96-805: The Beardmore Glacier in Antarctica is one of the largest valley glaciers in the world, being 200 km (125 mi) long and having a width of 40 km (25 mi). It descends about 2,200 m (7,200 ft) from the Antarctic Plateau to the Ross Ice Shelf and is bordered by the Commonwealth Range of the Queen Maud Mountains on the eastern side and the Queen Alexandra Range of
192-410: A Russian expedition led by Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev . The decades that followed saw further exploration by French, American, and British expeditions. The first confirmed landing was by a Norwegian team in 1895. In the early 20th century, there were a few expeditions into the interior of the continent. British explorers Robert Falcon Scott and Ernest Shackleton were
288-527: A few blue-ice areas , the wind and sublimation remove more snow than is accumulated by precipitation. In the dry valleys, the same effect occurs over a rock base, leading to a barren and desiccated landscape. Antarctica is colder than the Arctic region, as much of Antarctica is over 3,000 m (9,800 ft) above sea level, where air temperatures are colder. The relative warmth of the Arctic Ocean
384-417: A glacier after her and it is possible that is what Shackleton actually did. In 2016, the first beetle fossils, in the form of wing-cases ( elytra ) of the ground beetle Antarctotrechus , around 14 to 20 million years old, were found in sediments adjacent to the glacier. Buckley Island separates northern and southern streams at the head of Beardmore Glacier. The Wild Icefalls cross the northern stream, to
480-525: A mild climate. West Antarctica was partially in the Northern Hemisphere , and during the time, large amounts of sandstones , limestones , and shales were deposited. East Antarctica was at the equator, where seafloor invertebrates and trilobites flourished in the tropical seas. By the start of the Devonian period (416 Ma ), Gondwana was in more southern latitudes, and the climate
576-457: A native bacterial community within the subterranean water body of Lake Vostok . The existence of life there is thought to strengthen the argument for the possibility of life on Jupiter 's moon Europa , which may have water beneath its water-ice crust. There exists a community of extremophile bacteria in the highly alkaline waters of Lake Untersee . The prevalence of highly resilient creatures in such inhospitable areas could further bolster
672-701: A number of mountain ranges in the region, the most prominent being the Ellsworth Mountains. The presence of the West Antarctic Rift System has resulted in volcanism along the border between West and East Antarctica, as well as the creation of the Transantarctic Mountains. East Antarctica is geologically varied. Its formation began during the Archean Eon (4,000 Ma–2,500 Ma), and stopped during
768-583: A part of it". Mount Augusta Mount Augusta , also designated Boundary Peak 183 , is a high peak in the US state of Alaska and the Canadian territory of Yukon . It lies about 25 km (16 mi) south of Mount Logan and 25 km east of Mount Saint Elias , respectively the first and second highest mountains in Canada. Mount Augusta forms the eastern end of the long ridge of which Mount Saint Elias
864-631: A vessel on which Lt. Jameson B. Adams of BrAE had served. The map of the BrAE (1910–13) and some subsequent maps transpose the positions of Berwick Glacier and Swinford Glacier. The latter lies 12 nautical miles (22 km; 14 mi) south westward. The original appellation (BrAE, 1907–09) of Berwick Glacier is the one recommended. Not: Swinford Glacier. 84°30′S 165°48′E / 84.500°S 165.800°E / -84.500; 165.800 . A glacier between Martin Ridge and Adams Mountains in
960-595: Is Earth 's southernmost and least-populated continent . Situated almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle and surrounded by the Southern Ocean (also known as the Antarctic Ocean ), it contains the geographic South Pole . Antarctica is the fifth-largest continent, being about 40% larger than Europe , and has an area of 14,200,000 km (5,500,000 sq mi). Most of Antarctica
1056-655: Is 1–3 cm (0.39–1.18 in). From the end of the Neoproterozoic era to the Cretaceous , Antarctica was part of the supercontinent Gondwana . Modern Antarctica was formed as Gondwana gradually broke apart beginning around 183 Ma. For a large proportion of the Phanerozoic , Antarctica had a tropical or temperate climate , and it was covered in forests. During the Cambrian period , Gondwana had
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#17327647877261152-542: Is almost 18,000 km (11,200 mi) long: as of 1983 , of the four coastal types, 44% of the coast is floating ice in the form of an ice shelf , 38% consists of ice walls that rest on rock, 13% is ice streams or the edge of glaciers, and the remaining 5% is exposed rock. The lakes that lie at the base of the continental ice sheet occur mainly in the McMurdo Dry Valleys or various oases . Lake Vostok , discovered beneath Russia's Vostok Station ,
1248-480: Is being revealed by techniques such as remote sensing , ground-penetrating radar , and satellite imagery . Geologically, West Antarctica closely resembles the South American Andes . The Antarctic Peninsula was formed by geologic uplift and the transformation of sea bed sediments into metamorphic rocks . West Antarctica was formed by the merging of several continental plates , which created
