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95-499: As the whole country around Bharmour is supposed to belong to lord Shiva , it is popularly spoken of as Shiva Bhumi, "abode of lord Shiva". It lies between the Pir-Panjal and Dhauladhar range, between Ravi and Chenab valley. The land has abundant alpine pastures and provides home for nomadic shepherds, known as Gaddis , thus also called Gadderan. The foothills are filled with orchards and terraced farmsteads. " Kailash Vasio", as

190-544: A Rigvedic deity with fearsome powers, was the god of the roaring storm . He is usually portrayed in accordance with the element he represents as a fierce, destructive deity. In RV 2.33, he is described as the "Father of the Rudras ", a group of storm gods. Flood notes that Rudra is an ambiguous god, peripheral in the Vedic pantheon, possibly indicating non-Vedic origins. Nevertheless, both Rudra and Shiva are akin to Wodan ,

285-413: A male deity and, more specifically, is identified as the consort of the god Shiva . In Tantric Shaktism, Shakti is the foremost deity, akin to Brahman. In Puranic Hinduism, Shiva and Shakti are the masculine and feminine principles that are complementary to each other. The male deity is purusha , pure consciousness, which creates the universe through the female creative energy of Shakti, which

380-503: A "theistic relationship" between the deity and devotee. The complete identification of the goddess with Shakti was not fully realised until the classical period of Hinduism. This period saw the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata including the Bhagavad Gita . They were largely complemented by Puranas , a body of literature that built upon the ideas of Upanishads but were primarily made up of myth and legend that proclaimed

475-604: A German Indologist and professor of philosophy, describes the self-realized man as who "feels himself only as the one divine essence that lives in all", who feels identity of his and everyone's consciousness with Shiva (highest Atman), who has found this highest Atman within, in the depths of his heart. Rudra's evolution from a minor Vedic deity to a supreme being is first evidenced in the Shvetashvatara Upanishad (400–200 BCE), according to Gavin Flood, presenting

570-448: A couple of his specialties of this figure does not match with Rudra. Writing in 1997, Srinivasan interprets what John Marshall interpreted as facial as not human but more bovine, possibly a divine buffalo-man. The interpretation of the seal continues to be disputed. McEvilley , for example, states that it is not possible to "account for this posture outside the yogic account". Asko Parpola states that other archaeological finds such as

665-645: A fusing of the two deities. Agni is said to be a bull, and Shiva possesses a bull as his vehicle, Nandi . The horns of Agni , who is sometimes characterized as a bull, are mentioned. In medieval sculpture, both Agni and the form of Shiva known as Bhairava have flaming hair as a special feature. According to Wendy Doniger , the Saivite fertility myths and some of the phallic characteristics of Shiva are inherited from Indra . Doniger gives several reasons for her hypothesis. Both are associated with mountains, rivers, male fertility, fierceness, fearlessness, warfare,

760-434: A householder with his wife Parvati and his two children, Ganesha and Kartikeya . In his fierce aspects, he is often depicted slaying demons. Shiva is also known as Adiyogi (the first Yogi ), regarded as the patron god of yoga , meditation and the arts. The iconographical attributes of Shiva are the serpent king Vasuki around his neck, the adorning crescent moon, the holy river Ganga flowing from his matted hair,

855-723: A long period of time before. The Veda Samhitas are the oldest scriptures that specified the Hindu goddesses. The Rigveda and the Atharvaveda are the main sources of knowledge about various goddesses from the Vedic period . Ushas , the goddess of dawn was the most praised. Though male deities such as Indra and Agni have been more popular in the Vedic era, female deities were represented as personifications of important aspects like Earth ( Prithvi ), Mother of Gods ( Aditi ), Night ( Ratri ), and Speech ( Vāc/Vāk ). The Devīsūkta in

950-482: A male consort like other puranic era goddesses, here she takes powers from the gods–who all "surrender their potency to her" at the time of her manifestation. The Devi Mahatmya elucidated the goddess so meticulously that it clarifies the changeableness of her character and makes it clear that she cannot be classified readily as she is the embodiment of all facets of energy, which are described as concurrently "creative, preservative and destructive". The text described

1045-475: A manner similar to Shiva Nataraja. The similarities in the dance iconography suggests that there may be a link between ancient Indra and Shiva. A few texts such as Atharvashiras Upanishad mention Rudra , and assert all gods are Rudra, everyone and everything is Rudra, and Rudra is the principle found in all things, their highest goal, the innermost essence of all reality that is visible or invisible. The Kaivalya Upanishad similarly, states Paul Deussen –

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1140-647: A part of ritual. In contrast, the esoteric tradition within Kashmir Shaivism has featured the Krama and Trika sub-traditions. The Krama sub-tradition focussed on esoteric rituals around Shiva-Kali pair. The Trika sub-tradition developed a theology of triads involving Shiva, combined it with an ascetic lifestyle focusing on personal Shiva in the pursuit of monistic self-liberation. The Vaishnava (Vishnu-oriented) literature acknowledges and discusses Shiva. Like Shaiva literature that presents Shiva as supreme,

