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103-696: The Fuliiru people constitute the predominant ethnic group in the region, and the chiefdom serves as a local governance structure for their community. The chiefdom system is represented by traditional leadership , customs , and cultural practices specific to the Bafuliiru. The Bafuliiru Chiefdom is situated in the eastern part of the DRC, specifically within the Uvira Territory of the South Kivu Province. With an area of 1,514.270 km, it

206-814: A fermented beverage made from bananas and sorghum . Rice production, specifically varieties such as IR5, L9, and IRON 282, is also prominent, although it is more often cultivated as a cash crop . Rice is primarily grown at the CEP Kabwe, Kaliri, and the Cenre Developpement Communautaire (CDC) in Kiringye . Similarly, beans are grown predominantly in the central part of Lemera , covering areas from Rubanga to Mulenge , with large portions marketed in Bukavu and Uvira , as well as exported to neighboring countries like Burundi and Rwanda. Maize

309-537: A "Rwandan-origin" community that established themselves in the Kivu region and were not known by this name during the colonial period. Using "Banyamulenge" as an ethnic identify, they campaigned for Congolese citizenship along with land possessed by indigenous Fuliru populace. In the early stages of the First and Second Congo Wars , a large contingent of Banyamulenge traversed into Bafuliru communities to provide support to

412-556: A Banyamulenge rebel groups, reportedly torched homes and property belonging to the Bafuliru in the village of Babengwa. Between February 2019 and 2020, a large number of Bafuliru were killed and displaced, leading them to the Bijombo camp in the South Kivu Province. Despite efforts to prioritize and act on serious cases in the immediate aftermath of the ethnic violence , there have been few prosecutions and fewer convictions, as well as

515-436: A badge of their new identity. Congolese historian Jacques Depelchin traces the clan's origins to Mwami Kahamba Kalingishi, believed to have arrived in the 16th century, per Belgian colonial records, or the 17th century, as argued by historians Kingwengwe Mupe and Bosco Muchukiwa Rukakiza. Other accounts suggest that the Bafuliru and the neighboring Vira people migrated from the northeast, crossing Lwindi and settling in

618-556: A colonial administrator who extensively studied the Bantu communities in eastern Belgian Congo , noted that the Bahamba clan migrated from the direction of Lwindi, led by Chief Kikanwe, to their present territory, which they found uninhabited. Moeller de Laddersous describes the Bahamba as the region's earliest settlers, in an area known as "Bufulero". Over time, the Bahamba dynasty changes their eponym from Bahamba (Wahamba) to Bafuliru as

721-619: A favorable environment for cultivating crops such as cassava, coffee, bananas, beans, and maize in various locations. The High Plateau, which forms part of the Mitumba chain , boasts the highest peaks, surpassing 3,000 meters above sea level. The High Plateau serves as a watershed between the tributaries of the Ulindi and Elila rivers, as well as numerous torrents that flow into the Ruzizi River and Lake Tanganyika . The Bafuliru Chiefdom

824-491: A favorable environment for growing cassava , coffee , banana , beans and maize . The High Plateau, on the other hand, form a watershed between the tributaries of the Ulindi and the Elila rivers , as well as the torrents that flow into the Ruzizi River and Lake Tanganyika . The High Plateaus are characterized by a rugged landscape with steep slopes and elevations ranging from 1800 to 2700 meters. The main villages located on

927-405: A feudal system existed in which Hutus were expected to leave their land available for Tutsis to graze their cows. This arrangement was enforced through a system of clientelism , where Tutsis loaned their cows to Hutus, who in turn were required to lend their land. Wealth was measured by the number of cows one possessed, and the richest Tutsis had the largest herds. At the top of this social hierarchy

1030-422: A form of call-and-response singing, where one group of singers will lead with a phrase, and another group will respond with a harmonized phrase . This technique creates a rich and layered sound that is both engaging and captivating. Bafuliru also have songs that praise their leaders and ancestors, and these are often performed during political rallies and other communal events. Wedding songs are central to

1133-586: A house. On 21 October 1996, AFDL/APR/FAB units butchered around 370 refugees in Luberizi and Mutarule . By May 1997, the conflict resulted in the ousting of Mobutu and marked the beginning of a tumultuous period for the region. Laurent-Désiré Kabila declared himself the president of the DRC and renamed the country the " Democratic Republic of the Congo ". In the Second Congo War , which began in 1998,

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1236-685: A large number of people were brutally killed and displaced in Uvira, including the former Mulenge post chief, Ladislas Matalambu, who met his demise on 1 October 1998, at 7:30 p.m. Additionally, Alexis Deyidedi, the former administrative secretary of the Bafuliiru Chiefdom, was assassinated on 2 October 1998, at 11 p.m. The AFDL troops forced many Bafuliru, Babembe , Warega , and Bavira individuals to flee and take refuge in neighboring countries such as Burundi , Tanzania , Uganda , Kenya , Zambia , and Mozambique . The displacement caused

1339-528: A local treat and are also exported to nearby countries like Rwanda and Burundi. Some are sold in Bukavu. Two species of coffee exist in the Bafuliru Chiefdom are Coffea arabica and Coffea canephora . The arabica species is the most common in Bafuliru Chiefdom. It is a culture of exporting coffee to Burundi. Bafuliru music is characterized by a variety of traditional instruments such as