1344-449: Is caused by the emission of chlorofluorocarbons and halons into the atmosphere, which causes ozone to break down into other gases. The extreme cold conditions of Antarctica allow polar stratospheric clouds to form. The clouds act as catalysts for chemical reactions, which eventually lead to the destruction of ozone. The 1987 Montreal Protocol has restricted the emissions of ozone-depleting substances. The ozone hole above Antarctica
1440-640: Is covered by the Antarctic ice sheet , with an average thickness of 1.9 km (1.2 mi). Antarctica is, on average, the coldest, driest, and windiest of the continents, and it has the highest average elevation . It is mainly a polar desert , with annual precipitation of over 200 mm (8 in) along the coast and far less inland. About 70% of the world's freshwater reserves are frozen in Antarctica, which, if melted, would raise global sea levels by almost 60 metres (200 ft). Antarctica holds
1536-655: Is divided into West Antarctica and East Antarctica by the Transantarctic Mountains , which stretch from Victoria Land to the Ross Sea . The vast majority of Antarctica is covered by the Antarctic ice sheet , which averages 1.9 km (1.2 mi) in thickness. The ice sheet extends to all but a few oases , which, with the exception of the McMurdo Dry Valleys, are located in coastal areas. Several Antarctic ice streams flow to one of
1632-470: Is evidence of a large number of volcanoes under the ice, which could pose a risk to the ice sheet if activity levels were to rise. The ice dome known as Dome Argus in East Antarctica is the highest Antarctic ice feature, at 4,091 metres (13,422 ft). It is one of the world's coldest and driest places—temperatures there may reach as low as −90 °C (−130 °F), and the annual precipitation
1728-408: Is expected to add about 11 cm (5 in) to global sea level rise . Marine ice sheet instability may cause West Antarctica to contribute tens of centimeters more if it is triggered before 2100. With higher warming, instability would be much more likely, and could double global, 21st-century sea-level rise. The fresh, 1100-1500 billion tons (GT) per year of meltwater from the ice dilutes
1824-582: Is predicted to slowly disappear; by the 2060s, levels of ozone are expected to have returned to values last recorded in the 1980s. The ozone depletion can cause a cooling of around 6 °C (11 °F) in the stratosphere . The cooling strengthens the polar vortex and so prevents the outflow of the cold air near the South Pole, which in turn cools the continental mass of the East Antarctic ice sheet. The peripheral areas of Antarctica, especially
1920-564: Is the center and highest point. The Seward Glacier starts to the north of the peak, separating it from Mount Logan, and then flows around the east side of the peak, forming the gap between Augusta and the peaks surrounding Mount Cook. It then continues south to join the Malaspina Glacier . Mount Augusta was named in 1891 by I.C. Russell of the USGS , for his wife J. Augusta Olmsted Russell. In terms of pure elevation, Mount Augusta
2016-441: Is the largest subglacial lake globally and one of the largest lakes in the world. It was once believed that the lake had been sealed off for millions of years, but scientists now estimate its water is replaced by the slow melting and freezing of ice caps every 13,000 years. During the summer, the ice at the edges of the lakes can melt, and liquid moats temporarily form. Antarctica has both saline and freshwater lakes. Antarctica
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#17327647877262112-504: Is transferred through the Arctic sea ice and moderates temperatures in the Arctic region. East Antarctica is colder than its western counterpart because of its higher elevation. Weather fronts rarely penetrate far into the continent, leaving the centre cold and dry, with moderate wind speeds. Heavy snowfalls are common on the coastal portion of Antarctica, where snowfalls of up to 1.22 m (48 in) in 48 hours have been recorded. At
2208-476: The Antarctic Circle (one of the five major circles of latitude that mark maps of the world), Antarctica is surrounded by the Southern Ocean . Rivers exist in Antarctica; the longest is the Onyx . Antarctica covers more than 14.2 million km (5,500,000 sq mi), almost double the area of Australia, making it the fifth-largest continent, and comparable to the surface area of Pluto . Its coastline
2304-662: The Beardmore Glacier by Frank Wild on the Nimrod Expedition in 1907, and low-grade coal is known to exist across many parts of the Transantarctic Mountains. The Prince Charles Mountains contain deposits of iron ore . There are oil and natural gas fields in the Ross Sea. Antarctica is the coldest, windiest, and driest of Earth's continents. Near the coast, the temperature can exceed 10 °C in summer and fall to below −40 °C in winter. Over
2400-621: The British Antarctic Expedition, 1907–09 , who first penetrated this region. 84°55′S 162°25′E / 84.917°S 162.417°E / -84.917; 162.417 . The extensive icefalls at the head of Beardmore Glacier, between Mount Wild and Mount Buckley . Named by the New Zealand Geological Survey Antarctic Expedition (NZGSAE) (1961–62) in association with nearby Mount Wild. Tributaries from
