Bahira ( Arabic : بَحِيرَىٰ , Classical Syriac : ܒܚܝܪܐ ) is the name in Islamic tradition of a Christian monk who is said to have foretold Muhammad 's prophethood when they met while Muhammad was accompanying his uncle Abu Talib on a trading trip. There are several versions of the story, with elements that contradict each other. All accounts of Bahira and his meeting with Muhammad have been deemed fictitious by modern historians as well as by some medieval Muslim scholars, such as al-Dhahabi .
123-630: The name Bahira comes from the Syriac language , where it is not a proper name but rather a way of addressing or describing a monk. It is an adjective used to denote someone who has been "tested" and "approved," metaphorically meaning "renowned" or "eminent." It takes the form of the passive participle of b-h-r , which translates as "to try, to prove as silver in the fire." The stories of Bahira originate from Islamic traditions, and they exist in various versions with some contradictory elements. The version that other authors of Muhammad’s biographies commonly adopt
246-501: A messenger of God . According to a report of the historian Al-Tabari , in his Tarikh al-Tabari , Abu Bakr may have converted to Islam after around fifty people, though this is disputed. Some Sunni and all the Shi'a believe that the second person to publicly accept Muhammed as the messenger of God was Ali ibn Abi Talib, the first being Muhammad's wife Khadija . Ibn Kathir , in his Al Bidaya Wal Nihayah , disregards this. He stated that
369-399: A Muslim. All his children accepted Islam except Abd al-Rahman , from whom Abu Bakr disassociated himself. His conversion also brought many people to Islam. He persuaded his intimate friends to convert, and presented Islam to other friends in such a way that many of them also accepted the faith. Those who converted to Islam at the dawah of Abu Bakr were: Abu Bakr's acceptance proved to be
492-588: A city before Syria. As in Ibn Ishaq’s account, the figure advises Abu Talib to take Muhammad back home quickly, fearing that the Jews will murder him if he reaches Syria. To add a spiritual touch to the marriage of Muhammad and Khadija , many of his biographers narrate that he took another trade trip later in his life and met another monk. Some sources call the monk Nastur or Nastura. The narratives generally show this trade trip as being done by Muhammad for Khadija, and he
615-411: A closer grammatical relationship by the addition of a pronominal suffix. Thus, the phrase can be written as ܫܩ̈ܠܝܗ ܕܡܠܟܘܬܐ , šeqlêh d-malkuṯā . In this case, both nouns continue to be in the emphatic state, but the first has the suffix that makes it literally read "her taxes" ("kingdom" is feminine), and thus is "her taxes, [those] of the kingdom". Adjectives always agree in gender and number with
738-489: A common synonym for Aramaic language in general, while other (conventional and narrower) designating only the Edessan Aramaic, also referred to more specifically as the " Classical Syriac ". Noting the problem, scholars have tried to resolve the issue by being more consistent in their use of the term " Classical Syriac " as a strict and clear scientific designation for the old literary and liturgical language, but
861-518: A compilation of Bahira's teachings to Muhammad. Syriac language The Syriac language ( / ˈ s ɪr i æ k / SIH -ree-ak ; Classical Syriac : ܠܫܢܐ ܣܘܪܝܝܐ , romanized: Leššānā Suryāyā ), also known natively in its spoken form in early Syriac literature as Edessan ( Urhāyā ), the Mesopotamian language ( Nahrāyā ) and Aramaic ( Aramāyā ), is an Eastern Middle Aramaic dialect. Classical Syriac
984-545: A few irregular stems, like the Šap̄ʿel and ʾEštap̄ʿal , which generally have an extensive meaning. The basic G-stem or "Peal" conjugation of "to write" in the perfect and imperfect is as follows: Phonologically, like the other Northwest Semitic languages, Syriac has 22 consonants. The consonantal phonemes are: Abu Bakr Abd Allah ibn Abi Quhafa ( Arabic : عبد الله بن أبي قحافة , romanized : ʿAbd Allāh ibn ʾAbī Quḥāfa ; c. 573 – 23 August 634), commonly known by
1107-581: A friend of his named Ad-Dughna (chief of the Qarah tribe) outside Mecca, who invited Abu Bakr to seek his protection against the Quraysh. Abu Bakr went back to Mecca, it was a relief for him, but soon due to the pressure of Quraysh, Ad-Dughna was forced to renounce his protection. Once again the Quraysh were free to persecute Abu Bakr. In 620, Muhammad's uncle and protector, Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib , and Muhammad's wife Khadija died. Abu Bakr's daughter Aisha
1230-405: A historical trajectory that in a few decades would lead to one of the largest empires in history. His victory over the local rebel Arab forces is a significant part of Islamic history. Sunni Muslims revere Abu Bakr as the first of the rightly-guided caliphs and the greatest individual after the prophets and messengers . Shia tradition considers Abu Bakr an usurper of the caliphate and an enemy of
1353-556: A milestone in Muhammad's mission. Slavery was common in Mecca, and many slaves accepted Islam. When an ordinary free man accepted Islam, despite opposition, he would enjoy the protection of his tribe. For slaves, however, there was no such protection and they commonly experienced persecution. Abu Bakr felt compassion for slaves, so he purchased eight (four men and four women) and then freed them, paying 40,000 dinar for their freedom. He
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#17327880308591476-467: A raging Fire, in which none will burn except the most wretched—who deny and turn away. But the righteous will be spared from it—who donate ˹some of˺ their wealth only to purify themselves, not in return for someone’s favours, but seeking the pleasure of their Lord, the Most High. They will certainly be pleased. "Al-Awwāh" ( Arabic : الأواه ) means someone who supplicates abundantly to God, someone who
1599-410: A testudo formation, in which a group of soldiers shielded by a cover of cowhide advanced to set fire to the gate. However, the enemy threw red hot scraps of iron on the testudo, rendering it ineffective. The siege dragged on for two weeks, and still there was no sign of weakness in the fort. Muhammad held a council of war. Abu Bakr advised that the siege might be raised and that God make arrangements for
1722-405: A variant designation for the ancient Eblaite language from the third millennium BC, that is unrelated to the much later Edessan Aramaic, and its early phases, that were commonly labeled as Old/Proto- or even Paleo/Palaeo-Syrian/Syriac in scholarly literature. Newest addition to the terminological mosaic occurred c. 2014, when it was proposed, also by a scholar, that one of regional dialects of
1845-399: Is Abu Bakr who goes with Muhammad on the trip and is told by the monk that the place under the tree where Muhammad sits is only lastly occupied by Jesus . All the stories and the existence of Bahira were dismissed as fabrications by some medieval Muslim hadith critics, one of whom was al-Dhahabi , who argued: Where was Abu Bakr [during Muhammad's purported journey with Abu Talib ]? He
