the first century AD, which is shown by the fact that Nabatean queens were depicted on coins, both independentely and together with their spouse

7923-417: The Northern Syrian goddess Atargatis were identified by Nelson Glueck at Khirbet et-Tannû . Atargatis was amalgamated into the worship of Al-‘Uzzá. However, when the Romans annexed the Nabataean Kingdom, Dushara still had an important role despite losing his former royal privilege. The greatest testimony to the status of the god after the fall of the Nabataean Kingdom was during the 1000th anniversary of

8062-462: The Ottoman capital, Istanbul . As of 1920, the British described Medina as "much more self-supporting than Mecca." After the Great War, the Sharif of Mecca, Sayyid Hussein bin Ali was proclaimed King of an independent Hejaz . Soon after, the people of Medina secretly entered an agreement with Ibn Saud in 1924, and his son, Prince Mohammed bin Abdulaziz conquered Medina as part of the Saudi conquest of Hejaz on 5 December 1925 which gave way to

8201-476: The Prophet" or "The Prophet's City") and al-Madīnat ul-Munawwarah ("The Enlightened City") are all derivatives of this word. This is also the most commonly accepted modern name of the city, used in official documents and road signage, along with Madinah. Medina is home to several distinguished sites and landmarks, most of which are mosques and hold historic significance. These include the three aforementioned mosques, Masjid al-Fath (also known as Masjid al-Khandaq),

8340-406: The Roman theater-turned-fortress. The project began in 1202 and were completed in 1253, towards the end of the Ayyubid period. The two northern corner towers alone occupied more space than the remaining six. After al-Adil's death in 1218, his son as-Salih Ismail inherited the fief of Bosra who resided in its newly fortified citadel. During Ismail's rule, Bosra gained political prominence. Ismail used

8479-421: The Roman-allied Thamud tribe and were built to describe the temple they were inscribed in and to recognize the authority of the emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus . By the 3rd century AD, the Nabataeans had stopped writing in Aramaic and begun writing in Greek instead. By the 5th century AD, they had converted to Christianity. The new Arab invaders, who soon pressed forward into their seats , found

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8618-421: The Saudi era. The rebuilt city is centered on the vastly expanded al-Masjid an-Nabawi . Saudi Arabia upholds Wahhabism as its religious ideology, which is hostile to any reverence given to historical or religious places of significance for fear that it may give rise to shirk (idolatry). As a consequence, under Saudi rule, Medina has suffered from considerable destruction of its physical heritage including

8757-411: The Seven Mosques, the Baqi' Cemetery where the graves of many famous Islamic figures are presumed to be located; directly to the southeast of the Prophet's Mosque, the Uhud mountain , site of the eponymous Battle of Uhud and the King Fahd Glorious Qur'an Printing Complex where most modern Qur'anic Mus'hafs are printed. Medina has been inhabited at least 1500 years before the Hijra, or approximately

8896-459: The Umayyads in 721. Another mosque commissioned was the smaller al-Khidr Mosque built at the northwestern part of the city, which was established under Kumushtakin, in 1134. Kumushtakin also had a madrasa constructed alongside the Muslim shrine honoring the mabrak an-naqa ("camel's knees"), which marked the imprints of the camel the prophet Muhammad rode on when he entered Bosra in the early 7th-century. In 1147, King Baldwin III of Jerusalem led

9035-539: The accumulation of loess in wadis and create an infrastructure for agricultural activity. This theory has also been explored by E. Mazor, of the Weizmann Institute of Science . Medina Medina , officially Al-Madinah al-Munawwarah ( Arabic : المدينة المنورة , romanized :  al-Madīnah al-Munawwarah , lit.   'The Luminous City', Hejazi Arabic pronunciation: [al.maˈdiːna al.mʊˈnawːara] ) and also commonly simplified as Madīnah or Madinah ( المدينة , al-Madina ),

9174-422: The advent of Islam, the city was known as Yathrib ( Arabic : يَثْرِب , romanized :  Yaṯrib ; pronounced [ˈjaθrɪb] ). The word Yathrib appears in an inscription found in Harran, belonging to the Babylonian king Nabonidus (6th century BCE) and is well attested in several texts in the subsequent centuries. The name has also been recorded in Āyah (verse) 13 of Surah (chapter) 33 of