1235-505: A proto-Shiva would "go too far". The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era were closely related to the hypothesised Proto-Indo-European religion , and the pre-Islamic Indo-Iranian religion. The similarities between the iconography and theologies of Shiva with Greek and European deities have led to proposals for an Indo-European link for Shiva, or lateral exchanges with ancient central Asian cultures. His contrasting aspects such as being terrifying or blissful depending on

1330-773: A single major deity. Shiva is a pan-Hindu deity, revered widely by Hindus in India , Nepal , Bangladesh , Sri Lanka and Indonesia (especially in Java and Bali ). Saiddhantika Non - Saiddhantika According to the Monier-Williams Sanskrit dictionary, the word " śiva " ( Devanagari : शिव , also transliterated as shiva ) means "auspicious, propitious, gracious, benign, kind, benevolent, friendly". The root words of śiva in folk etymology are śī which means "in whom all things lie, pervasiveness" and va which means "embodiment of grace". The word Shiva

1425-541: Is prakriti , 'nature'. The term Shakta is used for the description of people associated with Shakti worship. The Shakta pithas are shrines, which are believed to be the sacred seats of Shakti. According to the Monier-Williams dictionary, Shakti ( Śakti ) is the Sanskrit feminine term meaning "energy, ability, strength, effort, power, might, capability", and "capacity for" or "power over". Though

1520-592: Is a patron deity of farming and herding castes . The foremost center of worship of Khandoba in Maharashtra is in Jejuri . Khandoba has been assimilated as a form of Shiva himself, in which case he is worshipped in the form of a lingam. Khandoba's varied associations also include an identification with Surya and Karttikeya . Myths about Shiva that were "roughly contemporary with early Christianity " existed that portrayed Shiva with many differences than how he

1615-548: Is bestower of power to both gods and humans. The prominent characteristics of goddess Vāc were later incorporated into the identity of Saraswati , who was a minor river goddess in the Vedas, but later became the goddess of knowledge and the "Mother of the Vedas". Most of the goddesses in the Vedic era were presented as wives of the gods. They had no special powers nor an individual name either, rather they took their respective husband's name with feminine suffixes, as with Indrani ,

1710-716: Is considered his Shakti. In the Ramayana , Sita , the wife of Rama was his Shakti; in the Mahabharata , Draupadi was the Shakti of the Pandavas . In the Puranas Shakti gains in imprortance. The Markandeya Purana conceives Shakti as "pure consciousness " overseeing creation, preservation, and destruction; and identifies Shakti with nature or prakriti . It potrays he feminine (shakti) in various roles, such as

1805-801: Is everything and everywhere. Shiva is the primal Self, the pure consciousness and Absolute Reality in the Shaiva traditions. Shiva is also Part of 'Om' (ॐ) as a 'U' (उ). The Shaivism theology is broadly grouped into two: the popular theology influenced by Shiva-Rudra in the Vedas, Epics and the Puranas; and the esoteric theology influenced by the Shiva and Shakti-related Tantra texts. The Vedic-Brahmanic Shiva theology includes both monist ( Advaita ) and devotional traditions ( Dvaita ), such as Tamil Shaiva Siddhanta and Lingayatism . Shiva temples feature items such as linga, Shiva-Parvati iconography, bull Nandi within

1900-547: Is her form; woman is the foundation of the world, she is the true form of the body. In woman is the form of all things, of all that lives and moves in the world. There is no jewel rarer than woman, no condition superior to that of a woman. In the Smarta Advaita tradition, Shakti is one of the five equal personal forms of God, as in the panchadeva system, advocated by Adi Shankara . The Smarta tradition, also called Smartism, developed and expanded with

1995-467: Is kind and tranquil (Shiva). The term Shiva also appears simply as an epithet, that means "kind, auspicious", one of the adjectives used to describe many different Vedic deities. While fierce ruthless natural phenomenon and storm-related Rudra is feared in the hymns of the Rigveda, the beneficial rains he brings are welcomed as Shiva aspect of him. This healing, nurturing, life-enabling aspect emerges in

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2090-535: Is known today is an amalgamation of various older deities into a single figure, due to the process of Sanskritization and the emergence of the Hindu synthesis in post-Vedic times. How the persona of Shiva converged as a composite deity is not well documented, a challenge to trace and has attracted much speculation. According to Vijay Nath: Vishnu and Siva [...] began to absorb countless local cults and deities within their folds. The latter were either taken to represent

2185-457: Is no one but Shiva, and he who is called Shiva is but identical with Vishnu. Shakti Traditional Shakti ( Devanagari : शक्ति, IAST : Śakti; lit. 'energy, ability, strength, effort, power, might, capability') in Hinduism , is the "Universal Power" that underlies and sustains all existence. Conceived as feminine in essence, Shakti refers to the personified energy or power of