1968-650: Is also taught in some public schools in Iraq , Syria , Palestine , Israel , Sweden , Augsburg (Germany) and Kerala (India). In 2014, an Assyrian nursery school could finally be opened in Yeşilköy , Istanbul after waging a lawsuit against the Ministry of National Education which had denied it permission, but was required to respect non-Muslim minority rights as specified in the Treaty of Lausanne . In August 2016,
2091-759: Is buried in the Green Dome at the Al-Masjid an-Nabawi in Medina , the second holiest site in Islam . He died of illness after a reign of 2 years, 2 months and 14 days, the only Rashidun caliph to die of natural causes. Though Abu Bakr's reign was short, it included successful invasions of the two most powerful empires of the time, the Sassanian Empire and the Byzantine Empire . He set in motion
2214-405: Is joined by her slave, named Maysara. The allegedly al-Zuhri's account says that the destination is Hubasha , while Ibn Ishaq’s says that it is Syria. The monk sees Muhammad sitting under a tree that only prophets use, and he asks Maysara if Muhammad has redness in his eyes. Maysara confirms, and the monk concludes that Muhammad is the imminent prophet. In a version by al-Baladhuri and Ibn Habib ,
2337-499: Is known as leššānā ʔatīqā ( lit. ' the old language ' ) or saprāyā ( lit. ' scribal or literary ' ). It emerged during the first century AD from a local Eastern Aramaic dialect that was spoken in the ancient region of Osroene , centered in the city of Edessa . During the Early Christian period, it became the main literary language of various Aramaic-speaking Christian communities in
2460-565: Is merciful, and the gentle-hearted. Ibrahim al-Nakha'i said that Abu Bakr has also been called al-awwāh for his merciful character. Abu Bakr was born in Mecca sometime in 573 CE, to a rich family in the Banu Taym tribe of the Quraysh tribal confederacy. His father was Abu Quhafa and his mother was Umm al-Khayr . He spent his early childhood like other Arab children of the time, among
2583-429: Is preserved in a large body of Syriac literature , that comprises roughly 90% of the extant Aramaic literature. Along with Greek and Latin , Syriac became one of the three most important languages of Early Christianity . Already from the first and second centuries AD, the inhabitants of the region of Osroene began to embrace Christianity , and by the third and fourth centuries, local Edessan Aramaic language became
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#17327880308592706-417: Is the academic term used to refer to the dialect's literary usage and standardization, distinguishing it from other Aramaic dialects also known as 'Syriac' or 'Syrian'. In its West-Syriac tradition, Classical Syriac is often known as leššōnō kṯoḇonōyō ( lit. ' the written language or the book language ' ) or simply kṯoḇonōyō , or kṯowonōyō , while in its East-Syriac tradition, it
2829-421: Is the head-noun which is marked by the construct state. Thus, ܫܩ̈ܠܝ ܡܠܟܘܬܐ , šeqlay malkuṯā , means "the taxes of the kingdom". Quickly, the construct relationship was abandoned and replaced by the use of the relative particle ܕ , d-, da- . Thus, the same noun phrase becomes ܫܩ̈ܠܐ ܕܡܠܟܘܬܐ , šeqlē d-malkuṯā , where both nouns are in the emphatic state. Very closely related nouns can be drawn into
2952-466: Is the narrative obtained by Ibn Ishaq , ostensibly from Abd Allah ibn Abi Bakr al-Ansari, which is essentially, as follows: It is said that in Bosra , a Syrian city, a monk by the name of Bahira learns the descriptions of the prophet to come from a book handed down through generations. He spots a cloud covering Muhammad, a young boy, among a group of traders from Mecca . The cloud follows Muhammad and covers
3075-543: Is used in English as a convention and does not exist on the ancient endonymic level. Several compound terms like "Syriac Aramaic", "Syrian Aramaic" or "Syro-Aramaic" are also used, thus emphasizing both the Aramaic nature of the language and its Syrian/Syriac regional origin. Early native speakers and writers used several endonymic terms as designations for their language. In addition to common endonym (native name) for
3198-555: The ahl al-bayt . Abu Bakr's full name was Abdullah ibn Abi Quhafa ibn Amir ibn Amr ibn Ka'b ibn Sa'd ibn Taym ibn Murrah ibn Ka'b ibn Lu'ayy ibn Ghalib ibn Fihr. His lineage meets the lineage of Muhammad at the sixth generation up with Murrah ibn Ka'b . Abu Bakr is referenced in the Qur'an in surah at-Tawba as thaniya ithnayn (second of the two) and al-sahib (companion). Some scholars believe al-atqa (the most pious) in surah al-Layl refers to Abu Bakr as well. In Arabic ,
3321-515: The kunya Abu Bakr ( Arabic : أبو بكر , romanized : ʾAbū Bakr ), was the first caliph , ruling from 632 until his death in 634. A close companion and father-in-law of Muhammad , Abu Bakr is referred to with the honorific title al-Ṣiddīq ( الصِّدِّيق , lit. the Veracious) by Sunni Muslims . Born to Abu Quhafa and Umm al-Khayr of the Banu Taym , Abu Bakr was amongst
3444-657: The Aramaic language in general ( Aramaya ), another endonymic term was also used, designating more specifically the local Edessan dialect, known as Urhaya , a term derived directly from the native Aramaic name for the city of Edessa ( Urhay ). Among similar endonymic names with regional connotations, term Nahraya was also used. It was derived from choronym (regional name) Bet-Nahrain , an Aramaic name for Mesopotamia in general. Original endonymic (native) designations, for Aramaic in general ( Aramaya ), and Edessan Aramaic in particular ( Urhaya ), were later (starting from
3567-525: The Battle of Badr , but did not fight, instead acting as one of the guards of Muhammad's tent. In relation to this, Ali later asked his associates as to who they thought was the bravest among men. Everyone stated that Ali was the bravest of all men. Ali then replied: No. Abu Bakr is the bravest of men. In the Battle of Badr we had prepared a pavillion for the prophet, but when we were asked to offer ourselves for
3690-453: The Battle of Khaybar . Khaybar had eight fortresses, the strongest and most well-guarded of which was called Al-Qamus. Muhammad sent Abu Bakr with a group of warriors to attempt to take it, but they were unable to do so. Muhammad also sent Umar with a group of warriors, but Umar could not conquer Al-Qamus either. Some other Muslims also attempted to capture the fort, but they were unsuccessful as well. Finally, Muhammad sent Ali, who defeated
3813-489: The Bedouins who called themselves Ahl-i-Ba'eer - the people of the camel, and developed a particular fondness for camels. In his early years he played with the camel calves and goats, and his love for camels earned him the nickname ( kunya ) " Abu Bakr ", the father of the camel's calf. Like other children of the rich Meccan merchant families, Abu Bakr was literate and developed a fondness for poetry . He used to attend
