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105-486: The tradition of tortoise-mounted stelae originated no later than early 3rd century (late Han dynasty ). According to the 1957 survey by Chêng Tê-k'un ( 鄭徳坤 ), the earliest extant tortoise-borne stele is thought to be the one at the tomb of Fan Min ( 樊敏 ), in Lushan County , Ya'an , Sichuan . Victor Segalen had earlier identified the stele as a Han dynasty monument. Present-day authors agree, usually giving it

210-644: A limited engagement at Mayi involving the assassination of the Chanyu would throw the Xiongnu realm into chaos and benefit the Han. When this plot failed in 133 BC, Emperor Wu launched a series of massive military invasions into Xiongnu territory. The assault culminated in 119 BC at the Battle of Mobei , when Han commanders Huo Qubing ( d.  117 BC ) and Wei Qing ( d.  106 BC ) forced

315-647: A series of military campaigns to quell the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu were eventually defeated and forced to accept a status as Han vassals , and the Xiongnu confederation fragmented. The Han conquered the Hexi Corridor and Inner Asian territory of the Tarim Basin from the Xiongnu, helping to establish the Silk Road . The lands north of the Han's borders were later overrun by the nomadic Xianbei confederation. Emperor Wu also launched successful conquests in

420-2697: A Brahmi Mongolic text. The Sogdian inscription has the following text: (Left Side)(‘mwh?) […] (pt)s’kh ‘ws’t δ’r’nt tr’wkt c(yn)st’n kwt(s)’tt ‘γšywn’k (‘YK) [lacuna of some 15 letters] (ZK?)trwkc βγy nw’’r γ’γ’n ‘wskwp’r ckn’cw mγ’n (tykyn pr)[w] (γ’γ’n wy’k) w’(š)t ‘(X)RZY nwkr ZK βγy mwγ’n γ’γ’n ‘PZY βγy mγ’n tyky(n) [lacuna of 5–6 letters, perhaps cyw’nt?] pyštrw?) k’w ‘wrts’r prm prw ‘nγt’k ‘βc’npδ ‘swšwyn’tt wm’[t’nt] [lacuna of some 25 letters] (t ‘XRYZ n)wkr cyw’nt pyštrw βγy m[wγ’n γ’γ’n](Front Side) [lacuna of 35–40 letters] (w) k’w βγy s’r pwrsty rty nw(k)r (k..) […] [lacuna of 30–35 letters] (‘YK?) š’δpyt trγw’nt γwrγ’p(‘)ynt twδwnt s(nk) [wnt][lacuna of 10–12 letters] (t rty pyšt)rw (….t?) [8–10 letters] y tw’ γwyštr ‘XY mwγ’n γ’γ’n pr’yt rty (…) [lacuna of some 15 letters] K(S)Pw (‘n) [β] (γ)t δ’r[t rty n’β] (cy)h šyr’k p’rtw δ’rt rty ms ‘kδry tγw βγy mγ’[n](tyk)[yn] γ[šywny…] (…)δ(…..) rty [about 8 letters] (δ’rt rty) ‘pw ‘nγwncyδ γšywny n’β(c)yh p’r rty nw(k)(βγy mγ’n ty)[kyn lacuna of some 25 letters s](γ)wn ptγwštw δ’rt rty γrγwšk srδy (.)[…](.w’št?)(wγwšw ?) srδ (γš)y(wny.) [lacuna of some 15 letters, βγy t’sp’r] (γ’γ’n) k’w βγyšt s’r pwrst rty pyštrw š’δpyt trγw[‘nt]γwrγ’p’ynt (snk)[wnt] (twδ)[w]nt (’PZY) […](.n) [read [γ’γ](‘n)?] wk[wrtpt](s)dtw δ’rnt rty nwkr βγβwmyn[/i] [so instead of βγy βwmyn] γ’γ’n p’δy (s’r) [….](δ’rt kt?) [….]t rty βγ[y βwmyn] (yn γ’ γ’n) pr(m)’t δ’rt (k)t’yβ βγ’ t’sp’r γ’ γ’n wsn RBk(‘)[lacuna, some 20 letters] (.t) […] (..)rt(y) [w’n’w?] pr(m)’tw δ’rt RBkw nw(h) snk’ ‘wast rty ‘YK nw(k) [r][lacuna, some 20 letters] (.npš ?) [lacuna, about 8 letters] rty βγ’ [instead of βγy] t’(sp’r) γ’γ’n tr(‘γ)t ‘cw npyšnt cw krnw(‘ncy’k?)[h][lacuna, some 40 letters] (…)cw γwrγ(‘)p’ynt cwty wkwrt cw n’βcy’kh ‘(st’t?)[lacuna, some 40 letters] (y) β’r’k ‘sp’δy’n (wr’yt) ‘yt myδ ‘nβγt δ’r’nt [lacuna, some 40 letters] (sγwn) ptγwštw δ’r’nt rty cyw’nt pyštrw […] [lacuna, some 40 letters] (…tw) δ’rt (….t) rty c’n’w δw’ γšywnk [lacuna, some 40 letters] (…tw) δ’r’nt rty (…) šyr’k βrtpδ m’tnt rty [lacuna, some 40 letters] (…n’βcy’kh ?....) p(tsγt’k ?) ‘sp’δ m(…) [lacuna, some 40 letters] (…wyškrtw ?) δ’r’nt (…)[lacuna, some 40 letters] (…)δw’ šyrγw(štt)w m’(t)[‘nt] (Right Side) [lacuna, some 40 letters] (.k?) šyr’k krt(k) [‘krtw?] δ’rt rt[y…] [lacuna, some 40 letters] (s)δtw (δ’r’nt) šyr’k (šy)r’k krtk ‘’βry(t) [δ’r’nt ?] [lacuna, some 40 letters] (….’cw ?) [n’β](c)yh mrt(γm)’k ‘st’t ‘XRYZ (βγym)[γ’n tykyn?] [lacuna, some 40 letters] (‘XRZY βγy ?) […](š)t (nws) [’ws, nwš or nyš ?] (.)wk’ [(p)wk’ or (‘)wk/’ ?] trγw’n ‘YK (m)γ(‘) [n tykn] [illegible traces of letters]. This