2496-641: The Cretaceous period (146–66 Ma), though southern beech trees ( Nothofagus ) became prominent towards the end of the Cretaceous. Ammonites were common in the seas around Antarctica, and dinosaurs were also present, though only a few Antarctic dinosaur genera ( Cryolophosaurus and Glacialisaurus , from the Early Jurassic Hanson Formation of the Transantarctic Mountains, and Antarctopelta , Trinisaura , Morrosaurus and Imperobator from Late Cretaceous of
2592-663: The Dominion Range and the Supporters Range into Beardmore Glacier. Discovered by the BrAE (1907–09) and named for Hugh Robert Mill , British geographer and Antarctic historian. The Mill Glacier flowing from the southeast converges with the Beardmore Glacier flowing from the southwest below Plunket Point , the northernmost extreme of the Meyer Desert . The Mill Glacier is fed from the right by
2688-683: The Early Triassic . The Antarctic Peninsula began to form during the Jurassic period ( 206 to 146 million years ago ). Africa separated from Antarctica in the Jurassic around 160 Ma, followed by the Indian subcontinent in the early Cretaceous (about 125 Ma). Ginkgo trees, conifers, Bennettitales , horsetails , ferns and cycads were plentiful during the time. In West Antarctica, coniferous forests dominated throughout
2784-526: The Northern Hemisphere , an eventual decline of fisheries in the Southern Ocean and a potential collapse of certain marine ecosystems . While many Antarctic species remain undiscovered, there are documented increases in Antarctic flora , and large fauna such as penguins are already having difficulty retaining suitable habitat. On ice-free land, permafrost thaws release greenhouse gases and formerly frozen pollution. Scientists have studied
2880-420: The crust-like lichen Buellia frigida , has been used as a model organism in astrobiology research. The same features can be observed in algae and cyanobacteria , suggesting that they are adaptations to the conditions prevailing in Antarctica. This has led to speculation that life on Mars might have been similar to Antarctic fungi, such as Cryomyces antarcticus and Cryomyces minteri . Some of
2976-535: The ozone layer in the atmosphere above Antarctica since the 1970s. In 1985, British scientists, working on data they had gathered at Halley Research Station on the Brunt Ice Shelf , discovered a large area of low ozone concentration over Antarctica. The 'ozone hole' covers almost the whole continent and was at its largest in September 2006; the longest-lasting event occurred in 2020. The depletion
Beardmore Glacier - Misplaced Pages Continue
3072-637: The Antarctic Circle on 17 January 1773, in December 1773, and again in January 1774. Cook came within about 120 km (75 mi) of the Antarctic coast before retreating in the face of field ice in January 1773. In 1775, he called the existence of a polar continent "probable", and in another copy of his journal he wrote: "[I] firmly believe it and it's more than probable that we have seen
3168-790: The Antarctic Peninsula) have been described. During the early Paleogene , Antarctica remained connected to South America as well as to southeastern Australia. Fauna from the La Meseta Formation in the Antarctic Peninsula, dating to the Eocene , is very similar to equivalent South American faunas; with marsupials , xenarthrans , litoptern , and astrapotherian ungulates , as well as gondwanatheres and possibly meridiolestidans . Marsupials are thought to have dispersed into Australia via Antarctica by
3264-423: The Antarctic Peninsula, are then subjected to higher temperatures, which accelerate the melting of the ice. Models suggest that ozone depletion and the enhanced polar vortex effect may also account for the period of increasing sea ice extent, lasting from when observation started in the late 1970s until 2014. Since then, the coverage of Antarctic sea ice has decreased rapidly. Most species in Antarctica seem to be
3360-529: The Antarctic Peninsula: Deschampsia antarctica (Antarctic hair grass), Colobanthus quitensis (Antarctic pearlwort) and the non-native Poa annua (annual bluegrass). Of the 700 species of algae in Antarctica, around half are marine phytoplankton . Multicoloured snow algae are especially abundant in the coastal regions during the summer. Even sea ice can harbour unique ecological communities, as it expels all salt from
3456-724: The BrAE (1907–09) and named by Shackleton for his eldest son, Raymond Swinford. The map of the BrAE (1910–13) and some subsequent maps transpose the positions of Swinford Glacier and Berwick Glacier. The latter lies 12 nautical miles (22 km; 14 mi) northeastward. The original appellation (BrAE, 1907–09) of Swinford Glacier is the one recommended. Not: Berwick Glacier. 84°36′S 165°45′E / 84.600°S 165.750°E / -84.600; 165.750 . A tributary glacier, 14 nautical miles (26 km; 16 mi) long, flowing southeast between Marshall Mountains and Adams Mountains to enter Beardmore Glacier at Willey Point . Named by BrAE (1907–09) after HMS Berwick ,
3552-778: The BrAE (1907–09) who named it for Sir John Scott Keltie , Secretary of the Royal Geographical Society, 1892-1915. 84°41′S 170°45′E / 84.683°S 170.750°E / -84.683; 170.750 . A narrow, deeply entrenched glacier just south of Mount Deakin in the Commonwealth Range, flowing west into Beardmore Glacier. Named by US-AC AN for Kenneth J. Osicki, USARP biologist at McMurdo Station, 1963. 84°27′S 172°40′E / 84.450°S 172.667°E / -84.450; 172.667 . A valley glacier, 13 nautical miles (24 km; 15 mi) long, flowing north through