9313-411: The allegiance of the local 'Iraqis. This is considered to be the beginning of the Umayyad caliphate. Mu'awiyah's governors took special care of Medina and dug the 'Ayn az-Zarqa'a ("Blue Spring") spring along with a project that included the creation of underground ducts for the purposes of irrigation. Dams were built in some of the wadis and the subsequent agricultural boom led to the strengthening of

9452-413: The ancient Roman governor of Bosra, although other townspeople believe they are of Crusader origins. Regarding land ownership, the Hamd clan owns around 1,000 hectares in the town while the al-Miqdad clan owns roughly 12,000. The latter's members were historically influential in the Hauran region and beyond, having had one of their own in the Ottoman parliament of Abdul Hamid II in Constantinople during

9591-428: The ancient world. Described as fiercely independent by contemporary Greco-Roman accounts, the Nabataeans were annexed into the Roman Empire by Emperor Trajan in 106 AD. Nabataeans' individual culture, easily identified by their characteristic finely potted painted ceramics, was adopted into the larger Greco-Roman culture . They converted to Christianity during the Later Roman Era . They have been described as one of

9730-422: The area occupied by the Nabataeans was still a desert and required special techniques for agriculture. One was to contour an area of land into a shallow funnel and to plant a single fruit tree in the middle. Before the ' rainy season ', which could easily consist of only one or two rain events, the area around the tree was broken up. When the rain came, all the water that collected in the funnel would flow down toward

9869-414: The area of Nabataean culture, which extended as far north as the north end of the Dead Sea , and testify to widespread literacy; but except for a few letters no Nabataean literature has survived, nor was any noted in antiquity. Onomastic analysis has suggested that Nabataean culture may have had multiple influences. Classical references to the Nabataeans begin with Diodorus Siculus . They suggest that

10008-537: The arrival of two new Arab tribes, the 'Aws or Banu 'Aws and the Khazraj , also known as the Banu Khazraj. At first, these tribes were allied with the Jewish tribes who ruled the region, but they later revolted and became independent. Toward the end of the 5th century, the Jewish rulers lost control of the city to the two Arab tribes. Most modern historians accept the claim of the Muslim sources that after

10147-490: The bottom. The upper class of Nabataean society, what can be seen on coins, show an even stronger Greek and Roman influence. The kings are depicted clean-shaven with long curled hair while queens are depicted wearing headcoverings with curled hair and long tunics and highnecked garments. Purple cloth seems to have been associated with the king based on Strabo's account of Nabatean men going outside "without tunics girdles about their loins, and with slippers on their feet – even

10286-557: The city and constructed a strong castle armed by an Ottoman battalion to protect the city. This is also the period in which many of the Prophet's Mosque 's modern features were built even though it was not painted green yet. These suburbs also had walls and gates. The Ottoman sultans took a keen interest in the Prophet's Mosque and redesigned it over and over to suit their preferences. As the Ottomans' hold over their domains broke loose,

10425-584: The city as his base when he claimed the sultanate in Damascus on two separate occasions, reigning between 1237–38 and 1239–45. In 1596 Bosra appeared in the Ottoman tax registers as Nafs Busra , being part of the nahiyah of Bani Nasiyya in the Qada of Hauran . It had a Muslim population consisting of 75 households and 27 bachelors, and a Christian population of 15 households and 8 bachelors. Taxes were paid on wheat , barley , summer crops, fruit- or other trees, goats and/or beehives and water mill. According to

10564-545: The city's sacred core of the old city is off limits to non-Muslims, the Haram area of Medina itself is much smaller than that of Mecca and Medina has recently seen an increase in the number of Muslim and Non-Muslim expatriate workers of other nationalities, most commonly South Asian peoples and people from other countries in the Gulf Cooperation Council . Almost all of the historic city has been demolished in