2280-476: Is not affected by three Guṇas of Prakṛti (Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas)". Shiva is known by many names such as Viswanatha (lord of the universe), Mahadeva, Mahandeo, Mahasu, Mahesha, Maheshvara, Shankara, Shambhu, Rudra, Hara, Trilochana, Devendra (chief of the gods), Neelakanta, Subhankara, Trilokinatha (lord of the three realms), and Ghrneshwar (lord of compassion). The highest reverence for Shiva in Shaivism

2375-453: Is not clear from the seal that the figure has three faces, is seated in a yoga posture, or even that the shape is intended to represent a human figure. He characterizes these views as "speculative", but adds that it is nevertheless possible that there are echoes of Shaiva iconographic themes, such as half-moon shapes resembling the horns of a bull . John Keay writes that "he may indeed be an early manifestation of Lord Shiva as Pashu-pati", but

2470-756: Is one of the principal deities of Hinduism . He is the Supreme Being in Shaivism , one of the major traditions within Hinduism. Shiva is known as The Destroyer within the Trimurti , the Hindu trinity which also includes Brahma and Vishnu . In the Shaivite tradition, Shiva is the Supreme Lord who creates, protects and transforms the universe. In the goddess-oriented Shakta tradition,

2565-537: Is one of the four major sects of Hinduism , the others being Vaishnavism , Shaktism and the Smarta Tradition . Followers of Shaivism, called "Shaivas", revere Shiva as the Supreme Being. Shaivas believe that Shiva is All and in all, the creator, preserver, destroyer, revealer and concealer of all that is. He is not only the creator in Shaivism, but he is also the creation that results from him, he

2660-497: Is rather the gods who are completely subdued to the will of Devi, and are entirely dependent on her power. Scriptural texts such as Devi Bhagavata Purana , Kalika Purana , Markandeya Purana , and Mahabhagavata Purana held Shakti as the supreme over all deities and promoted her worship. In Puranic Hinduism , Shakti is the "energizing material power" of the Hindu Gods. "The God and his Shakti together represent

2755-652: Is reflected in his epithets Mahādeva ("Great god"; mahā "Great" and deva "god"), Maheśvara ("Great Lord"; mahā "great" and īśvara "lord"), and Parameśvara ("Supreme Lord"). Sahasranama are medieval Indian texts that list a thousand names derived from aspects and epithets of a deity. There are at least eight different versions of the Shiva Sahasranama , devotional hymns ( stotras ) listing many names of Shiva. The version appearing in Book 13 ( Anuśāsanaparvan ) of

2850-408: Is separate from a deity and something which is not inherently present within it. In later Hindu texts , the idea of Shakti as divine feminine energy became more pronounced as wives of the gods began to personify the powers of their husbands. Despite arriving at this stage, it was only later, after a lot of philosophical speculation and understanding the connecting factor underlying the universe that

2945-429: Is still subordinated to her consort's will. Though there was an individual goddess named śakti , the term referred to a quality held by both male and female deities. An apparent identity between feminine divinity and cosmic energy was not yet vouched. The perception of the divine feminine was radically altered by two texts: the earlier Devi Mahatmya and the later Devi Bhagavata Purana . The Devi Mahatmya , which

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3040-615: Is the Devi Bhagavata Purana . Compiled some five to ten centuries after the Devi Mahatmya , the Devi Bhagavata Purana presents a Shakta reply to the various puranic ideals. The Devi Gita , which forms skandha (book) 7, chapters 30–40 of the Devi Bhagavata Purana , is modeled after the Bhagavad Gita , but with a Shakta outlook. The Devi Bhagavata Purana is metaphysically more coherent than

3135-480: Is the "creator, reproducer and dissolver". Sharma presents another etymology with the Sanskrit root śarv - , which means "to injure" or "to kill", interpreting the name to connote "one who can kill the forces of darkness". The Sanskrit word śaiva means "relating to the god Shiva", and this term is the Sanskrit name both for one of the principal sects of Hinduism and for a member of that sect. It

3230-406: Is thought of now, and these mythical portrayals of Shiva were incorporated into later versions of him. For instance, he and the other gods , from the highest gods to the least powerful gods, were thought of as somewhat human in nature, creating emotions they had limited control over and having the ability to get in touch with their inner natures through asceticism like humans. In that era, Shiva

3325-750: Is united with Mula Prakriti, 'nature'; shakti is a synonym for this unity of Turiya Brahman and Mula Prakriti. In the details of its philosophy and practice, Shaktism resembles Shaivism. However Shaktas focus most or all worship on Shakti as the dynamic feminine aspect of the Supreme Divine. According to this tradition, all Hindu goddesses are manifestations of the same goddess, Mahadevi , also referred to as Adi Parashakti, Adi Shakti, and Abhaya Shakti. Vaishnavas consider her to be Lakshmi ; whereas Shaivas consider her to be Parvati , Durga , Lalita and Kali ; while Shaktas believe her to be Durga , Tripura Sundari , Bhuvaneshvari , and Kali . In