3648-621: The BrAE (1910–13), for Apsley Cherry-Garrard , zoologist with the expedition. The name has been amended on the recommendation of the NZGSAE (1961–62) to be more descriptive of the feature. Not: Cherry Glacier. 84°12′S 169°45′E / 84.200°S 169.750°E / -84.200; 169.750 . A glacier in the Queen Alexandra Range, 15 nautical miles (28 km; 17 mi) long, flowing northeast to enter Beardmore Glacier just north of The Cloudmaker . Named by
3744-674: The Cambrian Period. It is built on a craton of rock, which is the basis of the Precambrian Shield . On top of the base are coal and sandstones, limestones, and shales that were laid down during the Devonian and Jurassic periods to form the Transantarctic Mountains. In coastal areas such as the Shackleton Range and Victoria Land, some faulting has occurred. Coal was first recorded in Antarctica near
3840-856: The Central Transantarctic Mountains on the western. Its mouth is east of the Lennox-King Glacier . It is northwest of the Ramsey Glacier . The glacier is one of the main passages through the Transantarctic Mountains to the great polar plateau beyond, and was one of the early routes to the South Pole despite its steep upward incline. The glacier was discovered and climbed by Ernest Shackleton during his Nimrod Expedition of 1908. Although Shackleton turned back at latitude 88° 23' S, just 97.5 nautical miles (180.6 km; 112.2 mi) from
3936-505: The Commonwealth Range to enter the east side of Beardmore Glacier at a point 12 nautical miles (22 km; 14 mi) north of Mount Donaldson. Named by US-ACAN for Lt. Cdr. Emmert E. Ludeman, USN, officer in charge at the Naval Air Facility, McMurdo Sound, 1958. 83°31′S 170°58′E / 83.517°S 170.967°E / -83.517; 170.967 . A low snow-filled pass between Cape Allen and Mount Hope at
Beardmore Glacier - Misplaced Pages Continue
4032-780: The Mill Stream Glacier, which in turn is fed by the Burgess Glacier. Above this point on the Mill Glacier are the Scott Icefalls. 84°53′S 170°20′E / 84.883°S 170.333°E / -84.883; 170.333 . A large glacier, 30 nautical miles (56 km; 35 mi) long, draining from Pain Névé southwest around the southern extremity of Commonwealth Range, and then northwest to enter Beardmore Glacier at Ranfurly Point. Discovered by
4128-433: The NZGSAE (1961–62) for Petty Officer Edgar Evans , a member of Scott's South Pole Party of the BrAE (1910-13), who died near here. 83°42′S 170°05′E / 83.700°S 170.083°E / -83.700; 170.083 . A small glacier descending the east slopes of Queen Alexandra Range just north of Owen Hills to enter the west side of Beardmore Glacier. Discovered by the BrAE (1907–09) and named for one of
4224-415: The NZGSAE (1961–62) for Ronald Hewson, surveyor with the expedition. 84°07′S 169°35′E / 84.117°S 169.583°E / -84.117; 169.583 A glacier in Queen Alexandra Range, draining eastward from the névé between Mount Lockwood and Mount Kirkpatrick and entering Beardmore Glacier soouth of Bell Bluff . It appears that BrAE (1910–13) applied the name "Garrard Glacier" to
4320-426: The Queen Alexandra Range to enter Beardmore Glacier at Sirohi Point . Discovered by BrAE (1907–09) and named for the mother of Dr. Eric Marshall , a member of Shackleton's South Polar Party. 83°47′S 170°00′E / 83.783°S 170.000°E / -83.783; 170.000 . A tributary glacier just south of Owen Hills , flowing east from the Queen Alexandra Range into Beardmore Glacier. Named by
4416-504: The Queen Alexandra Range, draining south into Berwick Glacier. Named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names (US-ACAN) for Construction Electrician P.R. Moody, United States Navy , at McMurdo Station , winter 1963. 84°29′S 167°10′E / 84.483°S 167.167°E / -84.483; 167.167 . A glacier 8 nautical miles (15 km; 9.2 mi) long in Queen Alexandra Range, draining south from
4512-587: The South Pole the romanised Greek name polus antarcticus , from which derived the Old French pole antartike (modern pôle antarctique ) attested in 1270, and from there the Middle English pol antartik , found first in a treatise written by the English author Geoffrey Chaucer . Belief by Europeans in the existence of a Terra Australis —a vast continent in the far south of
4608-540: The South Pole, he established the first proven route towards the pole and, in doing so, became the first person to set foot upon the polar plateau. In 1911–1912, Captain Scott and his Terra Nova Expedition team reached the South Pole by similarly climbing the Beardmore. However, they reached the pole a month after Roald Amundsen and his team , who had chosen a route up the previously unknown Axel Heiberg Glacier . It
4704-593: The West Antarctic, the ocean has warmed by 1 °C (1.8 °F) since 1955. The warming of the Southern Ocean around Antarctica has caused the weakening or collapse of ice shelves , which float just offshore of glaciers and stabilize them. Many coastal glaciers have been losing mass and retreating, causing net-annual ice loss across Antarctica, although the East Antarctic ice sheet continues to gain ice inland. By 2100, net ice loss from Antarctica
