This is an accepted version of this page
133-511: The Bergmönch ("mountain monk "; German: [ˈbɛʁkˌmœnç] ) is a mountain spirit from German folklore . He is also known as Meister Hämmerling ("master hammering guy"). The appearance of the Bergmönch is like a giant in size. He has white hair and fiery looking eyes as large as dining plates. The mountain spirit wears a black hooded cowl as used by monks; this gave rise to his name Bergmönch . He also can be dressed like
266-431: A habit , books etc.), and to live meekly, sharing whatever they might have with the poor. Chastity requires that since they were willing to dedicate their lives to God, they sacrificed the love between men and women and stay either virginal or chaste. To become a monk, one first must be accepted by a community as a postulant . During the time of postulancy the man lives at the monastery to test his vocation, to get to know
399-488: A monastery , whether they live there in a community ( cenobites ), or in seclusion ( recluses ). The basic idea of monasticism in all its varieties is seclusion or withdrawal from the world or society. Monastic life is distinct from the "religious orders" such as the friars , canons regular , clerks regular , and the more recent religious congregations . The latter has essentially some special work or aim, such as preaching, teaching, liberating captives, etc., which occupies
532-490: A center of monastic culture and learning, and many later monks and bishops would pass through Lérins in the early stages of their career. Honoratus was called to be Bishop of Arles . John Cassian began his monastic career at a monastery in Palestine and Egypt around 385 to study monastic practice there. In Egypt, he had been attracted to the isolated life of hermits, which he considered the highest form of monasticism, yet
665-436: A great deal of serious commitment. Within the cenobitic community, all monks conform to a common way of living based on the traditions of that particular monastery. In struggling to attain this conformity, the monastic comes to realize his own shortcomings and is guided by his spiritual father in how to deal honestly with them. For this same reason, bishops are almost always chosen from the ranks of monks. Eastern monasticism
798-568: A hermit in a cave near Subiaco, Italy. He was asked to be head over several monks who wished to change to the monastic style of Pachomius by living in the community. Between the years 530 and 560, he wrote the Rule of Saint Benedict as a guideline for monks living in community. Scholars such as Lester K. Little attribute the rise of monasticism at this time to the immense changes in the church brought about by Constantine 's legalization of Christianity. The subsequent transformation of Christianity into
931-663: A high level of spiritual excellence reach the final stage, called the Great Schema . The tonsure of a Schemamonk follows the same format as the Stavrophore, and he makes the same vows and is tonsured in the same manner. But in addition to all the garments worn by the Stavrophore, he is given the Analavos (Church Slavonic: Analav ) which is the article of monastic vesture emblematic of the Great Schema. For this reason,
1064-541: A house for carpenters, a house for agriculturists, and so forth. But other principles of division seem to have been employed, e.g., there was a house for the Greeks. On Saturdays and Sundays, all the monks assembled in the church for Mass; on other days the Office and other spiritual exercises were celebrated in the houses. From a secular point of view, a monastery was an industrial community in which almost every kind of trade
1197-466: A large place in their activities. While monks have undertaken labors of the most varied character, in every case this work is extrinsic to the essence of the monastic state. Monks and friars are two distinct roles. In the thirteenth century "...new orders of friars were founded to teach the Christian faith," because monasteries had declined. Both ways of living out the Christian life are regulated by
1330-688: A lay condition—monks depended on a local parish church for the sacraments . However, if the monastery was isolated in the desert, as were many of the Egyptian examples, that inconvenience compelled monasteries either to take in priest members, to have their abbot or other members ordained. A priest-monk is sometimes called a hieromonk . In many cases in Eastern Orthodoxy , when a bishopric needed to be filled, they would look to nearby monasteries to find suitable candidates, being good sources of men who were spiritually mature and generally possessing
1463-485: A leather belt is fastened around his waist. His habit is usually black (an archaic synonym for "monk" was Russian : чернец , romanized : chernets , lit. 'black one'; the female equivalent is Russian : черница , romanized : chernitsa ), signifying that he is now dead to the world, and he receives a new monastic name . Although the Rassophore does not make formal vows, he
SECTION 10
#17327726471981596-528: A life of full dedication to spiritual pursuits, is the highest stage of life in the varnasrama society. It is permanent and one cannot give it up. A Sannyasi is given the title Swami . Older grihastha with grown-up children are traditionally expected to accept vanaprastha (celibate retired) life. Christian monasticism Christian monasticism is a religious way of life of Christians who live ascetic and typically cloistered lives that are dedicated to Christian worship. It began to develop early in
1729-534: A light for monks, monks are a light for laymen" ( St. John Klimakos ). Eastern Orthodox monastics separate themselves from the world in order to pray unceasingly for the world. They do not, in general, have as their primary purpose the running of social services, but instead are concerned with attaining theosis , or union with God. However, care for the poor and needy has always been an obligation of monasticism, so not all monasteries are "cloistered". The level of contact will vary from community to community. Hermits, on
1862-573: A miner. As such he is called Meister Hämmerling . Additionally, he can take the shape of a horse with long neck and terrible looking eyes, and is also able to become invisible. The residence of the Bergmönch are pits and mines in the mountains. There he is active as well deep in the pits as up on the surface. Especially on Fridays this mountain spirit is very busy. He fills the excavated ores from one bucket to another. The Bergmönch should be given his head because he will violate anyone who dares to scold his futile effort. The mountain spirit generally
1995-546: A monastery begin their lives as novices. After coming to the monastery and living as a guest for not less than three days, the revered abbot or abbess may bless the candidate to become a novice. There is no formal ceremony for the clothing of a novice, he or she simply receives permission to wear the clothing of a novice. In the Eastern monastic tradition, novices may or may not dress in the black inner cassock (Greek: Anterion , Eisorasson ; Church Slavonic: Podriasnik ) and wear
2128-601: A monk, which is death to self and to the world and life to God and to his work. A monk is to be an instrument of God's work. Stability entails that the monk commit himself to the monastery for the remainder of his life, and so, upon death, will be buried at its cemetery. The vow of stability (stabilitas loci) is unique to Benedictines. The solemn vows in other religious orders were eventually established as vows of poverty, chastity and obedience. Poverty requires that they renounce any ownership of property or assets, except for items that were allowed to them by their superior (such as