1442-597: A near total lack of investigations of those who organized and financed the violence. Kifuliru is a member of the Bantu branch of the Niger-Congo language family. The English linguist Malcolm Guthrie classified it in the D50 subgroup along with Shi , Havu , Vira, Tembo , and Nyindu , placing Kifuliru among the African Great Lakes Bantu languages . Achille Emile Meeussen and linguists at

1545-724: A newly established ethnic group known as " Banyamulenge " (literally 'those who live in Mulenge ') through an entirely fabricated ethnogenesis . This emerging identity allowed them to lay claim to land and resources in the area, setting off conflicts with Fuliru, who consider Mulenge as their ancestral homeland . Following the nation's independence, the Banyarwanda, both Tutsi and Hutu, striven to establish recognition of their rights as " indigenous ", vouching they possessed two " chefferies " (traditional chiefdoms) unrecognized by other ethnic groups. The Tutsi contended that their migration to

1648-527: A ripple effect of the humanitarian crisis , with many facing severe challenges, including inadequate food and water supplies , inadequate medical facilities , and substandard living conditions. On 14 May 2000, the Rassemblement Congolais pour la Démocratie (RCD), a rebel group comprising mainly Banyamulenge child soldiers , perpetrated a massacre in the village of Katogota . The victims, numbering 375 in total, were primarily from

1751-586: A significant role in the chiefdom's customs and traditions, particularly during marriage ceremonies. In Fuliru mythology, it is believed that one cannot engage in any strenuous activities without a banana. Specifically, during a wedding ceremony or after mourning, an individual intending to marry must present a jar of fermented banana and sorghum beverage , referred to as " I mbindi ya mavu yo kudeterakwo " in Kifuliru, meaning "the jar of alcohol that allows you to speak". This jar of banana alcohol must be offered to

1854-685: A social, cultural, economic, and security nature. Human rights organizations estimate that as of May 1996, the total number of deaths from the conflict stands around 70,000. The tension within Bafuliru communities originates from the circumstance where Rwandan refugees, placed by the Belgian colonial administration and the United Nations in the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, failed to uphold their designated status upon their arrival. Instead, they profess to be

1957-415: A spear attack, including his son Rubwatara. His troops were subsequently expelled from every village they had captured. However, Kinyoni's troops managed to retreat to Luvungi , where they received support from Belgian colonists , who provided them with much-needed resources and supplies. This assistance allowed Kinyoni's troops to regroup and prepare for another attempt to conquer the Bafuliru Chiefdom under

2060-627: A sub-chief under Burundian King Mwezi Gisabo from the Banyakarama Dynasty, established his own presence along the Ruzizi River's right bank. With swift prowess, he conquered southern villages like Kigoma, Mulenge, Kihanga, and Kalengera, expanding his dominion. He then launched a northward offensive, seizing Kiringye, Kabwiba, and Kigwena, nearly half of the Bafuliru Chiefdom . Facing significant territorial setbacks,

2163-711: A total area of 3,031 km. Within this expanse, approximately 800 km lies within the DRC, while the remaining portion is divided between Burundi and Rwanda . The chiefdom is further characterized by two distinct plateaus: the Middle Plateau and the High Plateau. The Middle Plateau extends between Luvungi and Mulenge , with a gradual variation in elevation from 100 meters to 1800 meters. Within this plateau, notable villages include Namutiri , Ndolera , Bulaga , Langala, Bushokw, Bushuju , Butole , Bwesho , Katala and Mulenge . The Middle Plateau provides

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2266-613: A town situated in the north-western region of the Uvira Territory in South Kivu Province , resulting in the loss of several dozen lives. A total of 37 individuals, including two medical personnel , lost their lives in a hospital massacre . The armed assailants also pillaged the Lemera Hospital , the largest hospital in the region, located approximately 85 kilometers north of Uvira . In October 1998,

2369-474: A vital food source for the Bafuliru, particularly for those inhabiting the Ruzizi Plain and the entire Bafuliru Chiefdom. Having a cassava field is regarded as a treasure trove and is highly valued by the community. Besides its roots, cassava leaves are also consumable, and its stems are used for lumber . Cassava's significance goes beyond its dietary value and practical uses. It has a significant role in

2472-494: Is Kivuluga, a fusion of Shi and Kifuliru, which is predominantly spoken in the Itara-Luvungi groupement . This dialect emerged due to the region's close linguistic proximity of Shi and Kifuliru speakers. The Bafuliru economy is almost exclusively agriculturally based, although they also own and raise cattle for milk and meat; their homelands in the South Kivu Province are some of the most intensively farmed areas of

2575-453: Is a tropical climate sub-type usually found within 10 to 15 degrees latitude of the equator . There are some other areas at higher latitudes, such as the coast of southeast Florida, United States, and Okinawa, Japan that fall into the tropical rainforest climate category. They experience high mean annual temperatures, small temperature ranges, and rain that falls throughout the year. Regions with this climate are typically designated Af by