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3936-705: The Church of the East in central and northeastern Mesopotamia. Religious divisions were also reflected in linguistic differences between the Western Syriac Rite and the Eastern Syriac Rite . During the 5th and the 6th century, Syriac reached its height as the lingua franca of Mesopotamia and surrounding regions. It existed in literary (liturgical) form, as well as in vernacular forms, as the native language of Syriac-speaking populations. Following
4059-573: The Hajj according to the new Islamic way and appointed Abu Bakr as the leader of the delegation. The day after Abu Bakr and his party had left for the Hajj, Muhammad received a new revelation: Surah Tawbah, the ninth chapter of the Quran. It is related that when this revelation came, someone suggested to Muhammad that he should send news of it to Abu Bakr. Muhammad said that only a man of his house could proclaim
4182-524: The Hijra to Medina : ˹It does not matter˺ if you ˹believers˺ do not support him, for Allah did in fact support him when the disbelievers drove him out ˹of Mecca˺ and he was only one of two. While they both were in the cave, he reassured his companion , “Do not worry; Allah is certainly with us.” So Allah sent down His serenity upon the Prophet, supported him with forces you ˹believers˺ did not see, and made
4305-1038: The Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church , the Syro-Malankara Catholic Church and some Parishes in the Syro-Malabar Knanaya Archeparchy of Kottayam . Eastern Syriac is the liturgical language of the East Syriac Rite , practised in modern times by the ethnic Assyrian followers of the Assyrian Church of the East , the Assyrian Pentecostal Church , the Ancient Church of the East , the Chaldean Catholic Church , as well as
4428-915: The Middle East , Central Asia and the Malabar Coast in India , and remains so among the Syriac Christians to this day. It has been found as far afield as Hadrian's Wall in Great Britain , with inscriptions written by Aramaic-speaking soldiers of the Roman Empire . History of Syriac language is divided into several successive periods, defined primarily by linguistic, and also by cultural criteria. Some terminological and chronological distinctions exist between different classifications, that were proposed among scholars. During
4551-658: The Near East (2003), those issues have acquired additional complexity, related to legal recognition of the language and its name. In the Constitution of Iraq (Article 4), adopted in 2005, and also in subsequent legislation, term " Syriac " ( Arabic : السريانية / al-suriania ) is used as official designation for the language of Neo-Aramaic -speaking communities, thus opening additional questions related to linguistic and cultural identity of those communities. Legal and other practical (educational and informational) aspects of
4674-464: The Neo-Aramaic languages. Such differences in classification, both terminological and substantial, within systems and between systems (ISO and MARC), led to the creation of several additional problems, that remain unresolved. Within linguistics, mosaic of terminological ambiguities related to Syrian/Syriac labels was additionally enriched by introduction of the term " Palaeo-Syrian language " as
4797-467: The Old Aramaic language from the first centuries of the 1st millennium BC should be called " Central Syrian Aramaic ", thus introducing another ambiguous term, that can be used, in its generic meaning, to any local variant of Aramaic that occurred in central regions of Syria during any period in history. After more than five centuries of Syriac studies , which were founded by western scholars at
4920-888: The Syriac Catholic Church , the Maronite Catholic Church , the Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church , the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church and the Syro-Malankara Catholic Church . Classical Syriac was originally the liturgical language of the Syriac Melkites within the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch in Antioch and parts of ancient Syria . The Syriac Melkites changed their church's West Syriac Rite to that of Constantinople in
5043-540: The Syro-Malabar Catholic Church in India. Syriac literature is by far the most prodigious of the various Aramaic languages. Its corpus covers poetry, prose, theology, liturgy, hymnody, history, philosophy, science, medicine and natural history. Much of this wealth remains unavailable in critical editions or modern translation. From the 7th century onwards, Syriac gradually gave way to Arabic as
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5166-458: The earliest converts to Islam and propagated dawah to the Mushrikites . He was considered the first Muslim missionary as several companions of Muhammad converted through Abu Bakr. He accompanied Muhammad on his migration to Medina and became one of the latter's bodyguards . Abu Bakr participated in all of Muhammad's campaigns and served as the first amir al-hajj in 631. In
5289-406: The infinitive and the active and passive participles . Syriac has only two true morphological tenses: perfect and imperfect. Whereas these tenses were originally aspectual in Aramaic, they have become a truly temporal past and future tenses respectively. The present tense is usually marked with the participle followed by the subject pronoun . Such pronouns are usually omitted in
5412-617: The linguistic homeland of the language in the region of Osroene, was never part of contemporary (Roman) Syria . In the 3rd century, churches in Edessa began to use local Aramaic dialect as the language of worship. Early literary efforts were focused on creation of an authoritative Aramaic translation of the Bible, the Peshitta ( ܦܫܝܛܬܐ Pšīṭtā ). At the same time, Ephrem the Syrian
5535-505: The sacred language of Syriac Christianity to this day. It is used as liturgical language of several denominations, like those who follow the East Syriac Rite , including the Assyrian Church of the East , the Ancient Church of the East , the Chaldean Catholic Church , the Syro-Malabar Catholic Church , and the Assyrian Pentecostal Church , and also those who follow the West Syriac Rite , including: Syriac Orthodox Church ,
5658-449: The " Cave of Treasures ", long held to be the 4th century work of an authoritative writer and revered Christian saint Ephrem of Edessa (d. 373), who was thus believed to be proponent of various linguistic notions and tendencies expressed in the mentioned work. Since modern scholarly analyses have shown that the work in question was written much later ( c. 600) by an unknown author, several questions had to be reexamined. In regard to