2261-431: A novice chooses to leave during the period of the novitiate, no penalty is incurred. He may also be asked to leave at any time if his behaviour does not conform to the monastic life, or if the superior discerns that he is not called to monasticism. When the abbot or abbess deems the novice ready, he is asked if he wishes to join the monastery. Some, out of humility, will choose to remain novices all their lives. Every stage of
2394-509: A predominantly monastic group but nowadays the majority of members live as lay persons. Many of them, however, spent some time as monks. New persons joining ISKCON as full-time members (living in its centers) first undergo a three-month Bhakta training, which includes learning the basics of brahmacari (monastic) life. After that they can decide if they prefer to continue as monks or as married Grihasthas . Brahmacari older than 50 years (per ISKCON rule) can become sannyasi . Sannyasa ,
2527-465: A priest, or if the monastic community is a convent, a hieromonk will perform the service. The abbot or hieromonk who performs a tonsure must be of at least the rank he is tonsuring into. In other words, only a hieromonk who has been tonsured into the Great Schema may himself tonsure a Schemamonk. A bishop, however, may tonsure into any rank, regardless of his own. Novice ( Church Slavonic : Poslushnik ), lit. "one under obedience"— Those wishing to join
2660-504: A profound evangelical and theological basis. At the time of his conversion in Milan in the years 386–387, Augustine was aware of the life of Saint Anthony in the desert of Egypt. Upon his return to Africa as a Christian in the year 388, however, Augustine and a few Christian friends founded at Thagaste a lay community. They became cenobites in the countryside rather than in the desert. Saint Benedict (c. 480 – 547 AD) lived for many years as
2793-548: A water strainer. In Vajrayana Buddhism, monkhood is part of the system of 'vows of individual liberation'; these vows are taken in order to develop one's own personal ethical discipline. The monks and nuns form the (ordinary) sangha . As for the Vajrayana vows of individual liberation, there are four steps: A lay person may take the 5 vows called 'approaching virtue' (in Tibetan ' genyen ' < dge snyan >). The next step
SECTION 20
#17327726471982926-697: A work of such importance that many Orthodox monasteries to this day read it publicly either during the Divine Services or in Trapeza during Great Lent . At the height of the East Roman Empire, numerous great monasteries were established by the emperors, including the twenty "sovereign monasteries" on the Holy Mountain , an actual "monastic republic" wherein the entire country is devoted to bringing souls closer to God. In this milieu,
3059-589: Is a dispersed religious order within Methodism, though being ecumenical , it accepts believers of other Christian denominations. The Emmanuel Sisters is a convent of the Presbyterian Church in Cameroon that was founded by Magdaline Marie Handy. These nuns are engaged in prayer, teaching, and healthcare. In Eastern Orthodoxy , monasticism holds a very special and important place: "Angels are
3192-461: Is also known as the Little Schema , and is considered to be a "betrothal" to the Great Schema. At this stage, the monk makes formal vows of stability, chastity, obedience and poverty . Then he is tonsured and clothed in the habit, which in addition to that worn by the Rassophore, includes the paramandyas (Church Slavonic: paraman ), a piece of square cloth worn on the back, embroidered with
3325-477: Is also no division between the "active" and "contemplative" life. Orthodox monastic life embraces both active and contemplative aspects. Within the Eastern Orthodox Church , there exist three types of monasticism: eremitic, cenobitic, and the skete . The skete is a very small community, often of two or three ( Matthew 18:20 ), under the direction of an Elder . They pray privately for most of
3458-504: Is among the Russians, for whom it is normally reserved to hermits, or to very advanced monastics. The Schema monk or Schema nun wears the same habit as the Rassophore, but to it is added the Analavos (Church Slavonic: Analav ), a garment shaped like a cross, covering the shoulders and coming down to the knees (or lower) in front and in back. This garment is roughly reminiscent of the scapular worn by some Roman Catholic orders, but it
3591-446: Is an erratic and dangerous being. His breath is poisonous, able to kill twelve people at once. Also, he sometimes grasps a miner and puts him down at another place with so much strength that the miner's limbs are shattered. The mountain spirit loves hoaxing and is known as a very hot-tempered person. He doesn't like being denied or joked about and will surely punish those who deny him. The Bergmönch can also be just and helpful, guarding
3724-513: Is ancient and can be seen in many religions and in philosophy. The Greek word for "monk" may be applied to or women. In English, however, "monk" is applied mainly to men, while nun is typically used for female monastics. Although the term monachos is of Christian origin, in the English language monk tends to be used loosely also for both male and female ascetics from other religious or philosophical backgrounds. However, being generic, it
3857-451: Is characterized by a complete withdrawal from society. The word 'eremitic' comes from the Greek word eremos , which means desert. This name was given because of St. Anthony of Egypt, who left civilization behind to live on a solitary Egyptian mountain in the third century. Though he was probably not the first Christian hermit, he is recognized as such as he was the first known one. Paul
3990-587: Is finely embroidered with the Cross and instruments of the Passion (see illustration, above). The Klobuk worn by a Schema monk is also embroidered with a red cross and other symbols. the Klobuk may be shaped differently, more rounded at the top, in which case it is referred to as a koukoulion . The skufia worn by a Schema monk is also more intricately embroidered. The religious habit worn by Eastern Orthodox monastics
4123-408: Is found in three distinct forms: anchoritic (a solitary living in isolation), cenobitic (a community living and worshiping together under the direct rule of an abbot or abbess), and the "middle way" between the two, known as the skete (a community of individuals living separately but in close proximity to one another, who come together only on Sundays and feast days, working and praying the rest of
Bergmönch - Misplaced Pages Continue
4256-498: Is likewise called a monastery. Many (but not all) Eastern Orthodox seminaries are attached to monasteries, combining academic preparation for ordination with participation in the community's life of prayer, and hopefully benefiting from the example and wise counsel of the monks. Bishops are required by the sacred canons of the Eastern Orthodox Church to be chosen from among the monastic clergy. The requirement