2678-431: Is among the most prominent agricultural commodities in the chiefdom areas of Ruzizi Plain and the Bafuliru Chiefdom. According to Bafuliiru folklore , cassava was introduced to the region during their migration from Lwindi Chiefdom , and it continues to serve as a vital food source. Banana cultivation is widespread throughout the Bafuliiru Chiefdom, serving both as a food crop and a raw material for producing Kasigisi ,

2781-408: Is characterized by a tropical climate , specifically a tropical rainforest climate or equatorial climate . Situated in the eastern part of the DRC, the chiefdom experiences warm temperatures throughout the year with minimal fluctuations . Average temperatures range from 30.5 to 35.5 degrees Celsius (86 to 95 degrees Fahrenheit), providing a consistently warm environment. Precipitation is abundant in

2884-495: Is grown in areas such as Ndolera, Buheba, Lemera, Katala, and Mugule, and is a significant export product, particularly to Burundi. Furiiru people The Fuliru people (also spelled Fuliiru ) are a Bantu ethnic group native to the South Kivu Province of the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo . They predominantly inhabit the Uvira Territory , forming the largest ethnic group within

2987-492: Is high throughout the months. One day in a tropical rainforest climate can be very similar to the next, while the change in temperature between day and night may be larger than the average change in temperature during the year. When tropical rainforest climates are more dominated by the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) than the trade winds (and with no or rare cyclones), so usually located near

3090-587: Is primarily an income generator rather than a food source at the CEP Kabwe, Kaliri, and at the Community Development Center ( Cenre Developpement Communautaire ; CDC) base in Kiringye . Beans are grown predominantly in the central part of Lemera , covering areas from Rubanga to Mulenge . They are marketed in Bukavu and Uvira , with a large portion exported to nearby countries like Burundi and Rwanda. While beans, alongside rice, are exported, they usually fetch lower prices due to

3193-529: Is situated in two distinct types of plateaus : the Middle Plateau and the High Plateau . The Middle Plateau spans between Luvungi and Mulenge , with the altitude gradually increasing from 100 m to 1800 meters. This plateau comprises several groupements and villages, including Namutiri, Ndolera, Bulaga, Langala, Bushokw, Bushuju, Butole, Lemera , Bwesho, Katala, Mulenge, and others. It is also

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3296-506: Is some inconsistency in historical accounts, while some sources uphold the claim that the Bahamba clan played an instrumental role in founding the chiefdom, other narratives indicate that they supplanted the Balemera clan to establish their hegemony and royal lineage in the Bafuliru Chiefdom. Kingwengwe Mupe argues that the Bahamba clan drove out (and possibly dethroned) the Balemera clan to occupy Uvira Territory. According to Mupe's account,

3399-618: Is the largest among all the chiefdoms in Uvira Territory and appears to constitute a separate territory . The region boasts a diverse range of terrains. It includes parts of the eastern section of the Albertine Rift , which is a branch of the East African Rift System . The area is predominantly mountainous, with the Mitumba Mountains forming a significant part of the landscape. The chiefdom extends to

3502-606: Is widely cultivated in the Ruzizi Plain and the Hauts Plateaux , where it serves as a primary food source. Peanuts, primarily grown in Luvungi and Lubarika , are consumed locally and exported to Rwanda and Burundi, with some also sold in Bukavu. The Bafuliiru Chiefdom is also notable for its coffee production , with two species cultivated: Coffea arabica and Coffea canephora . The more common arabica species

3605-611: The Bafuliiru Chiefdom , located centrally and to the northwest. They also form the primary constituency in the Ruzizi Plain Chiefdom, to the northeast, near the Rwanda and Burundi borders, where some Fuliru communities reside. According to a 2009 census, their population was estimated at over 250,000, while a 1999 estimate of Kifuliru -language speakers placed the number at 300,000. The Fuliru speak

3708-466: The Berlin Conference . This "historical and scientific" apologia was unlikely intended to equate the "Banyamulenge" pseudo - tribe with the indigenous Congolese ethnic groups. Under the pressure of Gisaro Muhoza, a Rwandan university administrator and revered as the creator of the term "Banyamulenge", Rugama used the term in his thesis. According to René Lemarchand , Banyamulenge constitute

3811-646: The Congo Basin coincided with that of their Fuliru, Vira, Bembe, and Lega counterparts, antedating the establishment of the Congo Free State , and consequently, should be entitled to equivalent ethnic rights as other communities. In 1976, Faustin Tabazi Rugama, a Munyamulenge writer, attempted to legitimize the notion of a tribe called "Banyamulenge" that presumably held sway in Mulenge prior to

3914-543: The Fizi Territory , which was further subdivided into five sectors, including Itombwe , Lulenge , Mutambala , Ndandja, and Tangani'a . Conversely, the Bafuliru Chiefdom borders Rwanda and Burundi through the Ruzizi Plain in the Uvira Territory . The sandy soil of the plain is suitable for growing crops such as groundnuts and cotton , with Luvungi , Lubarika , and Luberizi being particularly noteworthy areas for such cultivation . The Fuliru collectivity

4017-475: The Fuliru language , a branch of the Bantu subgroup within the Niger-Congo family , closely related to Vira, Shi , Havu , Tembo , and Nyindu . Occupationally, Fuliru primarily work in agriculture and herding , with a notable reputation in pottery and basket-weaving . Their handcrafted baskets are used for storage, decoration, and even as musical instruments. The Fuliru, like many other communities in