3420-599: Is used as an adjective in the Rig Veda ( c.  1700–1100 BCE ), as an epithet for several Rigvedic deities , including Rudra . The term Shiva also connotes "liberation, final emancipation" and "the auspicious one"; this adjectival usage is addressed to many deities in Vedic literature. The term evolved from the Vedic Rudra-Shiva to the noun Shiva in the Epics and the Puranas, as an auspicious deity who

3515-683: Is used as an adjective to characterize certain beliefs and practices, such as Shaivism. Some authors associate the name with the Tamil word śivappu meaning "red", noting that Shiva is linked to the Sun ( śivan , "the Red one", in Tamil) and that Rudra is also called Babhru (brown, or red) in the Rigveda. The Vishnu sahasranama interprets Shiva to have multiple meanings: "The Pure One", and "the One who

3610-728: The Mahabharata provides one such list. Shiva also has Dasha-Sahasranamas (10,000 names) that are found in the Mahanyasa . The Shri Rudram Chamakam , also known as the Śatarudriya , is a devotional hymn to Shiva hailing him by many names. The Shiva-related tradition is a major part of Hinduism, found all over the Indian subcontinent , such as India, Nepal , Sri Lanka , and Southeast Asia , such as Bali, Indonesia . Shiva has pre-Vedic tribal roots, having "his origins in primitive tribes, signs and symbols." The figure of Shiva as he

3705-547: The Nirukta , an important early text on etymology, which says, "Agni is also called Rudra." The interconnections between the two deities are complex, and according to Stella Kramrisch: The fire myth of Rudra-Śiva plays on the whole gamut of fire, valuing all its potentialities and phases, from conflagration to illumination. In the Śatarudrīya , some epithets of Rudra, such as Sasipañjara ("Of golden red hue as of flame") and Tivaṣīmati ("Flaming bright"), suggest

3800-503: The Bactria–Margiana Culture . According to Anthony, Many of the qualities of Indo-Iranian god of might/victory, Verethraghna , were transferred to the adopted god Indra, who became the central deity of the developing Old Indic culture. Indra was the subject of 250 hymns, a quarter of the Rig Veda . He was associated more than any other deity with Soma , a stimulant drug (perhaps derived from Ephedra ) probably borrowed from

3895-723: The Hindu tantric view, Shakti correlates with the Kundalini energy. Shakti is considered the "creative dynamic energy" that permeates and "animates" all existence. In the Brihannila Tantra , the God Shiva says: "O Goddess I am the body ( deha ) and you are the conscious spirit within the body ( dehin )". "Shiva without Shakti is but a corpse, it is said." Animated and inanimated objects like rivers, stones, trees, mountains are worshipped as embodiments of shakti. Women are believed to be inherently divine; coalescence of

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3990-464: The Linga Purana , present the various aspects of Shiva, mythologies, cosmology and pilgrimage ( Tirtha ) associated with him. The Shiva-related Tantra literature, composed between the 8th and 11th centuries, are regarded in devotional dualistic Shaivism as Sruti . Dualistic Shaiva Agamas which consider Self within each living being and Shiva as two separate realities (dualism, dvaita ), are

4085-466: The Purana genre of literature. It reflects a synthesis of four philosophical strands: Mimamsa , Advaita , Yoga , and theism . The Smarta tradition rejects theistic sectarianism, and is notable for the domestic worship of five shrines with five deities, all treated as equal— Ganesha , Shiva , Adi Parashakti , Vishnu and Surya . The Smarta tradition contrasted with the older Shrauta tradition, which

4180-526: The Son River valley, where a triangular stone known as the Baghor stone , estimated to have been created around 9,000–8,000  BCE was found. The excavation team, which included Kenoyer , considered it is highly probable that the stone was associated with Shakti or the female principle. The representation of Shakti in a stone is considered an early example of yantra . Scholars assume goddess worship

4275-513: The devas (gods), the gods created an all-powerful goddess from their combined anger by channelling their essential powers that took the form of a feminine being, which was assented as the Mahadevi, the supreme goddess fully independent of the gods, and considered the embodiment of śakti with additional powers of her own. Here when she finishes her work, she doesn't return to her source, the gods, but instead vanishes. The Devi Mahatmya bolstered

4370-399: The menstrual cycle with the moon 's lunar cycle is held important. The menstrual blood ( Kula ) is revered and is offered in rituals to propitiate the deities. In some cases, Animal sacrifices have replaced menstrual blood offerings, however female animals are not sacrificed. The Shakta pithas , located across the Indian subcontinent , are believed to be the sacred seats of Shakti. At