4389-584: Is not interchangeable with terms that denote particular kinds of monk, such as cenobite , hermit , anchorite , hesychast , or solitary. Traditions of Christian monasticism exist in major Christian denominations, with religious orders being present in Catholicism, Lutheranism, Oriental Orthodoxy, Eastern Orthodoxy, Reformed Christianity (Calvinism), Anglicanism and Methodism. Indian religions, including Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism, also have monastic traditions as well. In Theravada Buddhism, bhikkhu
4522-832: Is now the largest Anglican community in the world with over 450 brothers in the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines and the United Kingdom . The Saint Brigid of Kildare Monastery is a double monastery of the United Methodist Church rooted in the Benedictine tradition, being located in Collegeville, Minnesota . Besides monastic orders, the Order of Saint Luke
4655-426: Is specifically that they be monastics, not simply celibate (see clerical celibacy ). Monks who have been ordained to the priesthood are called hieromonks (priest-monks); monks who have been ordained to the diaconate are called hierodeacons (deacon-monks). A Schemamonk who is a priest is called a Hieroschemamonk. Most monks are not ordained; a community will normally only present as many candidates for ordination to
4788-500: Is still morally obligated to continue in the monastic estate for the rest of his life. Some will remain Rassophores permanently, without going on to the higher degrees. Stavrophore (Church Slavonic: Krestonosets ), lit. "Cross-bearer"—The next level for Eastern monastics takes place some years after the first tonsure when the abbot feels the monk has reached an appropriate level of discipline, dedication, and humility. This degree
4921-701: Is the equivalent of the Pali term bhikkhuni ; bhikkhu is the word used in Theravada Buddhism (Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand). Chinese Buddhist monks have been traditionally and stereotypically linked with the practice of the Chinese martial arts or Kung fu , and monks are frequently important characters in martial arts films . This association is focused around the Shaolin Monastery . The Buddhist monk Bodhidharma , traditionally credited as
5054-464: Is the same for both monks and nuns, except that the nuns wear an additional veil, called an apostolnik . The central and unifying feature of Eastern Orthodox monasticism is Hesychasm , the practice of silence, and the concentrated saying of the Jesus Prayer . All ascetic practices and monastic humility is guided towards preparing the heart for theoria or the "divine vision" that comes from
5187-502: Is the term for monk. Their disciplinary code is called the patimokkha , which is part of the larger Vinaya . They live lives of mendicancy , and go on a morning almsround ( Pali : pindapata ) every day. The local people give food for the monks to eat, though the monks are not permitted to positively ask for anything. The monks live in monasteries, and have an important function in traditional Asian society. Young boys can be ordained as samaneras . Both bhikkhus and samaneras eat only in
5320-404: Is the token of a consecrated life, and symbolizes the cutting off of their self-will. The process of becoming a monk is intentionally slow, as the vows taken are considered to entail a lifelong commitment to God, and are not to be entered into lightly. In Eastern Orthodox monasticism, after the completion of the novitiate there are three ranks of monasticism. There is only one monastic habit in
5453-403: Is to enter the monastic way of life (Tib. rabjung ) which includes wearing monk's or nun's robes . After that, one can become a 'novice' (Pali samanera , Tib. getshül ); the last and final step is to take all vows of the 'fully ordained monk' ( gelong ). This term 'gelong' (Tib. < dge long >, in the female form gelongma ) is the translation of Skt. bikshu (for women bikshuni ) which
Bergmönch - Misplaced Pages Continue
5586-525: The Lausiac History , after the prefect Lausus, to whom it was addressed). Saint Athanasius of Alexandria (whose Life of Saint Anthony the Great set the pattern for monastic hagiography ), Saint Jerome , and other anonymous compilers were also responsible for setting down very influential accounts. Also of great importance are the writings surrounding the communities founded by Saint Pachomius,
5719-772: The Catholic Church and made himself the head of the Church of England . He initiated the Dissolution of the Monasteries , during which all of the monasteries within England were destroyed. A large number of monks were executed. Others fled to continental European monasteries where they were able to continue their monastic life. Shortly after the beginning of the Anglo-Catholic Movement in
5852-514: The Cistercians and the Trappists . Benedict founded the great Monte Cassino in 529. Benedict pointed out in his rule stability, conversion of life and obedience as promises. Obedience calls for the monk to obey Christ, as represented by the superior person of the monastery, which is an abbot or a prior . Conversion of life means, generally, that the monk converts himself to the way of
5985-780: The Episcopal Church in the United States, Dominicans . There are also uniquely Anglican monastic orders such as the Society of Saint John the Evangelist and the Community of the Resurrection at Mirfield . Some Anglican religious communities are contemplative, some active, but a distinguishing feature of the monastic life among Anglicans is that most practice the so-called "mixed life". Anglican monks recite
6118-592: The Greater Asketikon and Lesser Asketikon of St. Basil the Great and the Philokalia , which was compiled by St. Nikodemos of the Holy Mountain and St. Makarios of Corinth. Hesychasm is of primary importance in the ascetical theology of the Eastern Orthodox Church. Most communities are self-supporting, and the monastic's daily life is usually divided into three parts: (a) communal worship in
6251-812: The Kingdom of Heaven . Among the Greeks, the mantle is added at this stage. The paramandyas of the Megaloschemos is larger than that of the Stavrophore, and if he wears the klobuk, it is of a distinctive thimble shape, called a koukoulion , the veil of which is usually embroidered with crosses. In some monastic traditions the Great Schema is only given to monks and nuns on their death bed, while in others they may be elevated after as little as 25 years of service. Eastern Orthodox monks are addressed as "father" even if they are not priests; but when conversing among themselves, monks will often address one another as "Brother". Novices are always referred to as "Brother". Among
6384-691: The Norbertines ) and the clerics regular (such as the Jesuits ) live in community, they are neither monks nor friars as they are characterized by their clerical state and not by any monastic vows. Loccum Abbey and Amelungsborn Abbey have the longest traditions as Lutheran monasteries; after the Reformation, many monasteries and convents were received into the Lutheran Church and continued religious life, existing to this day. Since
6517-530: The Philokalia was compiled. As the Great Schism between East and West grew, conflict arose over misunderstandings about Hesychasm . Saint Gregory Palamas , bishop of Thessalonica , an experienced Athonite monk, defended Eastern Orthodox spirituality against the critiques of Barlaam of Calabria , and left numerous important works on the spiritual life. Christian monasticism was and continued to be