5781-412: The "Osroenians" as Aramaic speakers of Osroene (eastern region, centered in Edessa ), thus showing that dialect of the "Syrians" (Aramaic speakers of proper Syria) was known to be different from that of the "Osroenians" (speakers of Edessan Aramaic). Native ( endonymic ) use of the term Aramaic language (Aramaya/Oromoyo) among its speakers has continued throughout the medieval period, as attested by
5904-472: The 4th to the 8th century, and continued to have an important role during the next centuries, but by the end of the Middle Ages it was gradually reduced to liturgical use, since the role of vernacular language among its native speakers was overtaken by several emerging Neo-Aramaic languages . Classical Syriac is written in the Syriac alphabet , a derivation of the Aramaic alphabet . The language
6027-403: The 5th century) accompanied by another term, exonymic (foreign) in origin: Suryaya (Syrian/Syriac), adopted under the influence of a long-standing Greek custom of referring to speakers of Aramaic as Syrians . Among ancient Greeks, term "Syrian language" was used as a common designation for Aramaic language in general, and such usage was also reflected in Aramaic, by subsequent (acquired) use of
6150-465: The 9th-11th centuries, necessitating new translations of all their Syriac liturgical books. In the English language , the term "Syriac" is used as a linguonym (language name) designating a specific variant of the Aramaic language in relation to its regional origin in northeastern parts of Ancient Syria , around Edessa , which lay outside of the provincial borders of Roman Syria . Since Aramaic
6273-508: The Arab conquest in the 7th century, vernacular forms of Syriac were gradually replaced during the next centuries by the advancing Arabic language . Having an Aramaic (Syriac) substratum , the regional Arabic dialect ( Mesopotamian Arabic ) developed under the strong influence of local Aramaic (Syriac) dialects, sharing significant similarities in language structure, as well as having evident and stark influences from previous (ancient) languages of
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#17327880308596396-694: The Aramaic language in general, stating that " the Osroënians, the Syrians, the people of the Euphrates, the Palestinians, and the Phoenicians all speak Syriac, but with many differences in pronunciation ". Theodoret's regional (provincial) differentiation of Aramaic dialects included an explicit distinction between the "Syrians" (as Aramaic speakers of Syria proper, western of Euphrates ), and
6519-597: The Bahira material, came to the conclusion that "what the sources offer are fifteen equally fictitious versions of an event that never took place." Historian Richard A. Gabriel likewise labelled the stories of Bahira as "non-historical". Orientalist W. M. Watt regards the Islamic account of Bahira as "only a story", "based on primitive ideas", and the kind of story "one expects to find among people who look upon all writing as akin to magic". Historian Maxime Rodinson considers
6642-610: The Byzantine Empire show up with the aim of assassinating Muhammad. This version of the story is also documented by al-Tirmidhi and several other biographers of Muhammad. According to a variation documented by al-Suhayli , possibly derived from al-Zuhri 's, it is a Jewish rabbi, not a Christian monk, who meets the young Muhammad on the journey and foretells his future as a prophet. The meeting happens not in Bosra but in Tayma ,
6765-441: The Jews might attack him. Abu Talib listens to the advice, and he takes him back to Mecca right away. Shortly after, three "individuals of the scriptures" become aware of Muhammad’s prophethood and try to get to him. However, Bahira intervenes, reminding them of God and that they cannot alter His plan. In another version of the story recorded by al-Tabari , Bahira is more emphatic in his foretelling of Muhammad’s destiny, calling him
6888-531: The Muslim army was ambushed by archers from the local tribes as it passed through the valley of Hunayn, some eleven miles northeast of Mecca. Taken unaware, the advance guard of the Muslim army fled in panic. There was considerable confusion, and the camels, horses and men ran into one another in an attempt to seek cover. Muhammad, however, stood firm. Only nine companions remained around him, including Abu Bakr. Under Muhammad's instruction, his uncle Abbas shouted at
7011-526: The Muslim cause. From the early 8th century, recognizing the persistence of Muslim rule, responses have evolved, featuring sophisticated defenses of Christianity and counterarguments to Islamic doctrines through disputation literature. This strategy led to the creation of the Christian version of the legend of Bahira during the reign of Caliph al-Ma'mun (813–33). Based on it, two recensions, East Syrian and West Syrian, later developed. Since "Bahira" in Syriac
7134-514: The Muslims had taken out, and famously slept in the bed of Muhammad when the Quraysh, led by Ikrima, attempted to murder Muhammad as he slept. Meanwhile, Abu Bakr accompanied Muhammad to Medina. Due to the danger posed by the Quraysh, they did not take the road, but moved in the opposite direction, taking refuge in a cave in Jabal Thawr , some five miles south of Mecca. Abd Allah ibn Abi Bakr ,
7257-924: The Ourhi Centre was founded by the Assyrian community in the city of Qamishli, to educate teachers in order to make Syriac an additional language to be taught in public schools in the Jazira Region of the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria , which then started with the 2016/17 academic year. In April 2023, a team of AI researchers completed the first AI translation model and website for classical Syriac. Many Syriac words, like those in other Semitic languages , belong to triconsonantal roots , collations of three Syriac consonants. New words are built from these three consonants with variable vowel and consonant sets. For example,
7380-520: The Quraysh, came forward and threw down a challenge for a duel. Abu Bakr accepted the challenge but was stopped by Muhammad. In the second phase of the battle, Khalid ibn al-Walid 's cavalry attacked the Muslims from behind, changing a Muslim victory to defeat. In 627 he participated in the Battle of the Trench and also in the Invasion of Banu Qurayza . In the Battle of the Trench, Muhammad divided
7503-520: The South Indian Malabar Coast , and Eastern China , and became the medium of communication and cultural dissemination for the later Arabs , and (to a lesser extent) the other peoples of Parthian and Sasanian empires. Primarily a Christian medium of expression, Syriac had a fundamental cultural and literary influence on the development of Arabic , which largely replaced it during the later medieval period. Syriac remains