4800-634: The argument for extraterrestrial life in cold, methane -rich environments. The first international agreement to protect Antarctica's biodiversity was adopted in 1964. The overfishing of krill (an animal that plays a large role in the Antarctic ecosystem) led officials to enact regulations on fishing. The Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources , an international treaty that came into force in 1980, regulates fisheries, aiming to preserve ecological relationships. Despite these regulations, illegal fishing —particularly of
4896-416: The biodiversity in Antarctica is still at risk from human activities. Specially protected areas cover less than 2% of the area and provide better protection for animals with popular appeal than for less visible animals. There are more terrestrial protected areas than marine protected areas . Ecosystems are impacted by local and global threats, notably pollution , the invasion of non-native species , and
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#17327647877264992-584: The climate cooled, though flora remained. After deglaciation during the latter half of the Early Permian , the land became dominated by glossopterids (an extinct group of seed plants with no close living relatives), most prominently Glossopteris , a tree interpreted as growing in waterlogged soils, which formed extensive coal deposits. Other plants found in Antarctica during the Permian include Cordaitales , sphenopsids , ferns, and lycophytes . At
5088-527: The colonial authorities in Sydney officially renamed the continent of New Holland to Australia, leaving the term "Terra Australis" unavailable as a reference to Antarctica. Over the following decades, geographers used phrases such as "the Antarctic Continent". They searched for a more poetic replacement, suggesting names such as Ultima and Antipodea . Antarctica was adopted in the 1890s, with
5184-510: The continent as a World Park . The Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary was established in 1994 by the International Whaling Commission . It covers 50 million km (19 million sq mi) and completely surrounds the Antarctic continent. All commercial whaling is banned in the zone, though Japan has continued to hunt whales in the area, ostensibly for research purposes. Despite these protections,
5280-599: The continent's edge, strong katabatic winds off of the polar plateau often blow at storm force . During the summer, more solar radiation reaches the surface at the South Pole than at the equator because of the 24 hours of sunlight received there each day. Climate change caused by greenhouse gas emissions from human activities occurs everywhere on Earth, and while Antarctica is less vulnerable to it than any other continent, climate change in Antarctica has been observed. Since 1959, there has been an average temperature increase of >0.05 °C/decade since 1957 across
5376-496: The continent, although it had been uneven. West Antarctica warmed by over 0.1 °C/decade from the 1950s to the 2000s, and the exposed Antarctic Peninsula has warmed by 3 °C (5.4 °F) since the mid-20th century. The colder, stabler East Antarctica had been experiencing cooling until the 2000s. Around Antarctica, the Southern Ocean has absorbed more oceanic heat than any other ocean, and has seen strong warming at depths below 2,000 m (6,600 ft). Around
5472-402: The creation of small yet permanent polar ice caps. As CO 2 levels declined further the ice began to spread rapidly, replacing the forests that until then had covered Antarctica. Tundra ecosystems continued to exist on Antarctica until around 14-10 million years ago, when further cooling lead to their extermination. The geology of Antarctica, largely obscured by the continental ice sheet,
5568-549: The descendants of species that lived there millions of years ago. As such, they must have survived multiple glacial cycles . The species survived the periods of extremely cold climate in isolated warmer areas , such as those with geothermal heat or areas that remained ice-free throughout the colder climate. Invertebrate life of Antarctica includes species of microscopic mites such as Alaskozetes antarcticus , lice , nematodes , tardigrades , rotifers , krill and springtails . The few terrestrial invertebrates are limited to
5664-582: The early Eocene. Around 53 Ma, Australia- New Guinea separated from Antarctica, opening the Tasmanian Passage . The Drake Passage opened between Antarctica and South America around 30 Ma, resulting in the creation of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current that completely isolated the continent. Models of Antarctic geography suggest that this current, as well as a feedback loop caused by lowering CO 2 levels, caused
5760-414: The elevated inland, it can rise to about −30 °C in summer but fall below −80 °C in winter. The lowest natural air temperature ever recorded on Earth was −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F) at the Russian Vostok Station in Antarctica on 21 July 1983. A lower air temperature of −94.7 °C (−138.5 °F) was recorded in 2010 by satellite—however, it may have been influenced by ground temperatures and
5856-553: The end of that period. During the colder Neogene (17–2.5 Ma), a tundra ecosystem replaced the rainforests. The climate of present-day Antarctica does not allow extensive vegetation to form. A combination of freezing temperatures, poor soil quality , and a lack of moisture and sunlight inhibit plant growth, causing low species diversity and limited distribution. The flora largely consists of bryophytes (25 species of liverworts and 100 species of mosses ). There are three species of flowering plants , all of which are found in