10703-471: The city. The striking iconic Green Dome also found its beginnings as a cupola built under Mamluk Sultan al-Mansur Qalawun as-Salihi in 1297. In 1517, the first Ottoman period began with Selim I 's conquest of Mamluk Egypt. This added Medina to their territory and they continued the tradition of showering Medina with money and aid. In 1532, Suleiman the Magnificent built a secure fortress around

10842-548: The city. The banks of Wadi al-'Aqiq were now lush with greenery. This period of peace and prosperity coincided with the rule of 'Umar ibn Abdulaziz , who many consider to be the fifth of the Rashidun . Abdulbasit A. Badr, in his book, Madinah, The Enlightened City: History and Landmarks , divides this period into three distinct phases: Badr describes the period between 749 and 974 as a push-and-pull between peace and political turmoil, while Medina continued to pay allegiance to

10981-532: The city. The structure of the cathedral, a central plan with eastern apses flanked by 2 sacristies, exerted a decisive influence on the evolution of Christian architectural forms, and to a certain extent on Islamic style. Al-Omari Mosque of Bosra is one of the oldest surviving mosques in Islamic history. Close by are the Kharaba Bridge and the Gemarrin Bridge , both Roman bridges . Bosra has

11120-515: The clans and between the Sunni and Shia communities having increased significantly. Nabataeans The Nabataeans or Nabateans ( / ˌ n æ b ə ˈ t iː ən z / ; Nabataean Aramaic : 𐢕𐢃𐢋𐢈 ‎, NBṬW , vocalized as Nabāṭū ) were an ancient Arab people who inhabited northern Arabia and the southern Levant . Their settlements—most prominently the assumed capital city of Raqmu (present-day Petra , Jordan ) —gave

11259-400: The clothing worn by the Nabateans during the first and second century were not unlike their neighbour Judaeans. Its hard to say with any certainty what the Nabateans wore in more ancient times since their art before this period was non-figurative. That is based on finds of similar clothing and textiles being found in both places. Among the most common colors were yellow made from saffron and

11398-615: The construction of a new wall that encompassed the new urban areas outside the old city wall. Zengi was succeeded by Saladin , founder of the Ayyubid dynasty , who supported Qasim ibn Muhanna , the Sharif of Medina, and greatly funded the growth of the city while slashing taxes paid by the pilgrims. He also funded the Bedouins who lived on the routes used by pilgrims to protect them on their journeys. The later Abbasids also continued to fund

11537-565: The core of the Medina Province in the western reaches of the country, the city is distributed over 589 km (227 sq mi), of which 293 km (113 sq mi) constitutes the city's urban area, while the rest is occupied by the Hejaz Mountains , empty valleys, agricultural spaces and older dormant volcanoes . Medina is generally considered to be the "cradle of Islamic culture and civilization". The city

11676-565: The curse of God, the angels, and all the people." According to Islamic tradition , a prayer in The Prophet's Mosque equates to 1,000 prayers in any other mosque except the Masjid al-Haram where one prayer equates to 100,000 prayers in any other mosque. The mosque was initially just an open space for prayer with a raised and covered minbar (pulpit) built within seven months and was located beside Muhammad's rawdhah (residence, although

11815-399: The day. There is very little rainfall, which falls almost entirely between November and May. In summer, the wind is north-western, while in the spring and winters, is south-western. Medina's importance as a religious site derives from the presence of two mosques, Masjid Quba'a and al-Masjid an-Nabawi . Both of these mosques were built by Muhammad himself. Islamic scriptures emphasize

11954-450: The desert with a number of modern marvels, including a radio communication station , a power plant for the Prophet's Mosque and its immediate vicinity, a telegraph line between Medina and Constantinople , and the Hejaz railway which ran from Damascus to Medina with a planned extension to Mecca. Within one decade, the population of the city multiplied by leaps and bounds and reached 80,000. Around this time, Medina started falling prey to

12093-580: The destinations of the annual hajj pilgrimage. Early Islamic rule did not alter the general architecture of Bosra, with only two structures dating to the Umayyad era (721 and 746) when Damascus was the capital of the Caliphate. As Bosra's inhabitants gradually converted to Islam the Roman-era holy sites were utilized for Muslim practices. In the 9th-century Ya'qubi wrote that Bosra was the capital of