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#17327880308597626-488: The Syriac-speaking world. As a result, Syriac developed distinctive western and eastern varieties. Although remaining a single language with a high level of comprehension between the varieties, the two employ distinctive variations in pronunciation and writing system, and, to a lesser degree, in vocabulary. The Syriac language later split into a western variety, used mainly by the Syriac Orthodox Church in upper Mesopotamia and Syria proper, and an eastern variety used mainly by
7749-416: The absence of Muhammad, Abu Bakr led the prayers. Following Muhammad's death in 632, Abu Bakr succeeded the leadership of the Muslim community as the first caliph, being elected at Saqifa . His election was contested by a number of rebellious tribal leaders. During his reign, he overcame a number of uprisings, collectively known as the Ridda wars , as a result of which he was able to consolidate and expand
7872-678: The annual fair at Ukaz , and participate in poetical symposia. He had a very good memory and had a good knowledge of the genealogy of the Arab tribes, their stories and their politics. A story is preserved that once when he was a child, his father took him to the Kaaba , and asked him to pray before the idols . His father went away to attend to some other business, and Abu Bakr was left alone. Addressing an idol, Abu Bakr said "O my God, I am in need of beautiful clothes; bestow them on me". The idol remained indifferent. Then he addressed another idol, saying, "O God, give me some delicious food. See that I am so hungry". The idol remained cold. That exhausted
7995-418: The apostle of the Lord of the Worlds after witnessing trees and stones bowing down to him. In this version, it is the Byzantines , not the Jews, who Bahira fears will threaten Muhammad’s life. He advises Abu Talib to take Muhammad home as soon as possible, and Abu Talib arranges for Abu Bakr and Bilal ibn Rabah to accompany Muhammad safely to Mecca. Bahira’s foresight soon becomes reality as seven people from
8118-445: The birth of Islam, Muslims kept their faith private. In 613, according to Islamic tradition, Muhammad was commanded by God to call people to Islam openly. The first public address inviting people to offer allegiance to Muhammad was delivered by Abu Bakr. In a fit of fury, the young men of the Quraysh tribe rushed at Abu Bakr and beat him until he lost consciousness. Following this incident, Abu Bakr's mother converted to Islam. Abu Bakr
8241-447: The case of the third person. This use of the participle to mark the present tense is the most common of a number of compound tenses that can be used to express varying senses of tense and aspect. Syriac also employs derived verb stems such as are present in other Semitic languages. These are regular modifications of the verb's root to express other changes in meaning. The first stem is the ground state, or Pəʿal (this name models
8364-401: The climate of Mecca was dry, the climate of Medina was damp and because of this, most of the migrants fell sick on arrival. Abu Bakr contracted a fever for several days, during which time he was attended to by Khaarijah and his family. In Mecca, Abu Bakr was a wholesale trader in cloth and he started the same business in Medina. He opened his new store at Sunh, and from there cloth was supplied to
8487-405: The confrontation at Autas the tribes could not withstand the Muslim onslaught. Believing continued resistance useless, the tribes broke camp and retired to Ta'if. Abu Bakr was commissioned by Muhammad to lead the attack against Ta'if . The tribes shut themselves in the fort and refused to come out in the open. The Muslims employed catapults, but without tangible result. The Muslims attempted to use
8610-440: The consistency of such use was never achieved within the field. Inconsistent use of "Syrian/Syriac" labels in scholarly literature has led some researchers to raise additional questions, related not only to terminological issues but also to some more fundamental (methodological) problems, that were undermining the integrity of the field. Attempts to resolve those issues were unsuccessful, and in many scholarly works, related to
8733-701: The conventional scholarly reduction of the term "Syriac language" to a specific designation for Edessan Aramaic. Such use, that excludes non-Edessan dialects, and particularly those of Western Aramaic provenience, persist as an accepted convention, but in the same time stands in contradiction both with original Greek, and later native (acquired) uses of Syrian/Syriac labels as common designations for Aramaic language in general. Those problems were addressed by prominent scholars, including Theodor Nöldeke (d. 1930) who noted on several occasions that term " Syriac language " has come to have two distinctive meanings, wider and narrower, with first (historical and wider) serving as
8856-661: The creation of newspapers in written Syriac ( ܟܬܒܢܝܐ Kṯāḇānāyā ) similar to the use of Modern Standard Arabic has been employed since the early decades of the 20th century. Modern forms of literary Syriac have also been used not only in religious literature but also in secular genres, often with Assyrian nationalistic themes. Syriac is spoken as the liturgical language of the Syriac Orthodox Church , as well as by some of its adherents . Syriac has been recognised as an official minority language in Iraq. It
8979-405: The development of Classical Syriac, the emphatic state became the ordinary form of the noun, and the absolute and construct states were relegated to certain stock phrases (for example, ܒܪ ܐܢܫܐ/ܒܪܢܫܐ , bar nāšā , "man, person", literally "son of man"). In Old and early Classical Syriac, most genitive noun relationships are built using the construct state, but contrary to the genitive case, it
9102-417: The ditch into a number of sectors and a contingent was posted to guard each sector. One of these contingents was under the command of Abu Bakr. The enemy made frequent assaults in an attempt to cross the ditch, all of which were repulsed. To commemorate this event a mosque, later known as 'Masjid-i-Siddiq', was constructed at the site where Abu Bakr had repulsed the charges of the enemy. Abu Bakr took part in
9225-439: The end of the 15th century, main terminological issues related to the name and classification of the language known as Edessan Aramaic, and also referred to by several other names combined of Syrian/Syriac labels, remain opened and unsolved. Some of those issues have special sociolinguistic and ethnolinguistic significance for the remaining Neo-Aramaic speaking communities. Since the occurrence of major political changes in
9348-432: The enemy leader, Marhab . In 629 Muhammad sent 'Amr ibn al-'As to Zaat-ul-Sallasal, followed by Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah in response to a call for reinforcements. Abu Bakr and Umar commanded an army under al-Jarrah, and they attacked and defeated the enemy. In 630, when the Muslims conquered Mecca , Abu Bakr was part of the army. Before the conquest of Mecca his father Abu Quhafa converted to Islam. In 630,