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#17327647877265952-415: The end of the Permian, the climate became drier and hotter over much of Gondwana, and the glossopterid forest ecosystems collapsed, as part of the End-Permian mass extinction . There is no evidence of any tetrapods having lived in Antarctica during the Paleozoic. The continued warming dried out much of Gondwana. During the Triassic, Antarctica was dominated by seed ferns (pteridosperms) belonging to
6048-506: The feature which had been named Bingley Glacier by Shackleton in 1908. The area was surveyed by NZGSAE (1961–62), who retained Bingley Glacier on the basis of priority and reapplied the name Garrard Glacier to this previously unnamed feature. Named for Apsley Cherry-Garrard , zoologist with BrAE (1910-13). 83°58′S 170°00′E / 83.967°S 170.000°E / -83.967; 170.000 . A tributary glacier, 13 nautical miles (24 km; 15 mi) long, flowing east from
6144-454: The first to reach the magnetic South Pole in 1909, and the geographic South Pole was first reached in 1911 by Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen . Antarctica is governed by about 30 countries , all of which are parties of the 1959 Antarctic Treaty System . According to the terms of the treaty, military activity, mining, nuclear explosions , and nuclear waste disposal are all prohibited in Antarctica. Tourism , fishing and research are
6240-417: The first use of the name being attributed to the Scottish cartographer John George Bartholomew . Antarctica has also been known by the moniker Great White South , after which British photographer Herbert Ponting named one of his books on Antarctic photography, possibly as a counterpart to the epithet Great White North for Canada . Positioned asymmetrically around the South Pole and largely south of
6336-402: The gap of 12,000 km (7,456 mi). Large animals such as some cetaceans and birds make the round trip annually. Smaller forms of life, such as sea cucumbers and free-swimming snails , are also found in both polar oceans. Factors that may aid in their distribution include temperature differences between the deep ocean at the poles and the equator of no more than 5 °C (9 °F) and
6432-435: The genus Dicroidium , which grew as trees. Other associated Triassic flora included ginkgophytes , cycadophytes , conifers , and sphenopsids. Tetrapods first appeared in Antarctica during the early Triassic , with the earliest known fossils found in the Fremouw Formation of the Transantarctic Mountains. Synapsids (also known as "mammal-like reptiles") included species such as Lystrosaurus , and were common during
6528-469: The globe to balance the northern lands of Europe, Asia, and North Africa—had existed as an intellectual concept since classical antiquity . The belief in such a land lasted until the European discovery of Australia . During the early 19th century, explorer Matthew Flinders doubted the existence of a detached continent south of Australia (then called New Holland ) and thus advocated for the "Terra Australis" name to be used for Australia instead. In 1824,
6624-460: The highly prized Patagonian toothfish which is marketed as Chilean sea bass in the U.S.—remains a problem. In analogy to the 1980 treaty on sustainable fishing , countries led by New Zealand and the United States negotiated a treaty on mining. This Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities was adopted in 1988. After a strong campaign from environmental organisations, first Australia and then France decided not to ratify
6720-416: The islands of the Kerguelen Plateau , the earliest of which formed around 40 Ma . Vinson Massif , in the Ellsworth Mountains , is the highest peak in Antarctica at 4,892 m (16,050 ft). Mount Erebus on Ross Island is the world's southernmost active volcano and erupts around 10 times each day. Ash from eruptions has been found 300 kilometres (190 mi) from the volcanic crater . There
6816-550: The left (northwest, Queen Alexandra Range) from west to east include Table Bay and Swinford Glacier near the head. In the central section left tributaries are Berwick Glacier, fed from the left by Moody Glacier, Bingley Glacier, Cherry Icefall, Hewson Glacier and Garrard Glacier. In the lower section the left tributaries include Alice Glacier, Evans Glacier and Socks Glacier. 84°47′S 163°30′E / 84.783°S 163.500°E / -84.783; 163.500 . A small glacier between Mount Augusta and Mount Holloway in
6912-467: The main human activities in and around Antarctica. During the summer months, about 5,000 people reside at research stations , a figure that drops to around 1,000 in the winter. Despite the continent's remoteness, human activity has a significant effect on it via pollution , ozone depletion , and climate change . The melting of the potentially unstable West Antarctic ice sheet causes the most uncertainty in century-scale projections of sea level rise , and