6650-488: The catholicon (the monastery's main church); (b) hard manual labour; and (c) private prayer, spiritual study, and rest when necessary. Meals are usually taken in common in a sizable dining hall known as a trapeza (refectory), at elongated refectory tables . Food is usually simple and is eaten in silence while one of the brethren reads aloud from the spiritual writings of the Holy Fathers . The monastic lifestyle takes
6783-416: The dwarves , which are most commonly called Zwerge (sg. Zwerg ) but are also known under a wide range of other names such as Bergmännchen (sg., pl.; "mountain manikins") or Erdkobolde ("earth Kobolds "; sg. Erdkobold ). They are said to often appear in droves. A malevolent mountain spirit of Swabian salt pits is the long-nosed Halgeist or Haalgeist (both "salt ghost") which throws everyone over
SECTION 50
#17327726471986916-542: The eremitical or secluded, (b) the cenobitical or city life. St. Anthony the Abbot may be called the founder of the first and St. Pachomius of the second. The monastic life is based on Jesus 's amen to "be perfect, therefore, as your heavenly Father is perfect" ( Matthew 5:48). This ideal, also called the state of perfection , can be seen, for example, in the Philokalia , a book of monastic writings. Their manner of self-renunciation has three elements corresponding to
7049-758: The "Vita Antonii" some years later and its translation into Latin spread the knowledge of Egyptian monachism widely and many were found in Italy to imitate the example thus set forth. The first Italian monks aimed at reproducing exactly what was done in Egypt and not a few—such as Saint Jerome , Rufinus , Paula , Eustochium and the two Melanias ( Elder and Younger )—actually went to live in Egypt or Palestine as being better suited to monastic life than Italy. The earliest phases of monasticism in Western Europe involved figures like Martin of Tours , who after serving in
7182-402: The "devout", who usually lived not in the deserts but on the edge of inhabited places, still remaining in the world but practicing asceticism and striving for union with God. In ante-Nicene asceticism, a man would lead a single life, practice long and frequent fasts, abstain from meat and wine, and support himself, if he were able, by some small handicraft, keeping of what he earned only so much as
7315-642: The 19th and 20th century, there has been a renewal in the monastic life among Lutheranism. Lutheran religious orders in the Franciscan, Benedictine and other traditions exist, with some Lutheran monasteries having third orders and accepting oblates . In American Lutheran traditions, "The Congregation of the Servants of Christ" was established at St. Augustine's House in Oxford, Michigan , in 1958 when some other men joined Father Arthur Kreinheder in observing
7448-581: The Church of England, there was felt to be a need for a restoration of the monastic life. In the 1840s, the then Anglican priest and future Catholic Cardinal John Henry Newman established a community of men at Littlemore near Oxford . From then on, there have been established many communities of monks, friars and other religious communities for men in the Anglican Communion . There are Anglican Benedictines , Franciscans , Cistercians , and in
7581-660: The Divine Office in choir daily, either the full eight services of the Breviary or the four offices found in the Book of Common Prayer and celebrate the Eucharist daily. Many orders take on external works such as service to the poor, giving religious retreats, or other active ministries within their immediate communities. Like Catholic monks, Anglican monks also take the monastic vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience. In
7714-614: The East from the hermits living in the deserts of Egypt to Palestine, Syria, and on up into Asia Minor and beyond, the sayings ( apophthegmata ) and acts ( praxeis ) of the Desert Fathers and Desert Mothers came to be recorded and circulated, first among their fellow monastics and then among the laity as well. Among these earliest recorded accounts was the Paradise, by Palladius of Galatia , Bishop of Helenopolis (also known as
7847-401: The Eastern Orthodox Church (with certain slight regional variations), and it is the same for both monks and nuns. Each successive grade is given a portion of the habit, the full habit being worn only by those in the highest grade, known for that reason as the "Great Schema", or "Great Habit". The various profession rites are normally performed by the Abbot, but if the abbot has not been ordained
7980-721: The Greeks, old monks are often called Gheronda , or "Elder", out of respect for their dedication. In the Slavic tradition, the title of Elder (Church Slavonic: Starets ) is normally reserved for those who are of an advanced spiritual life, and who serve as guides to others. For the Eastern Orthodox, "mother" is the correct term for nuns who have been tonsured Stavrophore or higher. Novices and Rassophores are addressed as "sister". Nuns live identical ascetic lives to their male counterparts and are therefore also called monachai (the feminine plural of monachos ), and their community
8113-591: The Hegumen may at his discretion clothe the candidate as a novice . There is no formal ceremony for the clothing of a novice; he (or she) would simply be given the Podraznik , belt and skoufos . After a period of about three years, the Hegumen may at his discretion tonsure the novice as a Rassophore monk, giving him the outer garment called the Rassa (Greek: Rason ). A monk (or nun) may remain in this grade all
SECTION 60
#17327726471988246-526: The Hermit is the first Christian historically known to have been living as a monk. In the 3rd century, Anthony of Egypt (252–356) lived as a hermit in the desert and gradually gained followers who lived as hermits nearby but not in actual community with him. This type of monasticism is called eremitical or "hermit-like". Another option for becoming a solitary monastic was to become an anchoress/anchorite. This began because there were persons who wanted to live
8379-558: The Roman legions converted to Christianity and established a hermitage near Milan , then moved on to Poitiers where a community gathered around his hermitage. He was called to become Bishop of Tours in 372, where he established a monastery at Marmoutier on the opposite bank of the Loire , a few miles upstream from the city. His cell was a hut of wood, and round it his disciples, who soon numbered eighty, dwelt in caves and huts. His monastery
8512-517: The analavos itself is sometimes called the "Great Schema". The analavos comes down in the front and the back, somewhat like the scapular in Western monasticism, although the two garments are probably not related. It is often intricately embroidered with the instruments of the Passion and the Trisagion (the angelic hymn). The Greek form does not have a hood, the Slavic form has a hood and lappets on
8645-473: The beginning of 2006, there was 2 permanent professed members and 2 long-term guests. Strong ties remain with this community and their brothers in Sweden ( Östanbäck monastery ) and in Germany ( Priory of St. Wigbert ). There is also the Order of Lutheran Franciscans , a religious community of friars and sisters within the tradition of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America . Monastic life in England came to an abrupt end when King Henry VIII broke from