12232-558: The difficult terrain and the fact that he had run out of supplies. Hyrcanus II , who was a friend of Aretas, was despatched by Scaurus to the King to buy peace. In so obtaining peace, King Aretas retained all his possessions, including Damascus, and became a Roman vassal. In 32 BC, during King Malichus I 's reign, Herod the Great , with the support of Cleopatra , started a war against Nabataea. The war began with Herod plundering Nabataea with

12371-688: The dominant religion in Bosra ( Βόσρα in Greek-Byzantine ). The city became a Metropolitan archbishop 's seat (see below) and a large cathedral was built in the 6th century. Bosra was conquered by the Sasanian Persians in the early 7th century but was recaptured during the Byzantine reconquest. Bosra played an important part in the early life of Muhammad , as described in the entry for the Christian monk Bahira . The forces of

12510-679: The eastern quarter of old Bosra, they are currently prevalent throughout the town. Bosra also has a small Shia Muslim community of some fifty families. According to Palestinian American historian Hanna Batatu , the Shia inhabitants of Bosra were "relatively recent arrivals," and immigrated to the town from the city of Nabatieh in South Lebanon . Most of the working members of the Shia community are artisans or laborers. Batatu also asserts that social changes in Bosra since Syrian independence have led to tribal diffusion, with intermarriage between

12649-631: The economy. Following a period of unrest during the Second Fitna in 679, Husayn ibn 'Ali was martyred at Karbala and Yazid assumed unchecked control for the next three years. In 682, Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr declared himself Caliph of Mecca and the people of Medina swore allegiance to him. This led to an eight-year-long period of economic distress for the city. In 692, the Umayyads regained power and Medina experienced its second period of huge economic growth. Trade improved and more people moved into

12788-441: The enigmatic phenomenon of "Tuleilat el-Anab". Evenari showed that the runoff rainwater collection systems concentrate water from an area that is five times larger than the area in which the water actually drains. Another study was conducted by Y. Kedar in 1957, which also focused on the mechanism of the agriculture systems, but he studied soil management , and claimed that the ancient agriculture systems were intended to increase

12927-521: The expenses of the city. While Medina was formally allied with the Abbasids during this period, they maintained closer relations with the Zengids and Ayyubids. The historic city formed an oval, surrounded by a strong wall, 30 to 40 ft (9.1 to 12.2 m) high, dating from this period, and was flanked with towers. Of its four gates, the Bab al-Salam ("The Gate of Peace"), was remarked for its beauty. Beyond

13066-770: The fifth century CE), the ʽAws and Khazraj (up until Muhammad's arrival), Muhammad and the Rashidun (622–660), the Umayyads (660–749), the Abbasids (749–1254), the Mamluks of Egypt (1254–1517), the Ottomans (1517–1805), the First Saudi State (1805–1811), Muhammad Ali of Egypt (1811–1840), the Ottomans for a second time (1840–1918), the Sharifate of Mecca under the Hashemites (1918–1925) and finally

13205-593: The first Hasmoneans in their struggles against the Seleucid monarchs. They then became rivals of the Judaean dynasty, and a chief element in the disorders that invited Pompey 's intervention in Judea . According to popular historian Paul Johnson , many Nabataeans were forcefully converted to Judaism by Hasmonean king Alexander Jannaeus . It was this king who, after putting down a local rebellion, invaded and occupied

13344-549: The founding of Rome where Dushara was celebrated in Bostra by striking coins in his name, Actia Dusaria (linking the god with Augustus victory at Actium ). He was venerated in his Arabian name with a Greek fashion in the reign of an Arabian emperor, Philip . Other gods worshipped in Nabatea during this period were Isis , Balshamin and Obodat Sacrifices of animals were common, and Porphyry 's De Abstenentia , written in

13483-514: The fourth caliph, changed the capital of the caliphate from Medina to Kufa in Iraq for being in a more strategic location. Since then, Medina's importance dwindled, becoming more a place of religious importance than of political power. Medina witnessed little to no economic growth during and after Ali's reign. After al-Hasan , the son of 'Ali, ceded power to Mu'awiyah I , son of Abu Sufyan , Mu'awiyah marched into Kufa , Ali's capital, and received