9471-480: The entrance to the cave, but was unable to see them. Abu Bakr was referenced in the Qur'an in verse 40 of sura at-Tawba : "If ye help him not, still God helped him when those who disbelieve drove him forth, the thaniya ithnayn (second of the two i.e. Abu Bakr); when they two were in the cave, when he said unto his sahib (companion i.e. Abu Bakr). Aisha , Abu Saʽid al-Khudri and Abd Allah ibn Abbas in interpreting this verse said that Abu Bakr
9594-540: The fall of the fort. The advice was accepted, and in December 630, the siege of Ta'if was raised and the Muslim army returned to Mecca . A few days later Malik bin Auf , the commander, came to Mecca and became a Muslim. In 630–631 (AH 9), Muhammad assigned Abu Bakr as the amir al-hajj to lead around 300 pilgrims from Medina to Mecca. In 631 AD, Muhammad sent from Medina a delegation of three hundred Muslims to perform
9717-487: The first occurrence of the revelation to him in the cave of Hira . There would also have been no reason for him to be concerned about his sanity and approach Khadija , nor would he have ascended the mountain peaks to throw himself down. If Abu Talib had been so worried about the Prophet's life that he returned him to Mecca, how could he later have been satisfied to allow him to travel to Syria to trade on Khadija's behalf? Historian Patricia Crone , following her examination of
9840-641: The first three centuries of the Common Era , a local Aramaic dialect spoken in the Kingdom of Osroene , centered in Edessa , eastern of Euphrates , started to gain prominence and regional significance. There are about eighty extant early inscriptions, written in Old-Edessan Aramaic, dated to the first three centuries AD, with the earliest inscription being dated to the 6th year AD, and the earliest parchment to 243 AD. All of these early examples of
9963-404: The first woman to embrace Islam was Khadijah. Zayd ibn Harithah was the first freed slave to embrace Islam. Ali ibn Abi Talib was the first child to embrace Islam, for he has not even reached the age of puberty at that time, while Abu Bakr was the first free man to embrace Islam. His wife Qutaylah bint Abd-al-Uzza did not accept Islam and he divorced her. His other wife, Um Ruman , became
10086-457: The following words belong to the root ܫܩܠ ( ŠQL ), to which a basic meaning of taking can be assigned: Most Syriac nouns are built from triliteral roots. Nouns carry grammatical gender (masculine or feminine), they can be either singular or plural in number (a very few can be dual) and can exist in one of three grammatical states. These states should not be confused with grammatical cases in other languages. However, very quickly in
10209-415: The historical region of Ancient Syria and throughout the Near East . As a liturgical language of Syriac Christianity , it gained a prominent role among Eastern Christian communities that used both Eastern Syriac and Western Syriac rites. Following the spread of Syriac Christianity, it also became a liturgical language of eastern Christian communities as far as India and China . It flourished from
10332-427: The language are non-Christian. As a language of public life and administration in the region of Osroene, Edessan Aramaic was gradually given a relatively coherent form, style and grammar that is lacking in other Aramaic dialects of the same period. Since Old-Edessan Aramaic later developed into Classical Syriac, it was retroactively labeled by western scholars as "Old Syrian/Syriac" or "Proto-Syrian/Syriac", although
10455-486: The linguistic self-identification also arose throughout Syriac-speaking diaspora , particularly in European countries (Germany, Sweden, Netherlands). Syriac was the local dialect of Aramaic in Edessa , and evolved under the influence of the Church of the East and the Syriac Orthodox Church into its current form. Before Arabic became the dominant language, Syriac was a major language among Christian communities in
10578-404: The market at Medina. Soon his business flourished. Early in 623, Abu Bakr's daughter Aisha, who was already married to Muhammad, was sent on to Muhammad's house after a simple marriage ceremony, further strengthening relations between Abu Bakr and Muhammad. Others In terms of Ihsan : In 624, Abu Bakr was involved in the first battle between the Muslims and the Quraysh of Mecca, known as
10701-410: The matter to him, losing his two incisors during the process. In these stories subsequently Abu Bakr, along with other companions, led Muhammad to a place of safety. In 625, he participated in the Battle of Uhud , in which the majority of the Muslims were routed and he himself was wounded. Before the battle had begun, his son Abd al-Rahman , at that time still non-Muslim and fighting on the side of
10824-417: The monk’s conclusion about Muhammad’s prophethood results from seeing him create unlimited food. The story continues with the monk buying Muhammad's goods at a high price and two angels covering Muhammad from the blazing sun on their way back. When they return to Medina , Maysara tells Khadija about his experience, which makes her propose marriage to Muhammad. In Ibn Gani's commentary of the Quran , however, it
10947-436: The motives behind the creation of the stories of Bahira to be apologetic. Historian Alford T. Welch has expressed a similar view. In the wake of the successful Muslim conquest of significant Byzantine and Persian territories, Eastern Christians, who experienced territorial losses, tried to make sense of it biblically. They concluded that it was a transient punishment for their sins, not an indication of divine support for
11070-491: The name Abd Allah means "servant of Allah ". This is his birth name. This nickname ( kunya ) was given to him as a child when he grew up among a bedouin tribe and developed a fondness for camels. He played with the camel calves and goats, earning this nickname "Abu Bakr," meaning "father of the young camel." A "bakr" in Arabic is a young but already fully grown camel. One of his early titles, preceding his conversion to Islam,
11193-527: The name " Syriac ", while the existing general code syr, that was until then named " Syriac ", was renamed to " Syriac, Modern ". Within ISO 639 system, large body of unspecific references related to various linguistic uses of the term " Syriac " remained related to the original ISO 639-2 code syr ( Syriac ), but its scope is defined within the ISO 639-3 standard as a macrolanguage that currently includes only some of
11316-481: The nouns they modify. Adjectives are in the absolute state if they are predicative , but agree with the state of their noun if attributive . Thus, ܒܝܫܝ̈ܢ ܫܩ̈ܠܐ , bišin šeqlē , means "the taxes are evil", whereas ܫܩ̈ܠܐ ܒܝ̈ܫܐ , šeqlē ḇišē , means "evil taxes". Most Syriac verbs are built on triliteral roots as well. Finite verbs carry person , gender (except in the first person) and number, as well as tense and conjugation . The non-finite verb forms are