4465-492: The third eye on his forehead (the eye that turns everything in front of it into ashes when opened), the trishula or trident as his weapon, and the damaru . He is usually worshiped in the aniconic form of lingam . Shiva has pre-Vedic roots, and the figure of Shiva evolved as an amalgamation of various older non-Vedic and Vedic deities, including the Rigvedic storm god Rudra who may also have non-Vedic origins, into

4560-522: The 1st millennium CE and through the 13th century, particularly in Kashmir and Tamil Shaiva traditions. Shaivism gained immense popularity in Tamilakam as early as the 7th century CE, with poets such as Appar and Sambandar composing rich poetry that is replete with present features associated with the deity, such as his tandava dance, the mulavam (dumru), the aspect of holding fire, and restraining

4655-457: The Absolute, the god being nonactivated Eternity, the goddess being activated Time." Shakti is generally personified as the wife of a specific Hindu god, particularly Shiva , for whom she took forms as Durga , Kali , and Parvati , forming complementary principles. "As the manifestation of the divine energy corresponding with Vishnu , she is Lakshmi ." In Hindu custom, the wife of a man

4750-562: The BMAC religion. His rise to prominence was a peculiar trait of the Old Indic speakers. The texts and artwork of Jainism show Indra as a dancer, although not identical generally resembling the dancing Shiva artwork found in Hinduism, particularly in their respective mudras. For example, in the Jain caves at Ellora , extensive carvings show dancing Indra next to the images of Tirthankaras in

4845-528: The Chaurasi Temple complex, named so because of 84 shrines built in the periphery of Chaurasi Temple. "Chaurasi" is the Hindi word for the number eighty-four. The Shikhara style temple of Manimahesh occupies the centre of the complex. Chaurasi Temple complex was built approximately the 7th century, although repairs of many temples have been carried out in later periods. There are 84 big and small temples in

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4940-578: The Germanic God of rage ("wütte") and the wild hunt . According to Sadasivan, during the development of the Hindu synthesis attributes of the Buddha were transferred by Brahmins to Shiva, who was also linked with Rudra . The Rigveda has 3 out of 1,028 hymns dedicated to Rudra, and he finds occasional mention in other hymns of the same text. Hymn 10.92 of the Rigveda states that deity Rudra has two natures, one wild and cruel (Rudra), another that

5035-668: The Goddess, or Devi , Shakti is "Universal Power". Shaktism regards Shakti as the Supreme Brahman . The Shakta Upanishads and the Shakta Tantras equated Brahman with Shakti, and held them as inseparable. According to V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar (Professor of Indian history), in Shakta theology : "Brahman is static Shakti and Shakti is dynamic Brahman." Brahman is "the formless ultimate or Turiya Brahman," which

5130-506: The Nandi bull, the Indian zebu , in particular, as the vehicle of Rudra and of Shiva, thereby unmistakably linking them as same. Rudra and Agni have a close relationship. The identification between Agni and Rudra in the Vedic literature was an important factor in the process of Rudra's gradual transformation into Rudra-Shiva. The identification of Agni with Rudra is explicitly noted in

5225-411: The Puranas presented the goddesses as consorts of the gods. The Kurma Purana depicted the goddess Śrī or Lakshmi as a being lower to her husband, the god Vishnu, who "takes possession" of her when she appears at the churning of milk . Nevertheless, Lakshmi is later described as the impetus of Vishnu, who calls her "that great Śakti (potency) of my form". An association between feminine divinity and

5320-407: The Rigveda, addressed to the goddess Vāc , became the progenitor of goddess theology that evolved later. Here, Vāc states: "I bend the bow for Rudra that his arrow may strike and slay the hater of devotion. I rouse and order battle for the people, and I have penetrated Earth and Heaven". This hymn presented the goddess as an all powerful pervasive being, who is both "immanent and transcendent", and

5415-591: The Supreme Goddess ( Devi ) is regarded as the energy and creative power ( Shakti ) and the equal complementary partner of Shiva. Shiva is one of the five equivalent deities in Panchayatana puja of the Smarta tradition of Hinduism. Shiva has many aspects, benevolent as well as fearsome. In benevolent aspects, he is depicted as an omniscient Yogi who lives an ascetic life on Kailasa as well as

5510-681: The Vaishnava literature presents Vishnu as supreme. However, both traditions are pluralistic and revere both Shiva and Vishnu (along with Devi), their texts do not show exclusivism, and Vaishnava texts such as the Bhagavata Purana while praising Krishna as the Ultimate Reality, also present Shiva and Shakti as a personalized form an equivalent to the same Ultimate Reality. The texts of Shaivism tradition similarly praise Vishnu. The Skanda Purana, for example, states: Vishnu

5605-464: The Vedas as Rudra-Shiva, and in post-Vedic literature ultimately as Shiva who combines the destructive and constructive powers, the terrific and the gentle, as the ultimate recycler and rejuvenator of all existence. The Vedic texts do not mention bull or any animal as the transport vehicle ( vahana ) of Rudra or other deities. However, post-Vedic texts such as the Mahabharata and the Puranas state