8778-538: The best known Vaishnava monks outside India. They are a common sight in many places around the world. Their appearance—simple saffron dhoti , shaved head with sikha , Tulasi neckbeads and tilaka markings—and social customs ( sadhana ) date back many thousands of years to the Vedic era with its varnasrama society. This social scheme includes both monastic and lay stages meant for various persons in various stages of life according to their characteristics ( guna ) and work ( karma ). ISKCON started as
8911-471: The bishop as the liturgical needs of the community require. Hinduism has many monastic orders, including the Dashanami Sampradaya ( lit. ' Tradition of Ten Names ' ) orders established by Adi Shankara as well as Vaishnava orders. Madhvaacharya ( Madhvacharya ), the Dwaita philosopher, established ashta matha (Eight Monasteries). He appointed a monk (called swamiji or swamigalu in local parlance) for each matha or monastery who has
9044-421: The community and the community to get to know him. If the postulant and the community agree that the postulant should become a novice , he is received as such. At this time he is usually given the habit and a religious name . Both the community and the novice evaluate further whether the man is called to become a monk and he begins to participate more fully in the life of the community. As a postulant and novice ,
9177-483: The cross, and the candle will be burned at his funeral. In the Slavic practice, the Stavrophore also wears the monastic mantle . The rasson (outer robe) worn by the Stavrophore is more ample than that worn by the Rassophore. The abbot increases the Stavrophore monk's prayer rule, allows a more strict personal ascetic practice, and gives the monk more responsibility. Great Schema (Greek: Megaloschemos , Church Slavonic: Skhimnik )—Monks whose abbot feels they have reached
9310-418: The desert, before his public ministry. Another monastic precedent in Bible would be Nazirites as they practiced tonsure, followed a certain diet as a form of fasting, lived consecrated lives and they followed a certain practice concerning hygiene. However, case of Nazirites is usually defined as a form of a historical Jewish vow or oath instead of being a direct precedent of monastic orders because of
9443-458: The distinction between choir monks and lay brothers has been deemphasized, as the council allowed the Liturgy of the Hours to be celebrated in the vernacular language, effectively opening participation to all of the monks. Within western monasticism, it is important to differentiate between monks and friars . Monks generally live a contemplative life of prayer confined within a monastery while friars usually engage in an active ministry of service to
9576-565: The early 20th century when the Oxford Movement was at its height, the Anglican Communion had hundreds of orders and communities and thousands of religious followers. However, since the 1960s there has been a sharp falling off in the numbers of religious in many parts of the Anglican Communion. Many once large and international communities have been reduced to a single convent or monastery composed of elderly men or women. In
9709-413: The excellent ones' ( Standard Tibetan : mchog kyi tshogs ); however, these in turn need not be monks (i.e., hold such vows ). Several Mahayana orders accept female practitioners as monks, instead of using the normal title of "nun", and they are considered equal to male ascetics in all respects. The Bhikkhus are only allowed 4 items (other than their robes) : a razor, a sewing needle, an alms bowl and
9842-491: The father of cenobiticism , and his disciple Saint Theodore, the founder of the skete form of monasticism. Among the first to set forth precepts for the monastic life was Saint Basil the Great , a man from a professional family who was educated in Caesarea , Constantinople , and Athens . Saint Basil visited colonies of hermits in Palestine and Egypt but was most strongly impressed by the organized communities developed under
9975-573: The first Celtic monasteries were merely settlements where the Christians lived together—priests and laity, men, women, and children alike—as a kind of religious clan. According to James F. Kenney, every important church was a monastic establishment, with a small walled village of monks and nuns living under ecclesiastical discipline, and ministering to the people of the surrounding area. Monastic spirituality came to Britain and then Ireland from Gaul, by way of Lérins, Tours, and Auxerre. Its spirituality
10108-653: The form of the Liturgy of the Hours (also known as the Divine Office, reading of the divine scriptures ( lectio divina ) and labor. Among most religious orders, monks live in simple, austere rooms called cells and come together daily to celebrate and to recite the Liturgy of the Hours and the Mass . Usually, the monks take their meals together in the refectory . Many communities have a period of silence lasting from evening until
10241-522: The founder of Zen Buddhism in China, is also claimed to have introduced Kalaripayattu (which later evolved into Kung Fu) to the country. This latter claim has however been a source of much controversy (see Bodhidharma, the martial arts, and the disputed India connection ). One more feature about the Chinese Buddhist monks is that they practice the burning marks on their scalp, finger or part of
10374-432: The good miners and punishing the evil ones. He punishes vices such as whistling and cursing, egoism, infidelity and idleness. For example, the mountain spirit killed an evil foreman of miners by crushing his head invisibly with his knees. The Bergmönch sometimes gives miners whose mining lamps are in danger of going out some of the oil from his giant pit lamp. This oil never diminishes and burns steadily even for years when
10507-538: The guidance of Saint Pachomius. Saint Basil's ascetical writings set forth standards for well-disciplined community life and offered lessons in what became the ideal monastic virtue: humility. Saint Basil wrote a series of guides for monastic life (the Lesser Asketikon the Greater Asketikon the Morals , etc.) which, while not "Rules" in the legalistic sense of later Western rules, provided firm indications of
10640-415: The historical context concerning Israelites and the importance of private rituals concerning vow making in historical Israelite religion . Early Christian ascetics have left no confirmed archaeological traces and only hints in the written record. Communities of virgins who had consecrated themselves to Christ are found at least as far back as the 2nd century. There were also individual ascetics, known as
10773-658: The history of the Christian Church , modeled upon scriptural examples and ideals, including those in the Old Testament . It has come to be regulated by religious rules (e. g., the Rule of Saint Augustine , Anthony the Great , St Pachomius , the Rule of St Basil , the Rule of St Benedict ) and, in modern times, the Canon law of the respective Christian denominations that have forms of monastic living. Those living
10906-669: The importance of a single community of monks, living under the same roof, and under the guidance—and even discipline—of a strong abbot. His teachings set the model for Greek and Russian monasticism but had less influence in the Latin West. Of great importance to the development of monasticism is the Saint Catherine's Monastery on Mount Sinai in Egypt . Here the Ladder of Divine Ascent was written by Saint John Climacus (c.600),