4120-458: The Köppen climate classification . A tropical rainforest climate is typically hot, very humid, and wet with no dry season . Tropical rainforests have a type of tropical climate (at least 18 C or 64.4 F in their coldest month) in which there is no dry season —all months have an average precipitation value of at least 60 mm (2.4 in). There are no distinct wet or dry seasons as rainfall

4223-909: The Mission d'immigration des Banyarwanda (MIB), facilitated the immigration of Rwandans to other parts of the Belgian Congo. Between 10,000 of Rwandan families were established in various regions of Belgian Congo, including the current Masisi Territory , the Bwito Chiefdom in the Rutshuru Territory , the Buzi-Ziralo grouping ( groupement ) in the Kalehe Territory , and Moba in Katanga . Other eastern regions such as Baraka and Marungu were also prepared to welcome

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4326-839: The Royal Museum for Central Africa in Tervuren categorized Kifuliru under J54, describing it as an "interlacustrine" language. The Fuliru are connected to the Vira in a Fuliru-Vira culture cluster. Both ethnic groups are interlacustrine, living between the African Great Lakes. Kifuliru is commonly spoken in the Uvira Territory , with over 275,000 speakers. It is mutually intelligible with several neighboring languages, including Nyindu and Vira, with which it shares 90% lexical similarity , and Shi, with which it has about 70% lexical similarity. One notable dialect of Kifuliru

4429-653: The Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA), Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo-Zaire (AFDL), Forces Armées Burundaises (FAB), Rally for Congolese Democracy (RCD), and numerous Mai-Mai groups, each pursuing their own agendas and alliances. During the First Congo War, rival factions clashed for control. The AFDL, backed by Rwanda and Uganda, confronted Mobutu Sese Seko 's government forces. According to Amnesty International ,

4532-603: The Tutsi members of the Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo (AFDLC). This influx of Banyamulenge played a pivotal role in enabling the AFDLC to seize control of the region from local chiefs and civilians who were uprooted from their ancestral lands against their will. The conflict was marked by brutal violence against the civilian population. On 6 October 1996, Banyamulenge rebels launched an assault on Lemera ,

4635-452: The ngoma (drum), xylophone , and flute , which are used to create complex rhythms and melodies . The melodic strains of traditional instrument permeate the air, accompanied by the hypnotic rhythm of indigenous dance, which envelops the senses with its entrancing cadence. The ngoma, in particular, is an essential instrument in Bafuliru music, and it is often played during various social and religious events. Bafuliru music also incorporates

4738-524: The AFDL was responsible for various human rights violations during its campaign to overthrow Mobutu. On 6 October 1996, a massacre occurred at Lemera Hospital , where the AFDL and a Banyamulenge-led force killed 37 people, among them Hutu refugees , Zairean soldiers, and Fuliiru civilians. According to the Democratic Republic of the Congo 1993-2003 UN Mapping Report , the victims were killed in their beds by " gunshots or bayonets ". In subsequent days and weeks,

4841-562: The Bafuliru Chiefdom once again became a battleground for rival factions and armed groups vying for power and control. The conflict witnessed various armed groups, including the Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA), the Rally for Congolese Democracy (RCD), Rally for Congolese Democracy–Goma (RCD-Goma) and multiple Mai-Mai groups, clashing in the region. Numerous areas within the Bafuliru Chiefdom experienced targeted attacks on civilians. On 6 August 1998, members of RCD-Goma killed 13 people, including

4944-578: The Bafuliru Chiefdom rebuffed to capitulate and shoved forward to defend Bwesho . Led by the renowned leader Katangaza—a respected and influential figure from Bwesho—they rallied their forces and readied themselves to face the ineluctable advance of Chief Kinyoni and his dexterous warrior, Rubisha. Following their advent in Bwesho, Rubisha and his army encountered fierce resistance from Bafuliru's army, resulting in Kinyoni being callously wounded and succumbed to

5047-438: The Bafuliru Chiefdom within the region. The Bafuliru Chiefdom is divided into groupements (groupings), each governed by a customary chief ( chef de groupement ). The groupements are established to facilitate local governance , service delivery , and community organization . These groupements are further subdivided into villages, each of which is also governed by a customary chief. The Muhungu groupement consists of

5150-500: The Bafuliru Chiefdom, as it receives a substantial amount of rainfall annually. Rainfall is evenly distributed across the seasons, and there is no distinct dry period. The average annual precipitation ranges from 1,500 to 2,000 millimeters (59 to 79 inches). The area includes sections of the Mitumba Mountains , characterized by ancient metamorphic and igneous rocks . Metamorphic rocks have undergone significant changes due to high temperatures and pressure, while igneous rocks form from

5253-514: The Bafuliru and Babembe communities, who sought refuge in Burundi on 10 June 2004, to escape ongoing ethnic persecution . The ongoing violence in the Bafuliru communities has been exacerbated by political instability , resource scarcity , and deep-seated mistrust between the various groups. The situation is further complicated by the involvement of different armed groups, including militias and rebel factions, who compete for control over