525-595: A Greek sailor had visited. Emperor Zhang 's ( r.  75–88 AD ) reign came to be viewed by later Eastern Han scholars as the high point of the dynastic house. Subsequent reigns were increasingly marked by eunuch intervention in court politics and their involvement in the violent power struggles of the imperial consort clans . In 92 AD, with the aid of the eunuch Zheng Zhong ( d.  107 AD ), Emperor He ( r.  88–105 AD ) had Empress Dowager Dou ( d.  97 AD ) put under house arrest and her clan stripped of power. This

630-463: A change which debased the value of coinage. Although these reforms provoked considerable opposition, Wang's regime met its ultimate downfall with the massive floods of c.  3  AD and 11 AD. Gradual silt build-up in the Yellow River had raised its water level and overwhelmed the flood control works . The Yellow River split into two new branches: one emptying to the north and

735-448: A coalition of former officials and officers against Dong, who burned Luoyang to the ground and resettled the court at Chang'an in May 191 AD. Dong Zhuo later poisoned Emperor Shao. Dong was killed by his adopted son Lü Bu ( d.  198 AD ) in a plot hatched by Wang Yun ( d.  192 AD ). Emperor Xian fled from Chang'an in 195 AD to the ruins of Luoyang. Xian

840-416: A coup against the eunuchs Hou Lan ( d.  172 AD ), Cao Jie ( d.  181 AD ), and Wang Fu ( 王甫 ). When the plot was uncovered, the eunuchs arrested Empress Dowager Dou ( d.  172 AD ) and Chen Fan. General Zhang Huan ( 張奐 ) favoured the eunuchs. He and his troops confronted Dou Wu and his retainers at the palace gate where each side shouted accusations of treason against

945-527: A descendant of Emperor Jing ( r.  157–141 BC ), attempted to restore the Han dynasty and occupied Chang'an as his capital. However, he was overwhelmed by the Red Eyebrow rebels who deposed, assassinated, and replaced him with the puppet monarch Liu Penzi . Gengshi's distant cousin Liu Xiu, known posthumously as Emperor Guangwu ( r.  25–57 AD ), after distinguishing himself at

1050-574: A leaf-like design. They usually have prominent teeth, which real-life turtles don't. By the mid- Qing (the 18th century), however, the stele-bearing tortoise becomes the characteristic dragon -headed bixi . According to some 19th-century western authors, the Chinese tradition of using a tortoise as a pedestal may have a common source with the Indian legend of the world being held up by a giant turtle. The word bi 贔 or bixi 贔屭 (also written with

1155-664: A number of limited institutional innovations. To finance its military campaigns and the settlement of newly conquered frontier territories, the Han government nationalised private salt and iron industries in 117 BC, creating government monopolies that were later repealed during the Eastern period. There were significant advances in science and technology during the Han period, including the emergence of papermaking , rudders for steering ships, negative numbers in mathematics , raised-relief maps , hydraulic -powered armillary spheres for astronomy , and seismometers that discerned

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1260-578: A request by Kushan ruler Vima Kadphises ( r.   c.  90  – c.  100 AD –  ) for a marriage alliance with the Han was rejected in AD ;90, he sent his forces to Wakhan (modern-day Afghanistan) to attack Ban Chao. The conflict ended with the Kushans withdrawing because of lack of supplies. In AD 91, the office of Protector General of the Western Regions

1365-428: A series of reforms that limited the power of these kingdoms in 145, dividing their former territories into new commanderies under central control. Kings were no longer able to appoint their own staff; this duty was assumed by the imperial court. Kings became nominal heads of their fiefs and collected a portion of tax revenues as their personal incomes. The kingdoms were never entirely abolished and existed throughout

1470-484: A state pension and a territorial fiefdom . Holders of the rank immediately below, that of ordinary marquess, received a pension, but had no territorial rule. Scholar-bureaucrats who served in government belonged to the wider commoner social class and were ranked just below nobles in social prestige. The highest government officials could be enfeoffed as marquesses. Bugut inscription The Bugut inscription ( Mongolian : Бугут , romanized :  Bugut )

1575-503: A stele praising the founder of the Ming, comparing him to the founders of the great Tang and Song dynasties of the past. The Hongwu Emperor's tortoise tradition was continued by the later Ming and Qing emperors, whose mausoleums are usually decorated by bixi -born steles as well. Even the self-declared emperor Yuan Shikai was posthumously honored with a bixi -based stele in Anyang , as

1680-545: A successful overthrow of her regime to enthrone Emperor Shun of Han ( r.  125–144 AD ). Yan was placed under house arrest, her relatives were either killed or exiled, and her eunuch allies were slaughtered. The regent Liang Ji ( d.  159 AD ), brother of Empress Liang Na ( d.  150 AD ), had the brother-in-law of Consort Deng Mengnü ( d.  165 AD ) killed after Deng Mengnü resisted Liang Ji's attempts to control her. Afterward, Emperor Huan employed eunuchs to depose Liang Ji, who

1785-542: A tortoise carrying a stele erected by the Jin dynasty governor of Changsha in honor of a local dignitary. Perhaps the best known extant early example of the genre is the set of four stele-bearing tortoises at the mausoleum of Xiao Xiu (475-518), who was the younger brother of the first Liang dynasty emperor Wu (Xiao Yan), near Nanjing . The bixi tradition flourished during the Ming and Qing dynasties . The Ming founder,

1890-461: A variant character, 贔屓 ) is translated by Chinese dictionaries as "strong", "capable to support great weight". The word bixi is attested already in Zhang Heng 's (78-139) "Western Metropolis Rhapsody" ( Xi Jing Fu ), which mentions "the great strides" of the giant divine bixi . Zhang Heng's follower, Zuo Si (250 - 305), in his Wu Capital Rhapsody ( Wu Jing Fu ), explicitly associates