13622-462: The fruit tree and sink into the ground. The ground, which was largely loess , would seal up when it got wet and retain the water. In the mid-1950s, a research team headed by Michael Evenari set up a research station near Avdat (Evenari, Shenan and Tadmor 1971). He focused on the relevance of runoff rainwater management in explaining the mechanism of the ancient agricultural features, such as terraced wadis, channels for collecting runoff rainwater, and

13761-533: The hill, Khalid ibn al-Walid commanded his unit to ambush the hill and his cavalry unit pursued the descending archers were systematically slain by being caught in the plain ahead of the hill and the frontline, watched upon by their desperate comrades who stayed behind up in the hill who were shooting arrows to thwart the raiders, but with little to no effect. However, the Meccans did not capitalize on their advantage by invading Medina and returned to Mecca. The Madanis (people of Medina) suffered heavy losses, and Muhammad

13900-467: The hills, especially noticeable to the south of the city, are volcanic ash which dates to the first geological period of the Paleozoic Era. It is surrounded by a number of famous mountains , most notably Jabal Al-Hujjaj (The Pilgrims' Mountain) to the west, Sal'aa Mountain to the north-west, Jabal al-'Ir or Caravan Mountain to the south and Mount Uhud to the north. The city is situated on

14039-600: The juncture of several trade routes , in particular the Via Traiana Nova , a Roman road that connected Damascus to the Red Sea . It became an important centre for food production and during the reign of Emperor Philip the Arab Bosra began to mint its own coins. The two Councils of Arabia were held at Bosra in 246 and 247 AD. By the Byzantine period, which began in the 5th century, Christianity became

14178-453: The king. The assumption to be made from this were that they ruled together and that the Nabatean queens and other female members were given or already had political importance and status. One can surmise other Nabatean women also benefited from this by extension. Though admittedly Nabatean culture seems to have favored male succession rather than female or equal succession, it seems plausible that like their neighbouring Ptolemaic dynasty and

14317-580: The kings, though in their case the colour is purple." Historians such as Irfan Shahîd , Warwick Ball , Robert G. Hoyland , Michael C. A. Macdonald , and others believe Nabataeans spoke Arabic as their native language. John F. Healy states that "Nabataeans normally spoke a form of Arabic, while, like the Persians etc., they used Aramaic for formal purposes and especially for inscriptions." Proper names on their inscriptions suggest that they were ethnically Arabs who had come under Aramaic influence, and

14456-571: The language of their coins and inscriptions when the tribe grew into a kingdom and profited by the decay of the Seleucids to extend its borders northward over the more fertile country east of the Jordan River . They occupied Hauran , and in about 85 BC their king Aretas III became lord of Damascus and Coele-Syria . Petra was rapidly built in the 1st century BC, and developed a population estimated at 20,000. The Nabataeans were allies of

14595-537: The last Yemenite king of the Himyarite Kingdom and the residents of Yathrib. When the king was passing by the oasis, the residents killed his son, and the Yemenite ruler threatened to exterminate the people and cut down the palms . According to Ibn Ishaq , he was stopped from doing so by two rabbis from the Banu Qurayza tribe, who implored the king to spare the oasis because it was the place "to which

14734-447: The late 1950s and 1960s, the relevant relationship has been between the landowners and the wage laborers. Many of its residents have found work in the Gulf Cooperation Council states, sending proceeds to their relatives in Bosra. Social changes together with increased access to education have largely diminished the traditional clan life according to historian Hanna Batatu . During the presidency of Hafez al-Assad (1970–2000), Bosra and

14873-469: The lava turned northward. During Mamluk reign, the Masjid an-Nabawi caught fire twice. Once in 1256, when the storage caught fire, burning the entire mosque, and the other time in 1481, when the masjid was struck by lightning . This period also coincided with an increase in scholarly activity in Medina, with scholars such as Ibn Farhun , Al-Hafiz Zain al-Din al-'Iraqi , Al Sakhawi and others settling in