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5356-505: The Bafuliru community and were brutally murdered in cold blood. Some were mercilessly gunned down, while others suffered the grisly fate of having their throats slashed , and their bodies were thrown into the Ruzizi River to dispose of the evidence. The rebels also set fire to their homes, leaving many others to burn to death . The horrors of the Katogota massacre caused many to flee their homes, including up to 3,500 Congolese, mainly from

5459-584: The Bafuliru's ethnic boundaries, which stretched along Lake Tanganyika and the Ruzizi Plain from Moira to the Luvivi River, encompassing territories that sometimes overlapped with Bavira lands. Bosco Muchukiwa Rukakiza points out that Chief Luhama—a central figure in Bafuliru history and founder of the Bahamba dynasty—consolidated power by dividing his domain among his three sons to foster stability and manage local demands for autonomy. Luhama's strategic division granted his eldest son, Nyamugira, to control

5562-533: The Balemera clan can be traced back as the indigenous people who first inhabited the region. It is believed that the Bafuliru Chiefdom, which had its stronghold in Lemera, was the very heartland of their ancestral domain. In the late 1800s, various groups established themselves in Bafuliru's lands in search of more arable soil. Led by Chief Ngabwe, the Barundi arrived from Burundi and assertively requested land from

5665-681: The Bavira, forming a unique group that did not adopt the Bafuliru's original leadership structures. Among other prominent clans, the Bazige (or Bazeke), who were given land by Chief Muluta to their leader Ngabwe, either overcame or were assimilated into the Bafuliru Chiefdom. Oral history suggests the Bazige had an autonomous chiefdom in the present-day Muhungu groupement , which they governed under Kalunga, son of Mukobesi, before being conquered and subjugated by Mahina Mukogabwe (often referred to as Nyamugira Mukogabwe II)—a Fuliru chieftain whose reign spanned

5768-680: The Bavira, which they acquired between the Kiliba and Kawezi Rivers in exchange for ivory. As the tides of colonialism encroached across the region, it sparked wars of expansion on both sides. The Mwami of the Bafuliiru tenaciously claimed jurisdiction over certain villages in the Ruzizi Plain, while the Mwami of the Plain sought to establish his own authority. In the absence of a resolution, both chiefdoms resorted to warfare to vie for dominance. After Chief Ngabwe consolidated his authority, Chief Kinyoni,

5871-414: The Belgian colonial administration as essential conditions for the establishment of any chieftaincy . This was done to prevent lawlessness and to avoid violating the ancestral realities that had existed for millennia. Belgian colonial administration's criteria for establishing chieftaincies varied based on the region and the ethnic group in question. The establishment of chieftaincies was often accompanied by

5974-582: The Fuliru oral tradition . Serving both an educational and entertainment function, these songs convey cultural wisdom, teaching politeness, respect, and environmental awareness to the young couple and the wider community. Before the introduction of literacy in the 20th century, these songs were memorized and performed orally. Through the medium of song, Bafuliru wedding traditions offer insight into their worldview and everyday life. Equatorial climate A tropical rainforest climate or equatorial climate

6077-407: The Fuliru eventually settled in the region now known as Uvira. The origins of the Bafuliru Chiefdom , prior to its formal establishment as an administrative chiefdom of Uvira Territory in 1928 under Belgian colonial rule, are complex and subject to historical interpretation. Various hypotheses and conjectures have been proposed to explain its emergence. According to Alfred Moeller de Laddersous ,

6180-499: The Fuliru were neither conquered nor assimilated by them, but instead engaged in trade and occasional cattle raiding , leading to a deep and long-lasting social interaction that particularly impacted the Fuliru people. The Banyarwanda later acquired Mulenge and Upper Sange from the Bafuliru, and many of them settled in remote areas, including Kalamba, the Ruzizi Plain , and the Mulenge hills, before spreading to other parts of southern Kivu. The Belgian colonial administration, through

6283-447: The High Plateaus include Kagongo, Kishusha, Mulobela, and Kashekezi. These villages are known for their cool climate and are suitable for the cultivation of crops such as Irish potatoes and beans . This plateau is mostly used for grazing cattle and is less populated compared to the Middle Plateau. Bafuliru Chiefdom is subdivided in groupements (groupings) governed by customary chiefs ( chefs de groupement ) who are appointed by

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6386-413: The aegis of the C.D.D. ( Chef de Division des Districts ) of the Kivu Region . Nevertheless, determining the precise boundaries of the chiefdom posed several challenges due to its expansive size. According to records from the Belgian Congo colonial administration, the geographical limits of the Bafuliiru Chiefdom were defined on 19 March 1933: These delineations helped establish the territorial extent of

6489-517: The already dire situation, with many facing severe challenges, including food and water insecurity, inadequate medical care, and substandard living conditions. In June 2014, 35 Fuliru were killed in an attack on the town of Mutarule . The attack was believed to be ethnically motivated . The massacres were carried out mainly by Barundi and Banyamulenge rebel groups in a determined, planned, systematic and methodical manner, and were inspired by ethnic hatred . In January 2019, Twigwaneho and Ngumino,