7008-814: The major current systems or marine conveyor belts which are able to transport eggs and larva . About 1,150 species of fungi have been recorded in the Antarctic region, of which about 750 are non- lichen -forming. Some of the species, having evolved under extreme conditions, have colonised structural cavities within porous rocks and have contributed to shaping the rock formations of the McMurdo Dry Valleys and surrounding mountain ridges. The simplified morphology of such fungi, along with their similar biological structures , metabolism systems capable of remaining active at very low temperatures, and reduced life cycles, make them well suited to such environments. Their thick-walled and strongly melanised cells make them resistant to UV radiation. An Antarctic endemic species,
7104-671: The many Antarctic ice shelves , a process described by ice-sheet dynamics . East Antarctica comprises Coats Land , Queen Maud Land , Enderby Land , Mac . Robertson Land , Wilkes Land , and Victoria Land. All but a small portion of the region lies within the Eastern Hemisphere . East Antarctica is largely covered by the East Antarctic Ice Sheet . There are numerous islands surrounding Antarctica, most of which are volcanic and very young by geological standards. The most prominent exceptions to this are
7200-505: The mouth of Beardmore Glacier. The point forms the west side of the south approach to The Gateway. Discovered by the BrAE (1907–09) and named for Robert Calder Allen of the Franklin Relief Expedition to the Arctic. 83°43′S 172°37′E / 83.717°S 172.617°E / -83.717; 172.617 . Two rock nunataks 2 nautical miles (3.7 km; 2.3 mi) north-north-west of Airdrop Peak at
7296-560: The north end of Ebony Ridge . The nunataks lie at the E side of the terminus of Beardmore Glacier and mark the northern termination of the Commonwealth Range at Ross Ice Shelf. The descriptive name was recommended to US-ACAN by John Gunner of the Ohio State University Institute of Polar Studies, who, with Henry H. Brecher, measured a geological section here on Jan. 16, 1970. Antarctica Antarctica ( / æ n ˈ t ɑːr k t ɪ k ə / )
7392-587: The north'). Antarcticus is derived from the Greek ἀντι- ('anti-') and ἀρκτικός ('of the Bear ', 'northern'). The Greek philosopher Aristotle wrote in Meteorology about an "Antarctic region" in c. 350 BCE . The Greek geographer Marinus of Tyre reportedly used the name in his world map from the second century CE, now lost. The Roman authors Gaius Julius Hyginus and Apuleius used for
7488-567: The northeast extremity of Queen Alexandra Range, affording passage from Ross Ice Shelf to the mouth of Beardmore Glacier westward of Mount Hope. Discovered by the Southern Polar Party of the BrAE (1907–09) and so named because the pass was used to enter Beardmore Glacier. Not: The Gap. 83°33′S 171°00′E / 83.550°S 171.000°E / -83.550; 171.000 . A bare rock point located 3 nautical miles (5.6 km; 3.5 mi) southwest of Mount Hope, near
7584-578: The ocean around Antarctica, including some that normally reside in the Arctic. The emperor penguin is the only penguin that breeds during the winter in Antarctica; it and the Adélie penguin breed farther south than any other penguin. A Census of Marine Life by some 500 researchers during the International Polar Year was released in 2010. The research found that more than 235 marine organisms live in both polar regions, having bridged
7680-658: The ponies taken with the South Pole Party. Socks, the last pony to survive the journey, fell into a crevasse on Dec. 7, 1908, on Beardmore Glacier near Socks Glacier. Tributaries from the right (southeast, Queen Maud Mountains), just below the head of the Beardmore Glacier, are the large Mill Glacier and the large Keltie Glacier, then the smaller Osicki Glacier and Ludeman Glacier. 85°10′S 168°30′E / 85.167°S 168.500°E / -85.167; 168.500 . A tributary glacier, 10 nautical miles (19 km; 12 mi) wide, flowing northwest between
7776-424: The record for the lowest measured temperature on Earth , −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F). The coastal regions can reach temperatures over 10 °C (50 °F) in the summer. Native species of animals include mites , nematodes , penguins , seals and tardigrades . Where vegetation occurs, it is mostly in the form of lichen or moss . The ice shelves of Antarctica were probably first seen in 1820, during
7872-539: The saline Antarctic bottom water , weakening the lower cell of the Southern Ocean overturning circulation (SOOC). According to some research, a full collapse of the SOOC may occur a between 1.7 °C (3.1 °F) and 3 °C (5.4 °F) of global warming, although the full effects are expected to occur over multiple centuries; these include less precipitation in the Southern Hemisphere but more in
7968-480: The same melting also affects the Southern Ocean overturning circulation , which can eventually lead to significant impacts on the Southern Hemisphere climate and Southern Ocean productivity. The name given to the continent originates from the word antarctic , which comes from Middle French antartique or antarctique ('opposite to the Arctic ') and, in turn, the Latin antarcticus ('opposite to
8064-570: The slopes of Mount Kirkpatrick , Mount Dickerson and Barnes Peak and entering Beardmore Glacier just north of Adams Mountains . Named by E.H. Shackleton (BrAE, 1907–09) after Bingley , England, the ancestral home of the Shackleton family. 84°27′S 167°40′E / 84.450°S 167.667°E / -84.450; 167.667 . A small, steep icefall on the south side, of Barnes Peak in Queen Alexandra Range, descending toward Beardmore Glacier. Originally named "Cherry Glacier" by