5700-404: The all-pervasive Mahadevi as being both devi (goddess) and asuri (demoness), for she represents positive as well as negative aspects of power and energy. Here, the ultimate reality was completely equated with Devi, who is presented as the power enabling the trimurti —Vishnu, Shiva, and Brahma—to engage in the "preservation, dissolution and creation" of the universe respectively. Devi appeared at

5795-404: The altars in these shrines, Shakti is often worshipped in the form of a stone, which is painted red, considered the colour of Shakti, and is decorated with anthropomorphic features like eyes. From Devi-Mahatmya : By you this universe is borne, By you this world is created, Oh Devi, by you it is protected. From Shaktisangama Tantra : Woman is the creator of the universe, the universe

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5890-506: The beginning of the Shaiva tradition focused on the worship of Shiva as evidenced in other literature of this period. Other scholars such as Robert Hume and Doris Srinivasan state that the Shvetashvatara Upanishad presents pluralism, pantheism , or henotheism , rather than being a text just on Shiva theism. Self-realization and Shaiva Upanishads He who sees himself in all beings, And all beings in him, attains

5985-546: The concept of the Mahadevi or the great goddess, an amalgamate of manifold powers, with numerous epithets. Besides the term Devi , the most general name of the goddess is Chandi or Caṇḍikā, meaning "violent and impetuous one", this was the first instance of the use of this term in a Sanskrit text and was probably conceived for this distinct incarnation, represented in aggressive and often unorthodox mode, with an affinity for drink and approval of blood offerings. The idea of independence and not confirming to widely held notions of

6080-399: The creative power of god was established when the goddess was projected as an embodiment of three important principles — "śakti (energy), prakṛti (primordial or primary matter) and māyā (illusion)". In the puranic era, even though the goddess was considered the source behind manifest creation, she was nevertheless a personification of her consort's energy and was referred to as prakṛti, who

6175-434: The earlier Devi Mahatmya and includes a rendition of the later, with a retelling of the many pauranic myths. The Devi Bhagavata Purana repeatedly extols the goddess as the "Eternal" and "Ever Constant Primordial Force" who is also "the power behind all other deities". Of noteworthy, is the fact that the goddess of the Devi Bhagavata Purana is invariably presented as being "independent of any male authority and control". It

6270-441: The earliest seeds of theistic devotion to Rudra-Shiva. Here Rudra-Shiva is identified as the creator of the cosmos and liberator of Selfs from the birth-rebirth cycle. The Svetasvatara Upanishad set the tone for early Shaivite thought, especially in chapter 3 verse 2 where Shiva is equated with Brahman: "Rudra is truly one; for the knowers of Brahman do not admit the existence of a second". The period of 200 BC to 100 AD also marks

6365-400: The early Elamite seals dated to 3000–2750 BCE show similar figures and these have been interpreted as "seated bull" and not a yogi, and the bovine interpretation is likely more accurate. Gregory L. Possehl in 2002, associated it with the water buffalo, and concluded that while it would be appropriate to recognize the figure as a deity, and its posture as one of ritual discipline, regarding it as

6460-403: The emergence of cosmic crisis, accordingly her role is assumed to be identical to that of Vishnu , who in his various avatars , vowed to manifest himself at the time of crisis. Devi, also, vows to manifest whenever her help is needed. The largest and possibly the most exhaustive Shakta purana, considered as "justification or vindication of the Goddess tradition, as well as an elaboration of it"

6555-522: The feminine lover to experience the " lila " (divine play) of her divine consciousness. The Devi Bhagavata Purana presents Brahman as containing both male and female, purusha and prakriti , Shiva and Devi. The Devi Bhagavata Purana considers the nature of Shakti as being made up of three existential qualities, similar to prakriti in Samkhya : Sattva (calm and balanced), Rajas (passionate and active), and Tamas (lethargic and inactive). As

6650-537: The figures in a group dance can be interpreted in many different ways. Of several Indus valley seals that show animals, one seal that has attracted attention shows a large central figure, either horned or wearing a horned headdress and possibly ithyphallic , seated in a posture reminiscent of the Lotus position , surrounded by animals. This figure was named by early excavators of Mohenjo-daro as Pashupati (Lord of Animals, Sanskrit paśupati ), an epithet of

6745-475: The foundational texts for Shaiva Siddhanta . Other Shaiva Agamas teach that these are one reality (monism, advaita ), and that Shiva is the Self, the perfection and truth within each living being. In Shiva related sub-traditions, there are ten dualistic Agama texts, eighteen qualified monism-cum-dualism Agama texts and sixty-four monism Agama texts. Shiva-related literature developed extensively across India in

6840-440: The goddess has been an intriguing trait in the character of Devi in the Devi Mahatmya . The goddess here, primarily identified as Durga , is not dependent on a male consort and she successfully handles male roles herself. In battles, she fights without a male ally, and when needed aide, creates female peers from herself like Kali . Also the ideation of the goddess as a personification of Shakti varies, instead of providing power to