1995-474: A war to determine who would have hegemony over China, which had fissured into Eighteen Kingdoms , each claiming allegiance to either Xiang Yu or Liu Bang. Although Xiang Yu proved to be an effective commander, Liu Bang defeated him at the Battle of Gaixia (202 BC) in modern-day Anhui . Liu Bang assumed the title of Emperor at the urging of his followers and is known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu ( r.  202–195 BC ). Chang'an (modern Xi'an)

2100-526: Is a multi-lingual inscription first discovered in Ikh-Tamir sum of Arkhangai Province , Mongolia . The inscription is dated to 584 CE and was dedicated to Taspar Khagan (reigned 572–581) the fourth Khagan of the Turkic Khaganate . The inscription is in the form of a monumental wolf-crowned stele 198 cm high that sits on a turtle base 47 cm high. The front, right and left side of

2205-506: Is found primarily at the graves of prominent Kamakura period (1185–1333) figures, especially in the city of Kamakura . Another large collection of tortoise-borne stelae, spanning the 17th through 19th centuries, can be seen at the cemetery of the Tottori Domain daimyō outside Tottori . Otherwise, the form does not seem to have been particularly popular in earlier or later times. In Korea, tortoise-borne stelae are known during

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2310-508: Is given to the table-carrying tortoise in the more popular version of the list of the "Nine Children of the Dragon". In this form of the list, given e.g. by Yang Shen (1488–1559), the bixi is given the first position: The bixi looks like a tortoise, and likes to carry heavy weights; [he] is the tortoise-carrier ( guifu ) now [seen] under stone tablets. It is said that an old legend of the stone tortoise made by Lu Ban that went to swim in

2415-596: Is no indigenous tradition of erecting stelae on tortoise-shaped pedestals in the United States, a Qing period bixi can be seen on the campus of Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts . This bixi was given as a gift to Harvard in 1936 by the members of Harvard Clubs in China; an appropriate text was carved for the occasion on the tablet carried by the tortoise. According to Victor Segalen 's assessment,

2520-493: Is now northern Sichuan and southern Shaanxi , was not quelled until 215 AD. Zhang Jue's massive rebellion across eight provinces was annihilated by Han forces within a year; however, the following decades saw much smaller recurrent uprisings. Although the Yellow Turbans were defeated, many generals appointed during the crisis never disbanded their assembled militias and used these troops to amass power outside of

2625-550: Is recorded in the Weilüe and Book of Later Han to have reached the court of Emperor Huan of Han ( r.  146–168 AD ) in AD 166, yet Rafe de Crespigny asserts that this was most likely a group of Roman merchants . In addition to Roman glasswares and coins found in China, Roman medallions from the reign of Antoninus Pius and his adopted son Marcus Aurelius have been found at Óc Eo in Vietnam. This

2730-595: Is the discovery of a huge 1200-year-old one in Zhengding ( Hebei Province) in June 2006. The stone turtle is 8.4 m long, 3.2 m wide, and 2.6 m tall, and weighs 107 tons. It has since been moved to Zhengding's Kaiyuan Temple . The concept of a tortoise-borne, dragon-crowned stele was adopted early by China's northern neighbors. The earliest extant monument of the Turkic Kaganate - the so-called " Bugut Stele " of

2835-448: Is the wear to the creatures' noses from the people who touch them for good luck. At Hanoi's Temple of Literature , highly popular with visitors, this has become a sufficient concern to the site's managers as to make them develop plans for introducing creative landscaping and structural obstacles to keep visitors from touching the temple's 82 stone turtles. Han dynasty This is an accepted version of this page The Han dynasty

2940-743: The Shan Hai Jing and the Bo Wu Zhi ( 博物志 ); however, as the modern researchers Yang Jingrong and Liu Zhixiong note, that is not the case, and the names, much more likely, were taken by Lu Rong from the folklore of his time. Soon after Lu Rong, the mighty tablet-carrying tortoise appears in various lists of the " Nine children of the Dragons ", compiled by several Ming authors. However, both Li Dongyang (1441–1516), in his Huai Lu Tang Ji, and Xie Zhaozhe ( 謝肇淛 , 1567–1624), in his Wu Za Zu ( 五雜俎 , Five Assorted Offerings , ca. 1592), refer to

3045-717: The Altai Mountains (Golden Mountains) in 569. The Sogdian language of the inscriptions reflects the prominence of Sogdians on the Silk Road. Sogdians were East Iranians from Sogdia , one of the satrapies of the Achaemenid Empire . The Mongolic Rouran inscription reflects the influence of the previous Rouran Khaganate. The title Khagan was first used by the Rourans who were an offshoot of the Xianbei similar to

3150-538: The Battle of Kunyang in 23 AD, was urged to succeed Gengshi as emperor. Under Guangwu's rule, the Han Empire was restored. Guangwu made Luoyang his capital in 25 AD, and by 27 his officers Deng Yu and Feng Yi had forced the Red Eyebrows to surrender and executed their leaders for treason . From 26 until 36 AD, Emperor Guangwu had to wage war against other regional warlords who claimed

3255-462: The Battle of Zhizhi , in modern Taraz , Kazakhstan. In 121 BC, Han forces expelled the Xiongnu from a vast territory spanning the Hexi Corridor to Lop Nur . They repelled a joint Xiongnu- Qiang invasion of this northwestern territory in 111 BC. In that same year, the Han court established four new frontier commanderies in this region to consolidate their control: Jiuquan , Zhangyi , Dunhuang , and Wuwei . The majority of people on

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3360-743: The Buyeo Kingdom in Manchuria to the Ili River of the Wusun people. The Xianbei reached their apogee under Tanshihuai ( d.  AD 181 ), who consistently defeated Chinese armies. However, Tanshihuai's confederation disintegrated after his death. Ban Chao ( d.  AD 102 ) enlisted the aid of the Kushan Empire , which controlled territory across South and Central Asia, to subdue Kashgar and its ally Sogdiana. When