11039-511: The instruments of the Passion (see picture above), and connected by ties to a wooden cross worn over the heart. The paramandyas represents the yoke of Christ. Because of this addition he is now called Stavrophore , or Cross-bearer . He is also given a wooden hand cross (or "profession cross"), which he should keep in his icon corner , and a beeswax candle, symbolic of monastic vigilance the sacrificing of himself for God. He will be buried holding
11172-612: The last few decades of the 20th century, novices have for most communities been few and far between. Some orders and communities have already become extinct. There are however, still several thousand Anglican monks working today in approximately 200 communities around the world. The most growth has been in the Melanesian countries of the Solomon Islands , Vanuatu and Papua New Guinea . The Melanesian Brotherhood , founded at Tabalia , Guadalcanal , in 1925 by Ini Kopuria ,
11305-434: The lay brothers and the choir monks, as they all have the obligation to celebrate the entire Divine Office daily in choir . However, historically, the roles of the two groups of monks within the monastery differed. The work of the choir monks was considered to be prayer, chanting the hours of the Divine Office, whereas the lay brothers provided for the material needs of the community by growing food, preparing meals, maintaining
11438-576: The liturgical tradition of the church. Fasting , Hesychasm, and the pursuit of the spiritual life are strongly encouraged not only among monastics but also among the laity. There are also three levels of monks: the Rassophore , the Stavrophore , and the Schema-Monk (or Schema-Nun). Each of the three degrees represents an increased level of asceticism. In the early days of monasticism, there
11571-500: The main Roman religion ended the position of Christians as a minority sect. In response, a new form of dedication was developed. The long-term "martyrdom" of the ascetic replaced the violent physical martyrdom of the persecutions . In the early church, there were also opponents of Monasticism, among the first opponents to Monasticism were Helvidius , Jovinian , Vigilantius and Aerius of Sebaste . Most of them were attacked by Jerome who defended monastic and ascetic ideas. Jovinian
11704-535: The male population, many of whom were killed in the purges of Choibalsan . Within Catholicism , a monk is a member of a religious order who lives a communal life in a monastery under a monastic rule of life. Benedict of Nursia , (480-543 or 547 AD) is considered to be the originator of western monasticism. Benedict's rule , is the foundation for the Benedictines and all of its reform groups such as
11837-428: The man is free to leave the community at any time or the institute can dismiss him. Following the novitiate, which must last at least one canonical year (but not longer than two years) in the community of the novitiate the novice may profess first vows, if he is accepted to do so. After a few years (usually three) the monk makes solemn vows , which are binding for life. The monastic life generally consists of prayer in
11970-616: The miner never reveals the secret that he got lamp oil from the Bergmönch . He also has favorite miners whose work he does, excavating ores for them. This spirit is able to excavate more ores in one hour than miners are able to excavate in one week. He also shows his favourite miners hidden lodes of gold and silver but the miner has to throw some of his mining tools in the offered lode or it will be closed to never being seen by human eyes again. Many other mountain spirits appear in German folklore. The most frequently appearing mountain spirits are
12103-420: The monasteries he founded were all organized monastic communities. About 415 he established two monasteries near Marseilles , one for men, one for women. In time these attracted a total of 5,000 monks and nuns. Most significant for the future development of monasticism were Cassian's Institutes , which provided a guide for monastic life and his Conferences , a collection of spiritual reflections. It seems that
12236-580: The monastery and the grounds. This distinction arose historically because generally those monks who could read Latin typically became choir monks, while those monks who were illiterate or could not read Latin became lay brothers. The lay brothers would instead recite at least some of the liturgical hours prayers such as the Lord's Prayer or the Hail Mary . Since the Second Vatican Council ,
12369-596: The monastic ideal of St. Anthony. They lived by themselves, gathering together for common worship on Saturdays and Sundays only. In 346 in Egypt, St Pachomius established the first cenobitic Christian monastery. At Tabenna in Upper Egypt , sometime around 323 AD, Pachomius decided to mold his disciples into a more organized community in which the monks lived in individual huts or rooms ( cellula in Latin ,) but worked, ate, and worshipped in shared space. The intention
12502-599: The monastic is given a cross to wear at all times. This cross is called a Paramand—a wooden cross attached by ribbons to a square cloth embroidered with the Instruments of the Passion and the words, "I bear upon my body the marks of the Lord Jesus" ( Galatians 6:17 ). The Paramand is so-called because it is worn under the Mantle (Greek: Mandyas ; Church Slavonic : Mantya ), which is a long cape which completely covers
12635-415: The monastic life and offices of prayer. These men and others came and went over the years. The community has always remained small; at times the only member was Father Arthur. During the 35 years of its existence over 25 men tested their vocations to monastic life by living at the house for some time, from a few months to many years, but at Father Arthur's death in 1989 only one permanent resident remained. At
12768-474: The monastic life are known by the generic terms monks (men) and nuns (women). The word monk originated from the Greek μοναχός ( monachos , 'monk'), itself from μόνος ( monos ) meaning 'alone'. Christian monks did not live in monasteries at first; rather, they began by living alone as solitaries , as the word monos might suggest. As more people took on the lives of monks, living alone in
12901-489: The monastic life must be entered into voluntarily. Rassophore (Church Slavonic: Ryassofor ), lit. "Robe-bearer"— If the novice continues on to become a monk, he is clothed in the first degree of monasticism at a formal service known as the Tonsure . Although there are no formal vows made at this point, the candidate is normally required to affirm his commitment to persevere in the monastic life. The abbot will then perform
13034-407: The monk from neck to foot. Among the Russians, Stavrophores are also informally referred to as "mantle monks". At his Tonsure, a Stavrophore is given a wooden hand cross and a lit candle, as well as a prayer rope. The highest rank of monasticism is the Great Schema (Greek: Megaloschemos ; Church Slavonic: Schimnik ). Attaining the level of Schema monk is much more common among the Greeks than it
13167-527: The morning, and are not supposed to lead a luxurious life. Their rules forbid the use of money, although this rule is nowadays not kept by all monks. The monks are part of the Sangha , the third of the Triple Gem of Buddha , Dhamma , Sangha. In Mahayana Buddhism, the term 'Sangha' strictly speaking refers to those who have achieved certain levels of understanding. They are therefore called 'community of