6592-476: The appointment of a local chief ( chefs de groupement ) or a traditional ruler who was then tasked with maintaining law and order in the area, as well as ensuring the well-being of the local population. However, the establishment of chieftains was controversial, particularly in areas where multiple ethnic groups co-exist. There were instances where the colonial administration had to navigate complex power dynamics and determine which ethnic group or faction should hold

6695-422: The area. According to the scholar Cuypers, this migration could have included a prolonged detour through Maniema rather than a direct movement. Led by an ancestral figure named Nalwindi, the group split into two: the Bafuliru, under Kahamba Kalingishi, settled around the highlands of Lemera , while the Vira, led by Kirungu, established themselves on Munanira's peak, eventually spreading to the valley lowlands and

6798-463: The attendees; otherwise, the speaker is unable to convey a meaningful message. The beverage is also called Kasigisi . Additionally, during childbirth , the banana tree is seen as holding ritual significance, as it is believed that the umbilical cords of certain children are buried near banana fields. Rice grown in the Bafuliru Chiefdom belongs to the genus Oryza and Ozyresatira species. Its various types include IR5, L9, and IRON 282. It

6901-508: The bodies in mass graves . On the same day, 20 October 1996, AFDL/APR/FAB units killed an unidentified number of Hutu refugees, including approximately twenty in the camp's hospital in Kanganiro camp in Luvungi groupement . Parenthetically, the units also killed an unknown number of Hutu refugees and Zairean civilians who were fleeing towards Burundi in Rubenga village in Uvira Territory. In Kakumbukumbu village, located five kilometers from Lubarika camp, soldiers burned thirty refugees alive in

7004-485: The case of Hutus and Tutsis, after 23 years already spent in this diocese, I am not able to say the same; how does each of these two Hutu and Tutsi groups constitute a tribe? It is up to them to understand it and convince others of it." Since the 1960s, the cohabitation between the Banyarwanda and their Congolese neighbors has been plagued by problems, resulting in serious social tensions and violence. The escalation of these tensions and violence has led to lethal conflict of

7107-426: The chief of the Kiringye area, in the village of Lwiburule. Concurrently, and in the proximate vicinity of Kivovo, Kigongo, and Kalungwe villages, RCD-Goma and RPA operatives killed 15 civilians. In the village of Katogota on 14 May 2000, RCD-Goma carried out a massacre that claimed the lives of over 300 people. The conflict came to an end with the signing of the Global and Inclusive Agreement in 2002, followed by

7210-495: The colonial authorities. However, this approach had some negative consequences. The proliferation of chiefdoms and groups created administrative difficulties for the colonial administration, making it challenging to maintain control over such a vast and diverse territory. Additionally, the creation of numerous chiefdoms and groups resulted in the fragmentation of ethnic groups, further exacerbating existing inter-ethnic tensions and conflicts. The Bembe and Buyu were both grouped in

7313-435: The colonial power of Belgium in the Belgian Congo, which had guardianship over Ruanda-Urundi , officially encouraged and facilitated the immigration of Rwandans to Kivu. The Rwandans who migrated to Itombwe and Uvira during this time were predominantly Tutsis, and were favored by Belgian colonists due to their perceived superiority over the Hutus. Unusually in contacts with the Tutsi pastoralists from Banyarwanda group,

7416-471: The community is primarily characterized by expansive plains that encompass regions such as Luvungi , Lubarika , Katogota , Kiliba , Runingu , and Kawizi . These areas form an integral part of the Ruzizi Plain , situated between Mitumba mountain chain and the Ruzizi River . The elevation in this area ranges from 773 to 1000 meters above sea level . The Ruzizi Plain spans from 2°42' to 3°24' south latitude and from 29° to 29°22' east longitude , covering

7519-413: The cooling and solidification of molten material. The Bafuliru Chiefdom also encompasses regions near Lake Tanganyika . The lake resides in an East African Rift Valley . Bafuliiru Chiefdom emerged as a small dominion created by the colonial administration in response to its sparsely populated region in 1921 in Luvungi . It was officially established in 1928 through an edict promulgated on 18 August under

7622-437: The country. More than 90% of the population makes its livelihood by producing food crops or through industrial work involving the processing of crops. Principal food crops include cassava , corn , rice , plantains , and, to a lesser extent, bananas , beans , and peanuts . According to Bafuliru folklore, cassava originated from Lwindi Chiefdom and was introduced by them during their migration. Today, cassava remains

7725-425: The eastern part of the DRC , face ongoing challenges related to access to basic needs such as clean water, healthcare, and education. Parenthetically, they face issues related to land disputes , political marginalization , and human rights abuses. The Fuliru women and girls are particularly vulnerable to sexual and gender-based violence amplified by the region's persistent armed conflicts, which have resulted in

7828-593: The eastern shores of Lake Tanganyika , one of the African Great Lakes . In addition, the Bafuliiru Chiefdom is surrounded by lush forests , including portions of the Itombwe Massif , a UNESCO World Heritage Site . The vegetation in the area is primarily characterized by tropical rainforests and savannah grasslands . The Bafuliiru Chiefdom exhibits diverse hydrographic features, including plains , plateaus , and lakes . The easternmost part of