3465-816: The Chu–Han Contention , the resulting Han dynasty was named after the Hanzhong fief. China's first imperial dynasty was the Qin dynasty (221–207 BC). The Qin united the Chinese Warring States by conquest, but their regime became unstable after the death of the first emperor Qin Shi Huang . Within four years, the dynasty's authority had collapsed in a rebellion. Two former rebel leaders, Xiang Yu ( d.  202 BC ) of Chu and Liu Bang ( d.  195 BC ) of Han , engaged in

3570-707: The Greco-Bactrian Kingdom ); he also gathered information on Shendu (the Indus River valley) and Anxi (the Parthian Empire ). All of these countries eventually received Han embassies. These connections marked the beginning of the Silk Road trade network that extended to the Roman Empire , bringing goods like Chinese silk and Roman glasswares between the two. From c.  115 BC until c.  60 BC , Han forces fought

3675-481: The Hongwu Emperor , in the first year after the dynasty had been proclaimed (1368), adopted regulations, allowing tortoise-based funerary tablets to the higher ranks of the nobility and the mandarinate . He tightened the rules in 1396, leaving only the highest nobility (those of the gong and hou ranks) and the officials of the top 3 ranks eligible for bixi -based stelae. The type of dragons crowning

3780-669: The Three Kingdoms of Korea period (e.g., the Tombstone of King Muyeol of Silla , erected 661). Monuments of this type have been preserved from the later Goryeo dynasty as well, such as the Stele of Bongseon Honggyeongsa (1026). Vietnam also has a long tradition of tortoise-born stelae, where they commemorate Emperor Lê Thái Tổ as well as the graduates of the Confucian academy at Hanoi's Temple of Literature . While there

3885-631: The Tuoba , Khitan , Tuyuhun and Shiwei ( Mongols ). Some Rouran nobility were Buddhists . The wolf at the top of the stele reflects the Turks' belief in their origin from a wolf like the Mongols. The vertical orientation of the inscriptions and the turtle base reflects cultural influence from China. The Inscription of Hüis Tolgoi is another inscription found in Mongolia, dated to 604 to 620 CE, with

3990-610: The Xin dynasty (9–23 AD) established by the usurping regent Wang Mang , and is thus separated into two periods—the Western Han (202 BC – 9 AD) and the Eastern Han (25–220 AD). Spanning over four centuries, the Han dynasty is considered a golden age in Chinese history , and had a permanent impact on Chinese identity in later periods. The majority ethnic group of modern China refer to themselves as

4095-638: The Xiongnu , who were estranged from Han until their leader Bi ( 比 ), a rival claimant to the throne against his cousin Punu ( 蒲奴 ), submitted to Han as a tributary vassal in AD 50. This created two rival Xiongnu states: the Southern Xiongnu led by Bi, an ally of Han, and the Northern Xiongnu led by Punu, an enemy of Han. During the turbulent reign of Wang Mang, China lost control over

4200-575: The Yellow Turban Rebellion and Five Pecks of Rice Rebellion in 184 AD, largely because the court did not want to continue to alienate a significant portion of the gentry class who might otherwise join the rebellions. The Yellow Turbans and Five-Pecks-of-Rice adherents belonged to two different hierarchical Taoist religious societies led by faith healers Zhang Jue ( d.  184 AD ) and Zhang Lu ( d.  216 AD ), respectively. Zhang Lu's rebellion, in what

4305-532: The cosmology of later scholars such as Dong Zhongshu . The Han dynasty oversaw periods of economic prosperity as well as significant growth in the money economy that had first been established during the Zhou dynasty ( c.  1050  – 256 BC). The coinage minted by the central government in 119 BC remained the standard in China until the Tang dynasty (618–907 AD). The period saw

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4410-448: The " Han people " or "Han Chinese". The spoken Chinese and written Chinese are referred to respectively as the "Han language" and " Han characters ". The Han emperor was at the pinnacle of Han society and culture . He presided over the Han government but shared power with both the nobility and the appointed ministers who came largely from the scholarly gentry class . The Han Empire

4515-452: The Han as equal partners in a royal marriage alliance, but the Han were forced to send large amounts of tribute items such as silk clothes, food, and wine to the Xiongnu. Despite the tribute and negotiation between Laoshang Chanyu ( r.  174–160 BC ) and Emperor Wen ( r.  180–157 BC ) to reopen border markets, many of the Chanyu 's subordinates chose not to obey

4620-726: The Imperial University on a dubious charge of treason. In 167 AD, the Grand Commandant Dou Wu ( d.  168 AD ) convinced his son-in-law, Emperor Huan, to release them. However, the emperor permanently barred Li Ying and his associates from serving in office, marking the beginning of the Partisan Prohibitions . Following Huan's death, Dou Wu and the Grand Tutor Chen Fan ( d.  168 AD ) attempted

4725-636: The Rouran and Hephthalites and their pursuit by the Turks precipitated the migration of the Avars into Eastern Europe. Charlemagne would ultimately accept their surrender in 798 at Aachen and send one native chief, baptised Abraham, back to Avaria with the ancient title of khagan. The Turks allied with the Byzantine Empire against the Sasanians. Byzantine envoy Zemarchus visited Istemi Khagan in

4830-518: The Stone Tortoise" ( 贔屭精 , Bixi jing ), from Yuan Mei 's (1716–1797) collection What the Master does not Speak of . The French poet and researcher Victor Segalen (1878–1919), who published both a scholarly book about China's stelae and a book of poetry-in-prose about them, was also impressed by the "truly emblematic" stone tortoises, their "firm gestures and elegiac posture". Today,

4935-693: The Tarim Basin, which was conquered by the Northern Xiongnu in AD 63 and used as a base to invade the Hexi Corridor in Gansu . Dou Gu ( d.  88 AD ) defeated the Northern Xiongnu at the Battle of Yiwulu in AD 73, evicting them from Turpan and chasing them as far as Lake Barkol before establishing a garrison at Hami. After the new Protector General of the Western Regions Chen Mu ( d.  AD 75 )