15012-408: The loss of many buildings over a thousand years old. Critics have described this as "Saudi vandalism" and claim that 300 historic sites linked to Muhammad, his family or companions have been lost in Medina and Mecca over the last 50 years. The most famous example of this is the demolition of al-Baqi . Medina is located in the Hejaz region which is a 200 km (120 mi) wide strip between

15151-410: The main road running through the town. On 13 November 2012, fierce fighting was reported in the east side of the town. By January 2013, after 22 months of conflict amid the ongoing Syrian Civil War , some refugees fleeing Bosra spoke of ever-escalating violence with many bodies being left in the streets during the violence. On 15 January 2013, it was reported that the citadel was used by the army to shell

15290-455: The most gifted peoples of the ancient world and one of the "most unjustly forgotten". The Nabataeans were an Arab tribe who had come under significant Babylonian - Aramaean influence. The first mention of the Nabataeans dates from 312/311 BC, when they were attacked at Sela or perhaps at Petra without success by Antigonus I 's officer Athenaeus in the course of the Third War of

15429-516: The name Nabatene ( Ancient Greek : Ναβατηνή , romanized :  Nabatēnḗ ) to the Arabian borderland that stretched from the Euphrates to the Red Sea . The Nabateans emerged as a distinct civilization and political entity between the 4th and 2nd centuries BC, with their kingdom centered around a loosely controlled trading network that brought considerable wealth and influence across

15568-534: The name Medina could also have been a derivative from the Aramaic word Medinta , which the Jewish inhabitants could have used for the city. Under the first three caliphs Abu Bakr , Umar , and Uthman , Medina was the capital of a rapidly increasing Muslim Empire. During the reign of 'Uthman ibn al-Affan , the third caliph, a party of Arabs from Egypt, disgruntled at some of his political decisions, attacked Medina in 656 and assassinated him in his own home. Ali ,

15707-526: The needy and Medina lived a period of security and peace. In 1840, Muhammad moved his troops out of the city and officially handed the city to the central Ottoman command. Four years in 1844, after Muhammad Ali's departure, Davud Pasha was given the position of governor of Medina under the Ottoman sultan. Davud was responsible for renovating the Prophet's Mosque on Sultan Abdulmejid I 's orders. When Abdul Hamid II assumed power, he made Medina stand out of

15846-464: The other 5 have been categorized as suburban. Like most cities in the Hejaz region, Medina is situated at a very high elevation. Almost three times as high as Mecca, the city is situated at 620 m (2,030 ft) above sea level. Mount Uhud is the highest peak in Medina and is 1,077 meters (3,533 feet) tall. Medina is a desert oasis surrounded by the Hejaz Mountains and volcanic hills. The soil surrounding Medina consists of mostly basalt , while

15985-509: The rabbis demonstrated to the local people a miracle by coming out of a fire unscathed and the Yemenites accepted Judaism. Eventually the Banu 'Aws and the Banu Khazraj became hostile to each other and by the time of Muhammad's Hijrah (emigration) to Medina in 622, they had been fighting for 120 years and were sworn enemies The Banu Nadir and the Banu Qurayza were allied with the 'Aws, while

16124-439: The rear of the Muslim's army. As the battle heated up, the Meccans were forced to retreat. The frontline was pushed further and further away from the archers and foreseeing the battle to be a victory for the Muslims, the archers decided to leave their posts to pursue the retreating Meccans. A small party, however, stayed behind; pleading the rest to not disobey Muhammad's orders. Seeing that the archers were starting to descend from

16263-542: The region's lingua franca . Therefore, Aramaic was used for commercial and official purposes across the Nabataean political sphere. The Nabataean alphabet itself also developed out of the Aramaic alphabet , but it used a distinctive cursive script from which the Arabic alphabet emerged. There are different opinions concerning the development of the Arabic script. J. Starcky considers the Lakhmids ' Syriac form script as

16402-745: The remnants of the Nabataeans transformed into peasants . Their lands were divided between the new Qahtanite Arab tribal kingdoms of the Byzantine vassals, the Ghassanid Arabs, and the Himyarite vassals, the Kingdom of Kinda in North Arabia. The city of Petra was brought to the attention of Westerners by the Swiss explorer Johann Ludwig Burckhardt in 1812. Many examples of graffiti and inscriptions—largely of names and greetings—document