13300-422: The mountain who dares to make fun of its large nose. Legends about the Bergmönch and other mountain spirits from German folklore. Monk A monk ( / m ʌ ŋ k / ; from Greek : μοναχός , monachos , "single, solitary" via Latin monachus ) is a man who is a member of a religious order and lives in a monastery . A monk usually lives his life in prayer and contemplation . The concept
13433-437: The next morning and some others restrict talking to only when it is necessary for the monks to perform their work and during weekly recreation. Monks who have been or will be ordained into Holy Orders as priests or deacons were traditionally referred to as "choir monks". Those monks who are not ordained into Holy Orders are referred to as lay brothers . In most monastic communities today, little distinction exists between
13566-451: The other hand, have little or no contact with the outside world. Eastern Orthodox monasticism does not have religious orders as are found in the West, nor do they have Rules in the same sense as the Rule of St. Benedict . Rather, Eastern monastics study and draw inspiration from the writings of the Desert Fathers as well as other Church Fathers ; probably the most influential of which are
13699-729: The other qualities desired in a bishop. Eventually, among the Eastern Orthodox Churches, it became established by canon law that all bishops must be monks. Monastic centers thrive to this day in Bulgaria , Ethiopia , Georgia , Greece , North Macedonia , Russia , Romania , Serbia , the Holy Land , and elsewhere in the Orthodox world, the Autonomous Monastic State of Mount Athos remaining
13832-480: The outside community. The monastic orders include all Benedictines (the Order of Saint Benedict and its later reforms including the Cistercians and the Trappists ) and the Carthusians , who live according to their own statutes. Orders of friars include the mendicant orders (primarily Order of Friars Minor , Capuchins , Dominicans , Carmelites , and Augustinians ). Although the canons regular (such as
13965-484: The outside world, including their own families. The purpose of the monastic life is union with God, the means is through leaving the world (i.e., the life of the passions). After tonsure, Eastern Orthodox monks and nuns are never permitted to cut their hair. The hair of the head and the beard remain uncut as a symbol of the vows they have taken, reminiscent of the Nazarites from the Old Testament . The tonsure of monks
14098-427: The period, as an individual response to the monastic impulse by someone who had experienced monasticism and then went off to establish either a hermitage to which others later came or a cenobitic community." The monasteries were organized on a family basis. Next in importance to the abbot was the scribe, in charge of the scriptorium, the teaching function of the monastery, and the keeping of the annals. The role of scribe
14231-600: The respective church law of those Christian denominations that recognize it (e.g., the Roman Catholic Church , the Eastern Orthodox Church , the Anglican Church , or the Lutheran Church ). Christian monastic life does not always involve communal living with like-minded Christians. Christian monasticism has varied greatly in its external forms, but, broadly speaking, it has two main types: (a)
14364-584: The rest of his life, if he so chooses. But the Rite of Tonsure for the Rassophore refers to the grade as that of the "Beginner", so it is intended that the monk will advance on to the next level. The Rassophore is also given a klobuk which he wears in church and on formal occasions. In addition, Rassophores will be given a prayer rope at their tonsure. The next rank, Stavrophore , is the grade that most Russian monks remain all their lives. The title Stavrophore means "cross-bearer" because when Tonsured into this grade
14497-686: The right to worship Madhvacharya's murti of Lord Krishna by rotation. Each matha's swamiji gets a chance to worship after fourteen years. This ritual is called Paryaya and has been used also outside his sampradaya , e.g. in Gaudiya Vaisnava Radharamana temple in Vrindavan . Similar in appearance to Buddhist monks, brahmacari monks from the International Society for Krishna Consciousness ( ISKCON ), or Hare Krishnas as they are popularly known, are
14630-528: The shoulders, so that the garment forms a large cross covering the monk's shoulders, chest, and back. Another piece added is the Polystavrion or "Many Crosses", which consists of a cord with a number of small crosses plaited into it. The polystavrion forms a yoke around the monk and serves to hold the analavos in place, and reminds the monastic that he is bound to Christ and that his arms are no longer fit for worldly activities, but that he must labor only for
14763-425: The skin on their anterior side of the forearm with incense as a sign of ordination. In Thailand and Burma , it is common for boys to spend some time living as a monk in a monastery. Most stay for only a few years and then leave, but a number continue on in the ascetic life for the rest of their lives. In Mongolia during the 1920s, there were about 110,000 monks, including children, who made up about one-third of
14896-407: The soft monastic hat (Greek: Skoufos , Church Slavonic: Skufia ), depending on the tradition of the local community, and in accordance to the abbot's directives. The inner-cassock and the skoufos are the first part of the Eastern Orthodox monastic habit. In some communities, the novice also wears the leather belt. He is also given a prayer rope and instructed in the use of the Jesus Prayer . If
15029-480: The solitary lifestyle but were not able to live alone in the wild. Thus, they would go to the bishop for permission who would then perform the rite of enclosure. After this was completed, the anchoress would live alone in a room that typically had a window that opened into a church so they could receive communion and participate in church services. There were two other windows that allowed food to be passed in and people to come to seek advice. The most well-known anchoress
15162-591: The spiritual center of monasticism for the Eastern Orthodox Church. Since the fall of the Iron Curtain , a great renaissance of monasticism has occurred, and many previously empty or destroyed monastic communities have been reopened. Monasticism continues to be very influential in the Eastern Orthodox Church. According to the Sacred Canons , all Bishops must be monks (not merely celibate), and feast days to Glorified monastic saints are an important part of
15295-683: The three evangelical counsels : poverty , chastity and obedience . First-century groups such as the Essenes and the Therapeutae followed lifestyles that could be seen as precursors to Christian monasticism. Early Christian monasticism drew its inspiration from the examples of the Prophet Elijah and John the Baptist , who both lived alone in the desert, and above all from the story of Jesus' time in solitary struggle with Satan in
15428-674: The time he died in 346 there were thought to be 3,000 such communities dotting Egypt, especially in the Thebaid . From there monasticism quickly spread out first to Palestine and the Judean Desert , Syria , North Africa and eventually the rest of the Roman Empire . In 370 Basil the Great, monastic founder in Cappadocia, became bishop of Caesarea and wrote principles of ascetic life. Eastern monastic teachings were brought to