5040-792: The Turkic Khaganate stretched from Manchuria to the Black Sea. It controlled the Silk Road while its imperial seat of power was in central Mongolia. The Turkic Khaganate replaced their previous overlords the Rouran Khaganate (also called Ruanruan) in 552 with the help of the Western Wei . The Gokturks proceeded to defeat the Hepthalites with the help of the Sasanian Empire of Persia in 560 CE. The defeat of

5145-455: The Xiongnu court to flee north of the Gobi Desert , and Han forces reached as far north as Lake Baikal . After Wu's reign, Han forces continued to fight the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu leader Huhanye ( r.  58–31 BC ) finally submitted to the Han as a tributary vassal in 51 BC. Huhanye's rival claimant to the throne, Zhizhi Chanyu ( r.  56–36 BC ), was killed by Han forces under Chen Tang and Gan Yanshou ( 甘延壽 ) at

5250-422: The Xiongnu over control of the oasis city-states in the Tarim Basin. The Han was eventually victorious and established the Protectorate of the Western Regions in 60 BC, which dealt with the region's defence and foreign affairs. The Han also expanded southward . The naval conquest of Nanyue in 111 BC expanded the Han realm into what are now modern Guangdong , Guangxi , and northern Vietnam. Yunnan

5355-434: The Yuan brothers, Zhang committed suicide by jumping into the Yellow River. General Dong Zhuo ( d.  192 AD ) found the young emperor and his brother wandering in the countryside. He escorted them safely back to the capital and was made Minister of Works , taking control of Luoyang and forcing Yuan Shao to flee. After Dong Zhuo demoted Emperor Shao and promoted his brother Liu Xie as Emperor Xian, Yuan Shao led

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5460-431: The attribute bixi with the legendary giant turtle ao , whose head supports a sacred mountain. The term bixi became associated with the stele-carrying tortoises no later than the Ming dynasty . The terminology, however, did not immediately become stable. The earliest known Ming-era list of fantastic creatures appearing in architecture and applied art is given by Lu Rong (1436–1494) in his Miscellaneous records from

5565-413: The bean garden ( 菽園雜記 , Shuyuan zaji ). The bixi , with the syllables swapped ( 屭贔 , xibi ), appears in the first position in that list: The xibi looks like a tortoise. By its nature it likes to carry heavy weights. It used to be employed to support stone tablets. Lu Rong claims that his list (including the total of 14 creatures) is based on the ancient books of beasts and supernatural creatures,

5670-412: The capital was moved eastward to Luoyang. The era from his reign until the fall of Han is known as the Eastern Han or Later Han (25–220 AD). The Eastern Han ( traditional Chinese : 東漢 ; simplified Chinese : 东汉 ; pinyin : Dōnghàn ), also known as the Later Han ( 後漢 ; 后汉 ; Hòuhàn ), formally began on 5 August AD 25, when Liu Xiu became Emperor Guangwu of Han . During

5775-491: The cardinal direction of distant earthquakes by use of inverted pendulums . The Han dynasty had many conflicts with the Xiongnu , a nomadic confederation centred in the eastern Eurasian steppe . The Xiongnu defeated the Han in 200 BC , prompting the Han to appease the Xiongnu with a policy of marriage alliance and payments of tribute, though the Xiongnu continued to raid the Han's northern borders. Han policy changed in 133 BC, under Emperor Wu , when Han forces began

5880-434: The collapsing imperial authority. General-in-chief He Jin ( d.  189 AD ), half-brother to Empress He ( d.  189 AD ), plotted with Yuan Shao ( d.  202 AD ) to overthrow the eunuchs by having several generals march to the outskirts of the capital. There, in a written petition to Empress He, they demanded the eunuchs' execution. After a period of hesitation, Empress He consented. When

5985-422: The date of 205 AD. The stele has a rounded top with a dragon design in low relief - a precursor to the "two intertwined dragons" design that was very common on such steles even in the Ming and Qing Dynasties, over a thousand years later. In the collection of the Nanjing Museum there is a hunping funerary jar, dating to 272 AD, with a miniature architectural composition on top, depicting, among other objects,

6090-462: The early ( Han and the Six Dynasties ) stone tortoises were artistic images of quite real aquatic turtles. The creatures looked quite realistic through the Song dynasty , when huge tortoise pedestals, such as the ones in Shou Qiu near Qufu , or the one in Dai Miao at Mount Tai , were erected. The early-Ming specimens, while still definitely chelonian , had sprouted small ears; the sides of their heads and their carapaces are often decorated by

6195-490: The emperor was often a minor, ruled over by a regent such as the empress dowager or one of her male relatives. Ranked immediately below the emperor were the kings who were of the same Liu family clan. The rest of society, including nobles lower than kings and all commoners excluding slaves, belonged to one of twenty ranks ( ershi gongcheng 二十公乘 ). Each successive rank gave its holder greater pensions and legal privileges. The highest rank, of full marquess , came with

6300-419: The empire . The Han dynasty came to an end in 220 AD when Cao Pi , king of Wei , usurped the throne from Emperor Xian . According to the Records of the Grand Historian , after the collapse of the Qin dynasty the hegemon Xiang Yu appointed Liu Bang as prince of the small fief of Hanzhong , named after its location on the Han River (in modern southwest Shaanxi ). Following Liu Bang's victory in

6405-431: The empresses and empresses dowager . Imperial authority was also seriously challenged by large Taoist religious societies which instigated the Yellow Turban Rebellion and the Five Pecks of Rice Rebellion . Following the death of Emperor Ling ( r.  168–189 AD ), the palace eunuchs were massacred by military officers, allowing members of the aristocracy and military governors to become warlords and divide

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6510-575: The eunuchs discovered this, however, they had her brother He Miao ( 何苗 ) rescind the order. The eunuchs assassinated He Jin on 22 September 189. Yuan Shao then besieged Luoyang's Northern Palace while his brother Yuan Shu ( d.  199 AD ) besieged the Southern Palace. On September 25 both palaces were breached and approximately two thousand eunuchs were killed. Zhang Rang had previously fled with Emperor Shao ( r.  189 AD ) and his brother Liu Xie—the future Emperor Xian of Han ( r.  189–220 AD ). While being pursued by