11439-411: The old literary and liturgical language, reduction of the term " Classical Syriac " to " Syriac " (only) remained a manner of convenience, even in titles of works, including encyclopedic entries, thus creating a large body of unspecific references, that became a base for the emergence of several new classes of terminological problems at the advent of the informational era . Those problems culminated during
11562-551: The original Greek designation for Aramaic language in general to a more specific (narrower) designation for Edessan Aramaic language, that in its literary and liturgical form came to be known as Classical Syriac . That reduction resulted in the creation of a specific field of Syriac studies , within Aramaic studies . Preference of early scholars towards the use of the Syrian/Syriac label was also relied upon its notable use as an alternative designation for Aramaic language in
11685-550: The patience of young Abu Bakr. He lifted a stone, and, addressing an idol, said, "Here I am aiming a stone; if you are a god protect yourself". Abu Bakr hurled the stone at the idol and left the Kaaba . Regardless, it recorded that prior to converting to Islam, Abu Bakr practiced as a hanif and never worshipped idols. On his return from a business trip in Yemen , friends informed him that in his absence, Muhammad had declared himself
11808-494: The process of international standardization of the terms " Syriac " and " Classical Syriac " within the ISO 639 and MARC systems. The term " Classical Syriac " was accepted in 2007 and codified (ISO code: syc ) as a designation for the old literary and liturgical language, thus confirming the proper use of the term. In the same time, within the MARC standard, code syc was accepted as designation for Classical Syriac , but under
11931-468: The region of Bet-Nahrain (Aramaic term for Mesopotamia in general). Plurality of terms among native speakers (ārāmāyā, urhāyā, naḥrāyā, and suryāyā) was not reflected in Greek and Latin terminology, that preferred Syrian/Syriac designation, and the same preference was adopted by later scholars, with one important distinction: in western scholarly use, Syrian/Syriac label was subsequently reduced from
12054-504: The region. Syriac-influenced Arabic dialects developed among Iraqi Muslims , as well as Iraqi Christians , most of whom descend from native Syriac speakers. Western Syriac is the official language of the West Syriac Rite , practiced by the Syriac Orthodox Church , the Syriac Catholic Church , the Maronite Catholic Church , the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church , the Malabar Independent Syrian Church ,
12177-430: The revelation. Muhammad summoned Ali, and asked him to proclaim a portion of Surah Tawbah to the people on the day of sacrifice when they assembled at Mina . Ali went forth on Muhammad's slit-eared camel, and overtook Abu Bakr. When Ali joined the party, Abu Bakr wanted to know whether he had come to give orders or to convey them. Ali said that he had not come to replace Abu Bakr as Amir-ul-Hajj, and that his only mission
12300-693: The rule of the Muslim state over the entire Arabian Peninsula . He also commanded the initial incursions into the neighbouring Sasanian and Byzantine empires , which in the years following his death, would eventually result in the Muslim conquests of Persia and the Levant . Apart from politics, Abu Bakr is also credited for the compilation of the Quran , of which he had a personal caliphal codex. Prior to dying in August 634, Abu Bakr nominated Umar ( r. 634–644 ) as his successor. Along with Muhammad, Abu Bakr
12423-415: The scope and usage of Syrian/Syriac labels in linguistic terminology, some modern scholars have noted that diversity of Aramaic dialects in the wider historical region of Syria should not be overlooked by improper and unspecific use of Syrian/Syriac labels. Diversity of Aramaic dialects was recorded by Theodoret of Cyrus (d. c. 466), who accepted Syrian/Syriac labels as common Greek designations for
12546-483: The shade of the tree under which he rested? We also observe no instance of the Prophet reminding Abu Talib of the monk's words, nor do Quraysh mention it to him, and none of those elders recount the tale, despite their eager pursuit and request for a story like that. Had the event really occurred, it would have gained immense popularity among them. Moreover, the Prophet would have retained a consciousness of his prophethood and, therefore, would not have harbored doubts about
12669-482: The shape of the root) form of the verb, which carries the usual meaning of the word. The next is the intensive stem, or Paʿʿel , form of the verb, which usually carries an intensified meaning . The third is the extensive stem, or ʾAp̄ʿel , form of the verb, which is often causative in meaning. Each of these stems has its parallel passive conjugation: the ʾEṯpəʿel , ʾEṯpaʿʿal and ʾEttap̄ʿal respectively. To these six cardinal stems are added
12792-551: The site. Abu Bakr was paired with Khaarijah bin Zaid Ansari (who was from Medina) as a brother in faith . Abu Bakr's relationship with Khaarijah was most cordial, which was further strengthened when Abu Bakr married Habiba, a daughter of Khaarijah. Khaarijah bin Zaid Ansari lived at Sunh, a suburb of Medina, and Abu Bakr also settled there. After Abu Bakr's family arrived in Medina, he bought another house near Muhammad's. While
12915-420: The son of Abu Bakr, would listen to the plans and discussions of the Quraysh, and at night he would carry the news to the fugitives in the cave. Asma bint Abi Bakr , the daughter of Abu Bakr, brought them meals every day. Aamir, a servant of Abu Bakr, would bring a flock of goats to the mouth of the cave every night, where they were milked. The Quraysh sent search parties in all directions. One party came close to
13038-460: The spoken language of much of the region, excepting northern Iraq and Mount Lebanon. The Mongol invasions and conquests of the 13th century, and the religiously motivated massacres of Syriac Christians by Timur further contributed to the rapid decline of the language. In many places outside of Upper Mesopotamia and Mount Lebanon , even in liturgy, it was replaced by Arabic. Revivals of literary Syriac in recent times have led to some success with
13161-488: The task of guarding it none came forward except Abu Bakr. With a drawn sword he took his stand by the side of Prophet of Allah and guarded him from the infidels by attacking those who dared to proceed in that direction. He was therefore the bravest of men. In Sunni accounts, during one such attack, two discs from Abu Bakr's shield penetrated into Muhammad's cheeks. Abu Bakr went forward with the intention of extracting these discs but Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah requested he leave
13284-495: The term "Suryaya" as the most preferred synonym for "Aramaya" (Aramaic). Practice of interchangeable naming (Aramaya, Urhaya, Nahraya, and Suryaya) persisted for centuries, in common use and also in works of various prominent writers. One of those who used various terms was theologian Jacob of Edessa (d. 708), who was referring to the language as " Syrian or Aramaic " (Suryāyā awkēt Ārāmāyā), and also as Urhāyā , when referring to Edessan Aramaic, or Naḥrāyā when pointing to