7931-523: The equator, they are also called equatorial climates. Otherwise, when they are more dominated by the trade winds than the ITCZ, they are called tropical trade-wind climates. In pure equatorial climates, the atmospheric pressure is almost constantly low so the horizontal pressure gradient is low. Consequently, the winds are rare and usually weak (except sea and land breezes in coastal areas) while in tropical trade-wind climates, often located at higher latitudes than

8034-593: The establishment of a transitional government . However, the effects of the wars continue to linger, with communities grappling with the long-lasting consequences of violence, displacement, and trauma. Subsistence agriculture is the chiefdom's primary economic activity, with the surrounding fertile lands supporting the cultivation of a variety of crops such as cassava , beans , peanuts , coffee , banana , rice , and maize . The region also grows sorghum , wheat , and soybeans , along with various fruit trees, including orange , mango , guava , and avocado . Cassava

8137-737: The ethnic group. The Fuliru people are made up of about 37 clans: The origin of the Fuliru people, like that of many ethnic groups in the Great Lakes region of Africa , is complex and multifaceted, shaped by migration , colonization , and conflict . The Fuliru are believed to have originated from the Bantu-speaking people who migrated from West - Central Africa as part of the Bantu migration to Central , Eastern and Southern Africa . Most, however, are descended from Bantu groups that had settled in Southeast Africa after

8240-442: The following villages: The Itara-Luvungi groupement consists of the following villages: The Lemera groupement consists of the following villages: Alternatively, Bafuliru are not a homogeneous people; it is an amalgamation of people with diverse backgrounds, a kind of multicultural state, each with distinct origins. To be considered Mufuliru one must be born into one of the thirty-seven progenitor families (clans) of

8343-531: The following villages: The Kigoma groupement consists of the following villages: The Runingu groupement consists of the following villages: The Itara/Luvungi groupement consists of the following villages: The Lemera groupement consists of the following villages: Over the last three decades, the Bafuliiru Chiefdom has encountered security challenges, with a history of conflicts often triggered by political, ethnic, and resource-driven tensions. Such conflicts have caused violent outbreaks and

8446-432: The forced movement of civilians in impacted regions. The chiefdom has been affected by spillover effects from conflicts in neighboring countries during the First and Second Congo Wars . These conflicts turned the area into a major battleground for various armed groups, leading to widespread violence, displacement, and immense suffering for the local population. The region witnessed the presence of formidable forces such as

8549-427: The governance of the community, serving as a source of tax revenue . Eighty percent of all taxes collected come from cassava alone. This tax collection method enables tax collectors to fill the state treasury at both community and zone levels, which, in turn, supports the local markets of the Bafuliru Chiefdom. The banana plant is an adaptable crop that thrives in nearly every region of the Bafuliru Chiefdom. It has

8652-536: The guidance of Katangaza. Despite the setback, the Bafuliiru troops pursued the retreating army and eventually expelled them from Kiringye. During the period of European penetration , the Banyarwanda , now commonly referred to as " Banyamulenge ", emerged as a significant group in the region. The term "Banyarwanda" includes Hutus , Tutsis , and Twa people from Rwanda, who share the same common language and cultural heritage . In traditional Rwandan society,

8755-400: The immigrants. This immigration policy was officially supported by the Belgian colonial government, which aimed to promote economic development and expand its control over the region. However, the influx of Rwandans led to tensions and conflicts with the local population, contributing to the ongoing ethnic tensions in the region. Another factor that fostered this immigration of Rwandans

8858-460: The initial expansion from Nigeria / Cameroon and settled in the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) in the 16th century. By the mid-1700s, the Bafuliru people had established a significant presence in the region surrounding Lake Tanganyika , specifically in the mountainous hinterland of South Kivu along the Ulindi River . The Fuliru have a unique history as one of

8961-651: The land from Moira to the Munyovwe River; his second son, Mutahonga, received areas from the Munyovwe to the Kise River and the eastern slopes of the Ruzizi Valley; and his third son, Lusagara, managed the mountainous regions. This arrangement retained centralized control through family ties, with power transferring from father to eldest son. Eventually, some members of the Bafuliru's Balunga clan joined

9064-487: The letter, he stated: "With us, the main tribes or socio-political communities are called, I quote in alphabetical order: Bahavu, Bahunde, Banande, Banyanga, Barega, Bashi, Batembo. The Banyarwanda (Hutus and Tutsis), at least those who were, those who no longer want this title and those who still identify with this term, will want to understand that, in their case, the notion of "tribe" that they give themselves when they declare themselves Hutu and Tutsi cannot be understood in

9167-643: The local population's modest consumption of these foods as dietary staples. Traditionally, a bean dish is served with cassava mbundu . Corn is a widely grown crop in the Ruzizi Plain, particularly in the Itara-Luvungi groupement , and in the Hauts Plateaux , where it acts as the primary food source. Although many Bafuliru from the Hauts Plateaux consume corn, some don't favor corn. Peanuts are mainly grown in Luvungi and Lubarika , though they are also present in Lemera and Rubanga. Peanuts are

9270-479: The only highland Bantu groups to have formed a single, relatively small state that was highly centralized. According to oral tradition , the epicenter of the Fuliru people's migratory dispersion in the middle Lwalaba Basin is located at the mouth of the Ulindi River . The Mushi historian Bishikwabo Chubaka has chronicled that after migrating from Lwindi near the Ulindi River in the mountainous hinterlands,