16541-414: The revolt, the Jewish tribes became clients of the 'Aws and the Khazraj. However, according to Scottish scholar, William Montgomery Watt , the clientship of the Jewish tribes is not borne out by the historical accounts of the period prior to 627, and he maintained that the Jewish populace retained a measure of political independence. Early Muslim chronicler Ibn Ishaq tells of an ancient conflict between

16680-703: The sacredness of Medina. Medina is mentioned several times in the Quran; two examples are Surah At-Tawbah (verse 101) and Al-Hashr (verse 8). Medinan suras are typically longer than their Meccan counterparts and they are also larger in number. Muhammad al-Bukhari recorded in Sahih Bukhari that Anas ibn Malik quoted Muhammad as saying: "Medina is a sanctuary from that place to that. Its trees should not be cut and no heresy should be innovated nor any sin should be committed in it, and whoever innovates in it an heresy or commits sins (bad deeds), then he will incur

16819-484: The seaports in frankincense , myrrh and spices from Arabia Felix (today's Yemen), as well as a trade with Egypt in bitumen from the Dead Sea. Their arid country was their best safeguard, for the bottle-shaped cisterns for rain-water which they excavated in the rocky or clay-rich soil were carefully concealed from invaders. Ibn Sayyar al-Warraq 's Kitab al-Tabikh , the earliest known Arabic cookbook , contains

16958-459: The surrounding villages were left largely outside of government interference and, for the most part, were politically dominated by members of the prominent al-Mokdad clan who served as intermediaries of sorts between the residents of the town and the governor of Daraa and the Ba'ath Party branch secretary. On 14 October 2012, there was intense gunfire from government forces stationed at checkpoints on

17097-414: The ten years following the hijra , Medina formed the base from which Muhammad and the Muslim army attacked and were attacked, and it was from here that he marched on Mecca , entering it without battle in 630. Despite Muhammad's tribal connection to Mecca, the growing importance of Mecca in Islam, the significance of the Ka'bah as the center of the Islamic world, as the direction of prayer ( Qibla ), and in

17236-586: The time of Trajan, who reduced Petra and converted the Nabataean client state into the Roman province of Arabia Petraea . There was a Nabataean community in Puteoli , in southern Italy, that reached its end around the establishment of the province. Five Greek-Nabataean bilingual inscriptions are known dating to AD 165–169, known as the Ruwafa inscriptions . They are ascribed to an auxiliary military unit drawn from

17375-528: The town on a daily basis. Since the beginning of February 2014 the city was under the control of the Syrian Army. However, on 31 January 2015, the Army's 5th Division confronted a contingent from the rebels near the famous Roman theater – fierce firefights broke out between the groups. On 1 February 2015, the Army forces shelled areas in the eastern neighborhood of the town. On 25 March 2015, Syrian rebels seized

17514-549: The town, ousting Syrian soldiers and allied militiamen after four days of intense battle . Bosra was recaptured by the Syrian Arab Army on 2 July 2018, following the surrender of the rebel forces. The recapture was a part of the Daraa Offensive , which has involved the surrender and/or reconciliation of many rebel groups in the area. Of the city which once counted 80,000 inhabitants, there remains today only

17653-421: The tribe should be killed and the women and children enslaved. This action was conceived of as a defensive measure to ensure that the Muslim community could be confident of its continued survival in Medina. The French historian Robert Mantran proposes that from this point of view it was successful—from this point on, the Muslims were no longer primarily concerned with survival but with expansion and conquest. In

17792-730: The walls of the city, the west and south were suburbs consisting of low houses, yards, gardens and plantations. After the fall of Baghdad, the capital of the Abbasid Empire, to the Mongols, the Mamluk Sultanate of Cairo took over the Egyptian governorate and effectively gained control of Medina. In 1258, Medina was threatened by lava from the Harrat Rahat volcanic region but was narrowly saved from being burnt after