13407-471: The top of his voice, "O Muslims, come to the Prophet of Allah". The call was heard by the Muslim soldiers and they gathered beside Muhammad. When the Muslims had gathered in sufficient number, Muhammad ordered a charge against the enemy. In the hand-to-hand fight that followed the tribes were routed and they fled to Autas . Muhammad posted a contingent to guard the Hunayn pass and led the main army to Autas. In
13530-401: The tree under which he rests. The tree then lowers its branches until Muhammad is under its shadow. Bahira is curious to meet Muhammad and hosts a banquet for them. He questions Muhammad and sees the "sign of prophethood" on his back, which verifies his assumption that Muhammad is the future prophet. He urges Abu Talib , the uncle of Muhammad, to take him back to Mecca without delay, fearing that
13653-669: The vehicle of the specific Christian culture that came to be known as the Syriac Christianity . Because of theological differences, Syriac-speaking Christians diverged during the 5th century into the Church of the East that followed the East Syriac Rite under the Persian rule, and the Syriac Orthodox Church that followed the West Syriac Rite under the Byzantine rule. As a liturgical language of Syriac Christianity , Classical Syriac spread throughout Asia as far as
13776-519: The word of the disbelievers lowest, while the Word of Allah is supreme. And Allah is Almighty, All-Wise. In a hadith narrated by ibn Abbas of the exegesis of chapter 92 of the Qur'an by imam al-Suyuti we find the word "al-atqā" ( Arabic : الأتقى ), meaning "the most pious," "the most righteous," or "the most God-fearing," is referring to Abu Bakr as an example for the believers. And so I have warned you of
13899-691: The works of prominent writers, including the Oriental Orthodox Patriarch Michael of Antioch (d. 1199). Since the proper dating of the Cave of Treasures , modern scholars were left with no indications of native Aramaic adoption of Syrian/Syriac labels before the 5th century. In the same time, a growing body of later sources showed that both in Greek, and in native literature, those labels were most commonly used as designations for Aramaic language in general, including its various dialects (both eastern and western), thus challenging
14022-523: Was Ateeq , meaning "saved one". In a weak narration in Tirmidhi, Muhammad later restated this title when he said that Abu Bakr is the "Ateeq of Allah from the fire" meaning "saved" or "secure" and the association with Allah showing how close to and protected he is by Allah. He was called Al-Siddiq (the truthful) by Muhammad after he believed him in the event of Isra and Mi'raj when other people did not, and Ali confirmed that title several times. He
14145-463: Was also reportedly referred to in the Quran as the "second of the two in the cave" in reference to the event of hijra , where with Muhammad he hid in the cave in Jabal Thawr from the Meccan party that was sent after them. He was honorifically called "al-sahib" (the companion) in the Qur'an describing his role as a companion of Muhammad when hiding from the Quraysh in the Jabal Thawr cave during
14268-428: Was betrothed to Muhammad; however, it was decided that the actual marriage ceremony would be held later. In 620 Abu Bakr was the first person to testify to Muhammad's Isra and Mi'raj (Night Journey). In 622, on the invitation of the Muslims of Medina , Muhammad ordered Muslims to migrate to Medina. The migration began in batches. Ali was the last to remain in Mecca, entrusted with responsibility for settling any loans
14391-429: Was known to have freed slaves, including Bilal ibn Rabah . The men were: The women were: Most of the slaves liberated by Abu Bakr were either women or old and frail men. When the father of Abu Bakr asked him why he did not liberate strong and young slaves, who could be a source of strength for him, Abu Bakr replied that he was freeing the slaves for the sake of God , and not for his own sake. For three years after
14514-533: Was not a proper name but a way of addressing or describing a monk, "Sergius" was added to the character's name. Later, a reworked recension in Arabic with more references to the Qur'an emerged, followed by a hybrid recension consisting of the Arabic translation of the Syriac legend and the concluding part of the previous Arabic one. Generally, the stories describe the Qur'an as not a book of divine revelation but merely
14637-467: Was only 10 years old, 2.5 years younger than the Messenger of God. And where was Bilal during this period? Abu Bakr only bought him following the request of the Prophet when the Prophet was 40 years old—Bilal wasn't even born at that point! Moreover, if a cloud had cast its shadow over [Muhammad], how is it possible that the shade of the tree [below it] would move, for the shadow of the cloud would cover
14760-690: Was persecuted many times by the Quraysh. Though Abu Bakr's beliefs would have been defended by his own clan, it would not be so for the entire Quraysh tribe. In 617, the Quraysh enforced a boycott against the Banu Hashim . Muhammad along with his supporters from Banu Hashim, were cut off in a pass away from Mecca . All social relations with the Banu Hashim were cut off and their state was that of imprisonment. Before it many Muslims migrated to Abyssinia (now Ethiopia ). Abu Bakr, feeling distressed, set out for Yemen and then to Abyssinia from there. He met
14883-609: Was producing the most treasured collection of poetry and theology in the Edessan Aramaic language, that later became known as Syriac. In 489, many Syriac-speaking Christians living in the eastern reaches of the Roman Empire fled to the Sasanian Empire to escape persecution and growing animosity with Greek-speaking Christians. The Christological differences with the Church of the East led to the bitter Nestorian Schism in
15006-427: Was the companion who stayed with Muhammad in the cave. After staying at the cave for three days and three nights, Abu Bakr and Muhammad proceed to Medina , staying for some time at Quba, a suburb of Medina. In Medina, Muhammad decided to construct a mosque. A piece of land was chosen and the price of the land was paid for by Abu Bakr. The Muslims, including Abu Bakr, constructed a mosque named Al-Masjid al-Nabawi at
15129-423: Was used by various Middle Eastern peoples, having several variants ( dialects ), this specific dialect that originated in northeastern Syria became known under its regional (Syrian/Syriac) designation ( Suryaya ). In English scholarly literature , the term "Syriac" is preferred over the alternative form "Syrian", since the latter is much more polysemic and commonly relates to Syria in general. That distinction
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