8160-438: The south part of Queen Alexandra Range draining eastward into Beardmore Glacier at Lizard Point. Evidently named by the Southern Polar Party of the BrAE (1910–13) because of its appearance. The term "Bay" is obviously a misnomer, but it has been retained because of uniform usage for over fifty years. 84°48′S 163°40′E / 84.800°S 163.667°E / -84.800; 163.667 . A low morainic point along
8256-406: The species of fungi, which are apparently endemic to Antarctica, live in bird dung, and have evolved so they can grow inside extremely cold dung, but can also pass through the intestines of warm-blooded animals. Throughout its history, Antarctica has seen a wide variety of plant life. In the Cretaceous , it was dominated by a fern- conifer ecosystem, which changed into a temperate rainforest by
8352-683: The sub-Antarctic islands. The flightless midge Belgica antarctica , the largest purely terrestrial animal in Antarctica, reaches 6 mm ( 1 ⁄ 4 in) in size. Antarctic krill , which congregates in large schools , is the keystone species of the ecosystem of the Southern Ocean, being an important food organism for whales, seals, leopard seals , fur seals, squid , icefish , and many bird species, such as penguins and albatrosses . Some species of marine animals exist and rely, directly or indirectly, on phytoplankton . Antarctic sea life includes penguins , blue whales , orcas , colossal squids and fur seals . The Antarctic fur seal
8448-592: The treaty. Instead, countries adopted the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (the Madrid Protocol), which entered into force in 1998. The Madrid Protocol bans all mining, designating the continent as a "natural reserve devoted to peace and science". The pressure group Greenpeace established a base on Ross Island from 1987 to 1992 as part of its attempt to establish
8544-470: The various effects of climate change . Early world maps, like the 1513 Piri Reis map , feature the hypothetical continent Terra Australis . Much larger than and unrelated to Antarctica, Terra Australis was a landmass that classical scholars presumed necessary to balance the known lands in the northern hemisphere. Captain James Cook 's ships, HMS Resolution and Adventure , crossed
8640-412: The water when it freezes, which accumulates into pockets of brine that also harbour dormant microorganisms. When the ice begins to melt, brine pockets expand and can combine to form brine channels, and the algae inside the pockets can reawaken and thrive until the next freeze. Bacteria have also been found as deep as 800 m (0.50 mi) under the ice. It is thought to be likely that there exists
8736-454: The west of Skaar Ridge and Buckley Island. The Shackleton Icefalls extend across the southern stream, to the south of Mount Darwin and Buckley Island. 85°08′S 164°00′E / 85.133°S 164.000°E / -85.133; 164.000 . Extensive icefalls of the upper Beardmore Glacier, southward of Mount Darwin and Mount Mills. Named by the British Antarctic Expedition, 1910–13 (BrAE) for Sir Ernest Shackleton, leader of
8832-425: The west side of upper Beardmore Glacier, marking the south side of the entrance to glacier-filled Table Bay. Named by the BrAE, 1910-13. 84°45′S 164°10′E / 84.750°S 164.167°E / -84.750; 164.167 . A tributary glacier, 6 nautical miles (11 km; 6.9 mi) long, flowing southeast between Mount Holloway and Marshall Mountains to enter Beardmore Glacier. Discovered by
8928-529: Was cooler, though fossils of land plants are known from then. Sand and silts were laid down in what is now the Ellsworth, Horlick , and Pensacola Mountains . Antarctica became glaciated during the Late Paleozoic icehouse beginning at the end of the Devonian period (360 Ma), though glaciation would substantially increase during the late Carboniferous . It drifted closer to the South Pole, and
9024-472: Was not recorded at a height of 2 m (7 ft) above the surface as required for official air temperature records. Antarctica is a polar desert with little precipitation ; the continent receives an average equivalent to about 150 mm (6 in) of water per year, mostly in the form of snow. The interior is dryer and receives less than 50 mm (2 in) per year, whereas the coastal regions typically receive more than 200 mm (8 in). In
9120-565: Was on the way back to the Terra Nova expedition's base camp after they left the South Pole that Edgar Evans , one of the members of Scott's chosen team to go on to the final trek to the South Pole, died around the foot of Beardmore Glacier on February 17, 1912. Beardmore Glacier was named by Shackleton after Sir William Beardmore , a Scottish industrialist and expedition sponsor. However, Ranulph Fiennes writes that Shackleton had previously told Beardmore's wife, Elspeth, that he would name
9216-566: Was very heavily hunted in the 18th and 19th centuries for its pelt by seal hunters from the United States and the United Kingdom. Leopard seals are apex predators in the Antarctic ecosystem and migrate across the Southern Ocean in search of food. There are approximately 40 bird species that breed on or close to Antarctica, including species of petrels , penguins , cormorants , and gulls . Various other bird species visit
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