6935-504: The highest Brahman , not by any other means. — Kaivalya Upanishad 10 Shaiva devotees and ascetics are mentioned in Patanjali 's Mahābhāṣya (2nd-century BCE) and in the Mahabharata . The earliest iconic artworks of Shiva may be from Gandhara and northwest parts of ancient India. There is some uncertainty as the artwork that has survived is damaged and they show some overlap with meditative Buddha-related artwork, but

7030-480: The idea of Shakti as being the feminine unity pervading all existence was developed. The Upanishads did not feature goddesses notably. However, the ideas devised during this period became significant in later conceptions of Shakti. The theory of Shakti advocated in Shakta Upanishads was predicated on the concept of Brahman , a gender-neutral Absolute . Brahman's all-encompassing nature gave rise to

7125-459: The idea of a connecting factor, called Atman , between the absolute and human. The early Upanishads postulated a transcendental absolute that cannot be depicted or understood, but be known only through Jñāna (insight, intuition). The later Upanishads however presented the idea of Saguna Brahman (manifest absolute), thus giving it an accessible form. The Shvetashvatara Upanishad portrayed Brahman as "manifest Lord or Īśvara ", thereby enabling

7220-423: The later Hindu deities Shiva and Rudra. Sir John Marshall and others suggested that this figure is a prototype of Shiva, with three faces, seated in a " yoga posture" with the knees out and feet joined. Semi-circular shapes on the head were interpreted as two horns. Scholars such as Gavin Flood , John Keay and Doris Meth Srinivasan have expressed doubts about this suggestion. Gavin Flood states that it

7315-483: The multiple facets of the same god or else were supposed to denote different forms and appellations by which the god came to be known and worshipped. [...] Siva became identified with countless local cults by the sheer suffixing of Isa or Isvara to the name of the local deity, e.g., Bhutesvara, Hatakesvara, Chandesvara." An example of assimilation took place in Maharashtra , where a regional deity named Khandoba

7410-489: The people of Bharmour are known, are courteous and welcoming to visitors. Meru, the father of the first recorded prince Jaistambh in the Chamba Vanshavali, was the first to settle Bharmour. He belonged to a ruling family of Ayodhya . Accompanied by his youngest son Jaistambh, Meru penetrated into the upper Ravi valley through the outer hills. He defeated the petty Ranas holding the territory there and founded

7505-506: The premises, and relief artwork showing aspects of Shiva. The Tantric Shiva ( "शिव ") tradition ignored the mythologies and Puranas related to Shiva, and depending on the sub-school developed a variety of practices. For example, historical records suggest the tantric Kapalikas (literally, the 'skull-men') co-existed with and shared many Vajrayana Buddhist rituals, engaged in esoteric practices that revered Shiva and Shakti wearing skulls, begged with empty skulls, and sometimes used meat as

7600-511: The presence of Shiva's trident and phallic symbolism in this art suggests it was likely Shiva. Numismatics research suggests that numerous coins of the ancient Kushan Empire (30–375 CE) that have survived, were images of a god who is probably Shiva. The Shiva in Kushan coins is referred to as Oesho of unclear etymology and origins, but the simultaneous presence of Indra and Shiva in the Kushan era artwork suggest that they were revered deities by

7695-733: The proud flow of the Ganga upon his braid. The monist Shiva literature posit absolute oneness, that is Shiva is within every man and woman, Shiva is within every living being, Shiva is present everywhere in the world including all non-living being, and there is no spiritual difference between life, matter, man and Shiva. The various dualistic and monist Shiva-related ideas were welcomed in medieval southeast Asia, inspiring numerous Shiva-related temples, artwork and texts in Indonesia, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Thailand and Malaysia, with syncretic integration of local pre-existing theologies. Shaivism

7790-595: The situation, are similar to those of the Greek god Dionysus , as are their iconic associations with bull, snakes, anger, bravery, dancing and carefree life. The ancient Greek texts of the time of Alexander the Great call Shiva "Indian Dionysus", or alternatively call Dionysus "god of the Orient" . Similarly, the use of phallic symbol as an icon for Shiva is also found for Irish, Nordic, Greek (Dionysus ) and Roman deities, as

7885-592: The start of the Kushan Empire. The Shaiva Upanishads are a group of 14 minor Upanishads of Hinduism variously dated from the last centuries of the 1st millennium BCE through the 17th century. These extol Shiva as the metaphysical unchanging reality Brahman and the Atman (Self), and include sections about rites and symbolisms related to Shiva. The Shaiva Puranas , particularly the Shiva Purana and

7980-470: The supremacy of a particular deity and equated their nirguna (unmanifest) form with the Brahman. Most of these Puranas were dedicated to the male deities, particularly Vishnu and Shiva , the later Shakta puranas were allotted to the goddess. Shakti worship that receded in the Vedic period became prominent from the classical period during which she was personified as Devi —a goddess. Majority of