6615-427: The family inheritance. His brothers Yuan Shang and Yuan Xi were killed in 207 AD by Gongsun Kang ( d.  221 AD ), who sent their heads to Cao Cao. After Cao's defeat at the naval Battle of Red Cliffs in 208 AD, China was divided into three spheres of influence, with Cao Cao dominating the north, Sun Quan (182–252 AD) dominating the south, and Liu Bei (161–223 AD) dominating

6720-601: The frontier were soldiers. On occasion, the court forcibly moved peasant farmers to new frontier settlements, along with government-owned slaves and convicts who performed hard labour. The court also encouraged commoners, such as farmers, merchants, landowners, and hired labourers, to voluntarily migrate to the frontier. Even before the Han's expansion into Central Asia, diplomat Zhang Qian 's travels from 139 to 125 BC had established Chinese contacts with many surrounding civilizations. Zhang encountered Dayuan ( Fergana ), Kangju ( Sogdiana ), and Daxia ( Bactria , formerly

6825-409: The image of the bixi continues to inspire modern Chinese artists. As with other stone (particularly, marble and limestone) statuary, bixi turtles and their stelae are vulnerable to acid rain (or, in winter, acid snow). On the Harvard University campus, the curators of its turtle protect it against "acid snow" by wrapping it with a waterproof cover for the winter. A more bixi -specific concern

6930-452: The late 6th century from Arkhangai Province in western Mongolia with a Sogdian and (most likely) Brahmi Mongolic inscription was installed on a stone tortoise. It is now in the provincial capital, Tsetserleg . According to the Turkish researcher Cengiz Alyilmaz, it was the design of this stele that influenced the builders of the important 8th-century stelae with Old Turkic inscriptions, many of which also stood on tortoises. Among them,

7035-401: The lord M[uhan-qaghan] (Front Side) [… died. And …] asks the God, and then … … … When (?)šadapït(s), tarkhwans, qurqapïns, tuduns, säng[üns] [approved (?)] and after that [thus addressed him]: ‘Your elder brother Muhan-qaghan died. And … … [he well (?)] distributed the money [and] well fed [the peo]ple. And thus now you, lord Maha[n]- –tegin, ………, and feed the people without such a ruler!’ And now

7140-404: The lord Mahan-te[gin ….], he listened to this words and in the Hare year … ascended (?) six(?) years he ruled […. The lord Taspar (?)]-qaghan asked the gods. And then šadapïts, tarkhw[ans] qurqapïns, sängüns, tuduns, the kinsmen (of the qaghan) approved. And then he addressed the adobe of the lord Bumïn-qaghan thus: ‘[show!]’. And the lord Bumïn-qaghan ordered: ‘Oh lord, Taspar-qaghan! You must … for

7245-425: The most accessible one is probably Bayanchur Khan 's (Eletmish Bilge Kağan)'s Terhin-Gol stele (753 AD), now in the Mongolian Academy of Sciences in Ulan Bator . Later, the Jurchen Jin dynasty (1115-1234) and the Mongol Yuan dynasty erected tortoise-based monuments as well, some of which have been preserved in Russia's Ussuriysk and Mongolia's Karakorum . In Japan, this form of tortoise-supported stele

7350-411: The nobility, Wang Mang claimed on 10 January that the divine Mandate of Heaven called for the end of the Han dynasty and the beginning of his own: the Xin dynasty (9–23 AD). Wang Mang initiated a series of major reforms that were ultimately unsuccessful. These reforms included outlawing slavery, nationalizing and equally distributing land between households, and introducing new currencies,

7455-419: The ocean every summer, and came back to its seaside hill in the fall, inspired Lu Ji 's lines: The stone tortoise cherishes in its heart the love of the sea. How can I forget my home village? The opening chapter of the 14th-century novel Water Margin involves Marshal Hong releasing 108 spirits imprisoned under an ancient stele-bearing tortoise. A bixi plays a key role in a ghost story, "The Spirit of

7560-687: The other to the south of the Shandong Peninsula , though Han engineers managed to dam the southern branch by 70 AD. The flood dislodged thousands of peasant farmers, many of whom joined roving bandit and rebel groups such as the Red Eyebrows to survive. Wang Mang's armies were incapable of quelling these enlarged rebel groups. Eventually, an insurgent mob forced their way into the Weiyang Palace and killed Wang Mang. The Gengshi Emperor ( r.  23–25 AD ),

7665-560: The other. When the retainers gradually deserted Dou Wu, he was forced to commit suicide. Under Emperor Ling ( r.  168–189 AD ) the eunuchs had the partisan prohibitions renewed and expanded, while also auctioning off top government offices. Many affairs of state were entrusted to the eunuchs Zhao Zhong ( d.  189 AD ) and Zhang Rang ( d.  189 AD ) while Emperor Ling spent much of his time roleplaying with concubines and participating in military parades. The Partisan Prohibitions were repealed during

7770-603: The remainder of Western and Eastern Han. To the north of China proper , the nomadic Xiongnu chieftain Modu Chanyu ( r.  209–174 BC ) conquered various tribes inhabiting the eastern portion of the Eurasian Steppe . By the end of his reign, he controlled the Inner Asian regions of Manchuria , Mongolia , and the Tarim Basin , subjugating over twenty states east of Samarkand . Emperor Gaozu

7875-408: The sake of the great […..] and he ordered: ‘Establish a great new samgha!’ And then when […..] and the lord Taspar-qaghan was distressed, [whether there was] anybody of the grandsons who [had] the ability (?) […..] … is there anybody of the qurqapïns, of the kinsmen, of the people … and equestarian warrior(s) thus distributed the prey(?) [….] they heard [these] words and after this […] [….] he ….. And as