9373-401: The paramount chief. Groupements are subdivided in localités (villages) which are also ruled by customary chiefs. Bafuliru Chiefdom is composed of five groupements : Runingu , Itara-Luvungi , Lemera , Muhungu and Kigoma. The Muhungu groupement consists of the following villages: The Kigoma groupement consists of the following villages: The Runingu groupement consists of

9476-492: The period between 1914 and 1927. This union merged two distinct groups, with Kalunga's lineage recognized to preserve social cohesion , mutual trust, and integration within the Bafuliru. Over time, the Bazige adopted the Kifuliiru language , strengthened by intermarriage and economic exchanges, and ultimately accepted Mukogabwe as their Mwami. The formal establishment of the Bafuliru Chiefdom came on 18 August 1928, when it

9579-467: The position of chief. This led to tensions between different ethnic groups and, in some cases, even armed conflict. Each ethnic group , however small, was assigned a chiefdom or a sector , if not, a grouping (groupement) . The administrative territories were thus constituted within the limits of the chiefdom. The aim was to regroup "ethnic units" in their own geographical entities, but this led to such fragmentation that Orientale Province , which included

9682-442: The present-day Haut-Congo Province and the former Kivu , comprised up to 2,500 chiefdoms and groups. This approach by the Belgian colonial administration was based on the principle of indirect rule , which aimed to maintain control over the local population through traditional rulers. This system was viewed as a means of preserving the existing social and political structures of the colonized societies while ensuring their loyalty to

9785-465: The present-day Uvira Territory . Depelchin also observes that both "Buvira" (today's Bavira Chiefdom) and "Bufuliro" (Bafuliru Chiefdom) had multiple bami (a term equivalent to " mwami " among many eastern Congolese Bantu groups). He firmly states that this part of the country (encompassing Bavira and Bafuliru chiefdoms) has never had one paramount chief, as the Bafuliru retained their own independent paramount chief. By 1907, colonial surveys delineated

9888-402: The prevalence of a pervasive culture of impunity. At the onset of Belgian colonization , the establishment of chieftaincies was the primary method of governance , reflecting the decentralized nature of the colonial policy. These chieftaincies were established with due respect to the customs and traditions of each area, particularly based on three principal criteria defined and established by

9991-541: The region's resources and strategic locations. The proliferation of weapons and the absence of effective governance has allowed these groups to act with impunity, perpetrating horrific acts of violence against civilians and engaging in illicit activities, including the illegal exploitation of mineral resources. The impact of the conflict on the local population has been devastating, with many families displaced from their homes, and their livelihoods destroyed. The absence of adequate humanitarian assistance has only exacerbated

10094-627: The same sense as that of the other communities mentioned above. Indeed, unlike that of the Hutus and Tutsis, the Havu, Hunde, Nande, Nyanga and Tembo communities each have their "Mwami" and their "Balu" or "Vakama", who are respectively their heads of state and leading executives in the precolonial context. These communities have their traditional values which are based on their languages, their territories, their customs and their own family, matrimonial, cultural, economic, political and religious organizations. For

10197-545: The violence continued to escalate. On 13–14 October 1996, the AFDL and Banyamulenge armed units killed refugees in the Runingu camp. Similarly, on 20 October 1996, AFDL/RPA/FAB units targeted Burundian and Rwandan Hutu refugees in the Luvungi groupement , which resulted in significant casualties. In Katala village, located in the middle plateau of Bafuliiru Chiefdom, they captured and killed refugees who were attempting to flee at close range. Local people were then forced to bury

10300-591: Was also facilitated by the establishment of a chiefdom for the Banyarwanda after the arrival of numerous laborers brought by missionaries from neighboring Rwanda. Monsignor Faustin Ngabu , who was the president of the Episcopate of Congo and the bishop of the Diocese of Goma , acknowledged this historical event in his Easter pastoral letter of 11 April 1998 (French: Lettre Pastorale du 11 avril 1998 ). In

10403-404: Was recognized by the colonial authorities. Kingwengwe Mupe, a Fuliru historian, notes that Chief Matakambo, identified as the son of Mahina Mukogabwe, grandson of Nyamugira I—the first Bahamba leader—received his official appointment on 19 March 1933. Later, on 4 March 1940, Nyamugira, another of Mahina's descendants, was also made chief, consolidating Bahamba leadership over the chiefdom. There

10506-618: Was the king, known as the " Mwami ", who was believed to possess divine powers and symbolized national unity. The king surrounded himself with Tutsi warlords and Hutu advisers who oversaw the distribution of land. Over time, the Tutsis established a system of serfdom that further marginalized the Hutu people. The Belgian colonial administration formalized and solidified this social system , ultimately leading to its being perceived as an ethnic divide between Hutus and Tutsis. Between 1935 and 1955,

10609-605: Was the recruitment of labor . Between the 1920s and 1950s, the colonial authorities in Belgian Congo actively recruited labor for large mining companies such as the Union Minière du Haut-Katanga and Kivu , particularly in Kalima and Kamituga . Many of these workers were Rwandan and were hired under contract, but they did not renounce their nationality or property , which remained in Rwanda. This immigration of Rwandans

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