8075-771: The temple complex. Chaurasi is a spacious level ground in central Bharmour where the galaxy of temples mostly in the form of Shivalingas exists. The Chaurasi Temple complex offers a delightful, clean and scenic view. Another temple built in the same style is that of Lord Vishnu cast in his Narasimha avatar. 32°26′31″N 76°32′13″E  /  32.442°N 76.537°E  / 32.442; 76.537 Shiva Shiva ( / ˈ ʃ ɪ v ə / ; Sanskrit : शिव , lit.   'The Auspicious One', IAST : Śiva [ɕɪʋɐ] ), also known as Mahadeva ( / m ə ˈ h ɑː ˈ d eɪ v ə / ; Sanskrit : महादेव: , lit.   'The Great God', IAST : Mahādevaḥ , [mɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐh ) or Hara ,

8170-561: The term Shakta ( Sanskrit : शक्त , Śakta ) is used for people and customs associated with Shakti worship. The term Shakta became popular from the ninth-century onwards, before that the term Kula or Kaula , which referred to clans of female ancestry, besides to the menstrual and sexual fluids of females, was used to describe Shakti followers. The origins of Shakti concept are prevedic . Sites related to worship of Mother goddess or Shakti were found in Paleolithic context at

8265-474: The term Shakti has broad implications, it mostly denotes "power or energy". Metaphysically, Shakti refers to the "energetic principle" of the fundamental reality, ideated as "primordial power". Shakti, is principally identified with the feminine , and with the numerous Hindu goddesses , who are seen as "tangible" expressions-visible personifications of the intangible Shakti. The formulation of such an idea for Shakti took place over many centuries. Relatedly,

8360-503: The town Brahmpura and made it the capital of a new state. This event is believed to have taken place in the middle of the 6th century A.D.. According to one legend, the name Brahampura was in use at a still earlier period for the more ancient kingdom of Bharmour which existed in the territories of Garhwal and Kumaon , and Meru gave the same name of Brahampura to the state that he founded with present Bharmour as his capital. After Meru, several Rajas ruled in succession until Sahil Varman. It

8455-680: The transgression of established mores, the Aum sound, the Supreme Self. In the Rig Veda the term śiva is used to refer to Indra. (2.20.3, 6.45.17, and 8.93.3. ) Indra, like Shiva, is likened to a bull. In the Rig Veda, Rudra is the father of the Maruts , but he is never associated with their warlike exploits as is Indra. Indra himself may have been adopted by the Vedic Aryans from

8550-410: The wife of Indra . Though the goddesses had no power, one Rigvedic hymn (10.159) addressed Indrani as Śacī Poulomī and presented her as the " deification " of Indra's power. The term Śacī meant "the rendering of powerful or mighty help, assistance, aid, especially of the 'deeds of Indra'." This use of the term Śacī is seen as a major step in the later conception of Śakti as the divine power that

8645-652: Was Sahil Varman who conquered the lower Ravi valley and transferred the seat of government from Brahampura to the new capital he founded at Chamba. Bharmour was capital for nearly four hundred years. In September 2007, the Government of Himachal Pradesh started a helicopter service to the temple located at an altitude of 4,300 metres. Chaurasi Temple is located in the centre of Bharmour town and it holds immense religious importance because of temples built around 1400 years ago. The life of people in Bharmour centres around

8740-522: Was initially part of the Markandeya Purana , is the most prominent goddess-centric text that clarified the concept of an all-encompassing goddess or the Mahadevi (great goddess). Allegorically, through the mythical warring deeds of the goddess, it was asserted, rather by a deduction than by plain words that she's the "ultimate reality". When the asuras (demons) endangered the existence of

8835-577: Was prevalent in the Indus Valley Civilisation (3300–1300  BCE ) as many terracotta female figurines with smoke-blacked headgears , suggesting their use in rituals, had been found in almost all the houses of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa . Numerous artefacts that appear to portray female deities were also found. This development however is not assumed to be the earliest precursor of goddess worship in India; it has evolved for over

8930-424: Was the idea of this aniconic column linking heaven and earth among early Indo-Aryans, states Roger Woodward. Others contest such proposals, and suggest Shiva to have emerged from indigenous pre-Aryan tribal origins. Shiva as we know him today shares many features with the Vedic god Rudra , and both Shiva and Rudra are viewed as the same personality in Hindu scriptures . The two names are used synonymously. Rudra,

9025-582: Was widely viewed as both the god of lust and of asceticism. In one story, he was seduced by a prostitute sent by the other gods, who were jealous of Shiva's ascetic lifestyle he had lived for 1000 years. Prehistoric rock paintings dating to the Mesolithic from Bhimbetka rock shelters have been interpreted by some authors as depictions of Shiva. However, Howard Morphy states that these prehistoric rock paintings of India, when seen in their context, are likely those of hunting party with animals, and that

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