7980-616: The salt and iron monopolies were eventually abolished in the early Eastern Han. The issuing of coinage remained a central government monopoly throughout the rest of the Han dynasty. The government monopolies were eventually repealed when a political faction known as the Reformists gained greater influence in the court. The Reformists opposed the Modernist faction that had dominated court politics in Emperor Wu's reign and during

8085-479: The south , annexing Nanyue in 111 BC and Dian in 109 BC . He further expanded Han territory into the northern Korean Peninsula , where Han forces conquered Gojoseon and established the Xuantu and Lelang commanderies in 108 BC. After 92 AD, palace eunuchs increasingly involved themselves in the dynasty's court politics, engaging in violent power struggles between various consort clans of

8190-521: The stele has a Sogdian inscription written with Sogdian alphabet . The back side has a possibly Rouran inscription written with Brahmi script. The original location of the inscription on the west bank of the Bayantsagaan river, a tributary of the North Tamir river, shows evidence of a walled complex. The wall embankment is 59mx30m with an inner moat 4.5m wide and 2m deep. In the center of

8295-479: The subsequent regency of Huo Guang ( d.  68 BC ). The Modernists argued for an aggressive and expansionary foreign policy supported by revenues from heavy government intervention in the private economy. The Reformists, however, overturned these policies, favouring a cautious, non-expansionary approach to foreign policy, frugal budget reform, and lower tax-rates imposed on private entrepreneurs. Wang Zhengjun (71 BC – 13 AD)

8400-461: The title of emperor; when these warlords were defeated, China reunified under the Han. The period between the foundation of the Han dynasty and Wang Mang's reign is known as the Western Han ( 西漢 ; 西汉 ; Xīhàn ) or Former Han ( 前漢 ; 前汉 ; Qiánhàn ) (206 BC – 9 AD). During this period the capital was at Chang'an (modern Xi'an ). From the reign of Guangwu

8505-460: The tortoise that carries the stele by the name baxia ( 霸下 ), rather than bixi ; at the same time they apply the name bixi to the "literature-loving" dragons that appear on the sides of the stele: The baxia has an innate love for carrying weights; the creature [that] now [is] under tablets is its image. ... The bixi has an innate love for literature; the dragons [that] now [are] on the sides of tablets are its image. The name bixi , however,

8610-680: The tortoise-born stele, and the type and number of other statuary at the tomb site, were prescribed by the same regulations as well. At the Hongwu Emperor's own mausoleum , a huge bixi holding the so-called Shengde stele welcomes visitors at the Sifangcheng pavilion at the entrance of the mausoleum complex. Three centuries later (1699), the Kangxi Emperor of the Qing dynasty visited Nanjing and contributed another tortoise, with

8715-472: The treaty and periodically raided Han territories south of the Great Wall for additional goods. In a court conference assembled by Emperor Wu ( r.  141–87 BC ) in 135 BC, the majority consensus of the ministers was to retain the heqin agreement. Emperor Wu accepted this, despite continuing Xiongnu raids. However, a court conference the following year convinced the majority that

8820-401: The two rulers […..] they … and … they were full of knowledge and […] the people(?) … an equipped (?) army ….. […..] they conquered (?) ….. […..] they were friends (Right Side) […..] he accomplished many good deeds. And …..[…..] they approved, ‘very (or: many) good deeds’ – they praised […..] is there any such man among the people [who would be able …?]. And the lord M[ahan-tegin ?] .[…..] And

8925-400: The walled complex was a temple whose wooden pillars and roof tiles were still visible on the ground. Only a few brick fragments were found. The inscription itself was found within the walls on a square platform 7.5mx7.5m made of layered stones. The stele was erected in 584 CE with a latest date of 587 CE. It is dedicated to Taspar Khagan who is also called Tatpar Khagan. By this time

9030-517: The war with Chu, Emperor Gaozu enfeoffed some of them as kings. By 196, the Han court had replaced all of these kings with royal Liu family members, with the lone exception of Changsha . The loyalty of non-relatives to the emperor was questioned, and after several insurrections by Han kings—with the largest being the Rebellion of the Seven States in 154—the imperial court began enacting

9135-487: The west. Cao Cao died in March 220 AD. By December his son Cao Pi (187–226 AD) had Emperor Xian relinquish the throne to him and is known posthumously as Emperor Wen of Wei . This formally ended the Han dynasty and initiated an age of conflict between the Three Kingdoms : Cao Wei , Eastern Wu , and Shu Han . In the hierarchical social order, the emperor was at the apex of Han society and government. However,

9240-411: The widespread rebellion against Wang Mang , the state of Goguryeo was free to raid Han's Korean commanderies ; Han did not reaffirm its control over the region until AD 30. The Trưng Sisters of Vietnam rebelled against Han in AD 40. Their rebellion was crushed by Han general Ma Yuan ( d.  AD 49 ) in a campaign from AD 42 to 43. Wang Mang renewed hostilities against

9345-467: Was an imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD) established by Liu Bang and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) and a warring interregnum known as the Chu–Han Contention (206–202 BC), and it was succeeded by the Three Kingdoms period (220–280 AD). The dynasty was briefly interrupted by

9450-438: Was appointed regent as Marshall of State on 16 August under Emperor Ping ( r.   1 BC – 6 AD). When Ping died on 3 February 6 AD, Ruzi Ying ( d.  25 AD ) was chosen as the heir and Wang Mang was appointed to serve as acting emperor for the child. Wang promised to relinquish his control to Liu Ying once he came of age. Despite this promise, and against protest and revolts from

9555-903: Was brought into the Han realm with the conquest of the Dian Kingdom in 109 BC, followed by parts of the Korean Peninsula with the Han conquest of Gojoseon and establishment of the Xuantu and Lelang commanderies in 108 BC. The first nationwide census in Chinese history was taken in 2 AD; the Han's total population was registered as comprising 57,671,400 individuals across 12,366,470 households. To pay for his military campaigns and colonial expansion, Emperor Wu nationalised several private industries. He created central government monopolies administered largely by former merchants . These monopolies included salt, iron, and liquor production, as well as bronze coinage . The liquor monopoly lasted only from 98 to 81 BC, and