17931-407: The whole of the Hejaz being incorporated into the modern Kingdom of Saudi Arabia . The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia focused more on the expansion of the city and the demolition of former sites that according to them violated Islamic principles and Islamic law such as the tombs at al-Baqi . Nowadays, the city mostly only holds religious significance and as such, just like Mecca, has given rise to

18070-476: The whole top of a hill or cliff face so as to leave only a block behind. However, over time the Nabataeans were influenced by Greece and Rome and their Gods became anthropomorphic and were represented with human features. The Nabataeans spoke an Arabic dialect but, for their inscriptions, used a form of Aramaic that was heavily influenced by Arabic forms and words. When communicating with other Middle Eastern peoples, they, like their neighbors, used Aramaic,

18209-501: The word literally means garden) to its side along with the houses of his wives . The mosque was expanded several times throughout history, with many of its internal features developed over time to suit contemporary standards. The modern Prophet's Mosque is famed for the Green Dome situated directly above Muhammad's rawdhah, which currently serves as the burial site for Muhammad , Abu Bakr al-Siddiq and Umar ibn al-Khattab and

18348-538: Was 33,839. Bosra's inhabitants are predominantly Sunni Muslims and are mostly divided between seven major clans. The leading clan is the al-Miqdad who's members immigrated to Bosra from al-Suwayda in the mid-18th-century. During this era they also dominated the nearby villages of Ghasm , Maaraba and Samaqiyat . However, the oldest clan of Bosra are the Hamd, a largely fair-skinned people, many members of which have blond hair and blue eyes. They claim to be descendants of

18487-564: Was a cosmopolitan marketplace, though its commerce was diminished by the rise of the Eastern trade-route from Myos Hormos to Coptos on the Nile . Under the Pax Romana , the Nabataeans lost their warlike and nomadic habits and became a sober, acquisitive, orderly people, wholly intent on trade and agriculture. The kingdom was a bulwark between Rome and the wild hordes of the desert except in

18626-411: Was identified. "His throne" was frequently mentioned in inscriptions; certain interpretations of the text consider it as a reference for Dushara's wife, goddess Harisha. She was probably a solar deity. Dushara's consort at Petra is considered to have been al-Uzza and the goddess has been associated with Temple of Winged Lions on the basis that if the divine couple of Petra was Dushara and al-Uzza and

18765-521: Was in breach of the Constitution of Medina and after the Meccan withdrawal, Muhammad immediately marched against the Qurayza and laid siege to their strongholds. The Jewish forces eventually surrendered. Some members of the Aws negotiated on behalf of their old allies and Muhammad agreed to appoint one of their chiefs who had converted to Islam, Sa'd ibn Mu'adh , as judge. Sa'ad judged that all male members of

18904-469: Was injured. In 627, Abu Sufyan led another force toward Medina. Knowing of his intentions, Muhammad asked for proposals for defending the northern flank of the city, as the east and west were protected by volcanic rocks and the south was covered with palm trees . Salman al-Farsi , a Persian Sahabi who was familiar with Sasanian war tactics recommended digging a trench to protect the city and Muhammad accepted it. The subsequent siege came to be known as

19043-529: Was rejected. Lacking water, the Nabataeans were forced out of their camp and battled but were defeated. Aretas, IV king of Nabatea, defeated Herod Antipas, son of Herod the Great, in a battle after he intended to divorce his daughter Phasaelis An ally of the Roman Empire, the Nabataean kingdom flourished throughout the 1st century. Its power extended far into Arabia along the Red Sea to Yemen, and Petra

19182-467: Was shut down after their departure from the region and the old railway station has now been converted into a museum . The city has recently seen another connection and mode of transport between it and Mecca, the Haramain high-speed railway line connects the two cities via King Abdullah Economic City near Rabigh , King Abdulaziz International Airport and the city of Jeddah in under 3 hours. Though

19321-450: Was the most respected inhabitant of the city prior to Muhammad's arrival. To solve the ongoing feud, concerned residents of Yathrib met secretly with Muhammad in 'Aqaba, a place outside Mecca , inviting him and his small group of believers to come to the city, where Muhammad could serve a mediator between the factions and his community could practice its faith freely. In 622, Muhammad and an estimated 70 Meccan Muhajirun left Mecca over

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