15561-452: The time in solitude, but under the direction of an elder). One normally enters a cenobitic community first, and only after testing and spiritual growth would one go on to the skete or, for the most advanced, become a solitary anchorite. However, one is not necessarily expected to join a skete or become a solitary; most monastics remain in the cenobium the whole of their lives. In general, Eastern Orthodox monastics have little or no contact with
15694-411: The tonsure, cutting a small amount of hair from four spots on the head, forming a cross. He is then given the outer cassock (Greek: Rasson , Exorasson , or Mandorasson ; Church Slavonic: Ryassa )—an outer robe with wide sleeves, something like the cowl used in the West, but without a hood—from which the name of Rassophore derives. He is also given a brimless hat with a veil, known as a klobuk , and
15827-404: The union of the soul with God. Such a union is not accomplished by any human activity. All an ascetic can do is prepare the ground; it is for God to cause the seed to grow and bear fruit. The introduction of monasticism into the West may be dated from about A.D. 340 when St. Athanasius visited Rome accompanied by the two Egyptian monks Ammon and Isidore, disciples of St. Anthony. The publication of
15960-482: The week, then come together on Sundays and Feast Days for communal prayer, thus combining aspects of both eremitic and coenobitic monasticism. Even before Saint Anthony the Great (the "father of monasticism") went out into the desert, there were Christians who devoted their lives to ascetic discipline and striving to lead an evangelical life (i.e., in accordance with the teachings of the Gospel). As monasticism spread in
16093-580: The western church by Saint John Cassian (c. 360 – c. 435). As a young adult, he and his friend Germanus entered a monastery in Palestine but then journeyed to Egypt to visit the eremitic groups in Nitria. Many years later, Cassian founded a monastery of monks and probably also one of nuns near Marseilles. He wrote two long works, the Institutes and Conferences . In these books, he not only transmitted his Egyptian experience but also gave Christian monasticism
16226-423: The wilderness, they started to come together and model themselves after the original monks nearby. Quickly, the monks formed communities to further their ability to observe an ascetic life. According to Christianity historian Robert Louis Wilken, "By creating an alternate social structure within the Church they laid the foundations for one of the most enduring Christian institutions..." Monastics generally dwell in
16359-531: The word for "Father"—in Syriac , Abba ; in English, " Abbot ". Guidelines for daily life were created, and separate monasteries were created for men and women. St Pachomius introduced a monastic Rule of cenobitic life, giving everyone the same food and attire. The monks of the monastery fulfilled the obediences assigned them for the common good of the monastery. Among the various obediences was copying books. St Pachomius considered that an obedience fulfilled with zeal
16492-551: Was Julian of Norwich who was born in England in 1342. While the earliest Desert Fathers lived as hermits, they were rarely completely isolated, but often lived in proximity to one another, and soon loose-knit communities began to form in such places as the Desert of Nitria and the Desert of Skete. Saint Macarius established individual groups of cells such as those at Kellia , founded in 338. These monks were anchorites, following
16625-414: Was absolutely necessary for his own sustenance, and giving the rest to the poor. An early form of "proto-monasticism" appeared as well in the 3rd century among Syriac Christians through the " Sons of the covenant " movement. Eastern Orthodoxy looks to Basil of Caesarea as a founding monastic legislator, as well to as the example of the Desert Fathers . Eremitic monasticism, or solitary monasticism,
16758-443: Was greater than fasting or prayer. A Pachomian monastery was a collection of buildings surrounded by a wall. The monks were distributed in houses, each house containing about forty monks. There would be thirty to forty houses in a monastery. There was an abbot over each monastery and provosts with subordinate officials over each house. The monks were divided into houses according to the work they were employed in: thus there would be
16891-501: Was heavily influenced by the Desert Fathers, with a monastic enclosure surrounding a collection of individual monastic cells. The British church employed an episcopal structure corresponding closely to the model used elsewhere in the Christian world. Illtud , David , Gildas , and Deiniol were leading figures in 6th-century Britain. According to Thomas O'Loughlin , "Each monastery should be seen, as with most monasteries of
17024-597: Was laid out as a colony of hermits rather than as a single integrated community. The type of life was simply the Antonian monachism of Egypt. Honoratus of Marseilles was a wealthy Gallo-Roman aristocrat, who after a pilgrimage to Egypt, founded the Monastery of Lérins in 410, on an island lying off the modern city of Cannes . The monastery combined a community with isolated hermitages where older, spiritually-proven monks could live in isolation. Lérins became, in time,
17157-421: Was often a path to the position of abbot. Hereditary right and relationship to the abbot were factors influencing appointment to monastic offices. Buildings would generally have been of wood, wattle, and thatch. Monasteries tended to be cenobitical in that monks lived in separate cells but came together for common prayer, meals, and other functions. Celtic monasticism was characterized by a rigorous asceticism and
17290-535: Was only one level—the Great Schema —and even Saint Theodore the Studite argued against the establishment of intermediate grades, but nonetheless the consensus of the church has favored the development of three distinct levels. When a candidate wishes to embrace the monastic life, he will enter the monastery of his choice as a guest and ask to be received by the Hegumen (Abbot). After a period of at least three days
17423-551: Was practised. This, of course, involved much buying and selling, so the monks had ships of their own on the Nile, which conveyed their agricultural produce and manufactured goods to the market and brought back what the monasteries required. From the spiritual point of view, the Pachomian monk was a religious living under a rule. The community of Pachomius was so successful he was called upon to help organize others, and by one count by
17556-437: Was the most influential opponent of monasticism, he wrote a work in the year 390, which is now lost, which attacked monasticism and its ethical principles. Monasticism was also opposed by some Arians . Orthodox monasticism does not have religious orders as in the West, so there are no formal Monastic Rules ( Regulae ); rather, each monk and nun is encouraged to read all of the Holy Fathers and emulate their virtues. There
17689-429: Was to bring together individual ascetics who, although pious, did not, like Saint Anthony, have the physical ability or skills to live a solitary existence in the desert. This method of monastic organization is called cenobitic or "communal". In Catholic theology, this community-based living is considered superior because of the obedience practiced and the accountability offered. The head of a monastery came to be known by
#197802