9660-552: Was chosen as the new capital of the reunified empire under Han. At the beginning of the Western Han ( traditional Chinese : 西漢 ; simplified Chinese : 西汉 ; pinyin : Xīhàn ), also known as the Former Han ( 前漢 ; 前汉 ; Qiánhàn ), thirteen centrally-controlled commanderies —including the capital region—existed in the western third of the empire, while the eastern two-thirds were divided into ten semi-autonomous kingdoms . To placate his prominent commanders from

9765-490: Was convinced by the accusations of the eunuchs Li Run ( 李閏 ) and Jiang Jing ( 江京 ) that Deng and her family had planned to depose him. An dismissed Deng's clan members from office, exiled them, and forced many to commit suicide. After An's death, his wife, Empress Dowager Yan ( d.  126 AD ) placed the child Marquess of Beixiang on the throne in an attempt to retain power within her family. However, palace eunuch Sun Cheng ( d.  132 AD ) masterminded

9870-608: Was discovered in Yuhuatai District south of Nanjing in 1958. After an ancient Christian stele was unearthed in Xi'an in 1625, it, too, was put on the back of a tortoise. In 1907, this so-called Xi'an Stele was moved to the Stele Forest Museum along with its tortoise. These days, long-lost bixi continue to be unearthed during archaeological excavations and construction work. Among the most remarkable finds

9975-442: Was divided into areas directly controlled by the central government called commanderies , as well as a number of semi-autonomous kingdoms . These kingdoms gradually lost all vestiges of their independence, particularly following the Rebellion of the Seven States . From the reign of Emperor Wu ( r.  141–87 BC ) onward, the Chinese court officially sponsored Confucianism in education and court politics, synthesized with

10080-487: Was first empress, then empress dowager , and finally grand empress dowager during the reigns of the Emperors Yuan ( r.  49–33 BC ), Cheng ( r.  33–7 BC ), and Ai ( r.  7–1 BC ), respectively. During this time, a succession of her male relatives held the title of regent. Following the death of Ai, Wang Zhengjun's nephew Wang Mang (45 BC – 23 AD)

10185-446: Was in revenge for Dou's purging of the clan of his natural mother— Consort Liang —and then concealing her identity from him. After Emperor He's death, his wife Empress Deng Sui ( d.  121 AD ) managed state affairs as the regent empress dowager during a turbulent financial crisis and widespread Qiang rebellion that lasted from 107 to 118 AD. When Empress Dowager Deng died, Emperor An ( r.  106–125 AD )

10290-586: Was killed by allies of the Xiongnu in Karasahr and Kucha , the garrison at Hami was withdrawn. At the Battle of Ikh Bayan in AD 89, Dou Xian ( d.  AD 92 ) defeated the Northern Xiongnu chanyu who then retreated into the Altai Mountains . After the Northern Xiongnu fled into the Ili River valley in AD 91, the nomadic Xianbei occupied the area from the borders of

10395-664: Was near the commandery of Rinan where Chinese sources claim the Romans first landed, as well as embassies from Tianzhu in northern India in 159 and 161. Óc Eo is also thought to be the port city " Cattigara " described by Ptolemy in his Geography ( c.  150 AD ) as lying east of the Golden Chersonese ( Malay Peninsula ) along the Magnus Sinus (i.e. the Gulf of Thailand and South China Sea ), where

10500-450: Was persuaded by Cao Cao (155–220 AD), then Governor of Yan Province in modern western Shandong and eastern Henan , to move the capital to Xuchang in 196 AD. Yuan Shao challenged Cao Cao for control over the emperor. Yuan's power was greatly diminished after Cao defeated him at the Battle of Guandu in 200 AD. After Yuan died, Cao killed Yuan Shao's son Yuan Tan (173–205 AD), who had fought with his brothers over

10605-655: Was reinstated when it was bestowed on Ban Chao. Foreign travellers to the Eastern Han empire included Buddhist monks who translated works into Chinese , such as An Shigao from Parthia, and Lokaksema from Kushan-era Gandhara . In addition to tributary relations with the Kushans, the Han empire received gifts from sovereigns in the Parthian Empire , as well as from kings in modern Burma and Japan . He also initiated an unsuccessful mission to Rome in AD 97 with Gan Ying as emissary. A Roman embassy of Emperor Marcus Aurelius ( r.  161–180 AD )

10710-541: Was the Republic of China Premier Tan Yankai (1880–1930), whose stele near Nanjing 's Linggu Temple had its inscription erased after the Communist Revolution. Occasionally, a foreign head of state was honored with a bixi as well, as it happened to the sultan of Brunei Abdul Majid Hassan , who died during his visit to China in 1408. The sultan's grave , with a suitably royal bixi -based monument,

10815-413: Was then forced to commit suicide. Students from the imperial university organized a widespread student protest against the eunuchs of Emperor Huan's court. Huan further alienated the bureaucracy when he initiated grandiose construction projects and hosted thousands of concubines in his harem at a time of economic crisis. Palace eunuchs imprisoned the official Li Ying ( 李膺 ) and his associates from

10920-499: Was translated into English by Sergej G. Kljaštornyj and Vladimir A. Livšic: (Left Side) This stele was erected by the Turks (under) Kwts’tt the ruler of China when … … the Turkish lord Nivar-qaghan. Since Mahan- –tegin ascended the place of qaghan, the lord Muhan-qaghan and the lord Mahan-tegin after [that they] were saviours for the whole world during a long period [lit. after that and in the future] … … … And now thereupon, after this,

11025-399: Was troubled about the abundant Han-manufactured iron weapons traded to the Xiongnu along the northern borders, and he established a trade embargo against the group. In retaliation, the Xiongnu invaded what is now Shanxi , where they defeated the Han forces at Baideng in 200 BC. After negotiations, the heqin agreement in 198 BC nominally held the leaders of the Xiongnu and

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