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108-617: A branch of the Tanguts also bore a surname transcribed as Tuoba before their chieftains were given the Chinese surnames Li ( 李 ) and Zhao ( 趙 ) by the Tang and Song dynasties respectively. Some of these Tangut Tuobas later adopted the surname Weiming ( 嵬名 ), with this branch eventually establishing and ruling the Western Xia in northwestern China from 1038 to 1227. By

216-795: A Sino-Tibetan people who founded and inhabited the Western Xia dynasty . The group initially lived under Tuyuhun authority, but later submitted to the Tang dynasty . After the collapse of Tang dynasty, the Tanguts established the Western Xia. They spoke the Tangut language , which was previously believed to be one of the Qiangic languages or Yi languages which belong to the Tibeto-Burman family." Phylogenetic and historical linguistic accounts, however, reveal that Tangut belonged instead to

324-553: A language family of some 30 languages, spoken across a vast area from Eastern Europe and the Mediterranean , to Siberia and Manchuria and through to the Middle East. Some 170 million people have a Turkic language as their native language; an additional 20 million people speak a Turkic language as a second language . The Turkic language with the greatest number of speakers is Turkish proper , or Anatolian Turkish,

432-492: A 20th-century scholar, the Tuoba language was essentially Turkic with Mongolic admixture. Chen Sanping observed that the Tuoba language contains both elements. Liu Xueyao stated that the Tuoba may have had their own language which should not be assumed to be identical with any other known languages. Andrew Shimunek (2017) classifies Tuoba (Tabghach) as a "Serbi" (i.e., para-Mongolic ) language. Shimunek's Serbi branch also consists of

540-508: A Turkic language. Some scholars believe they were probably a confederation of various ethnic and linguistic groups. According to a study by Alexander Savelyev and Choongwon Jeong, published in 2020 in the journal Evolutionary Human Sciences by Cambridge University Press, "the predominant part of the Xiongnu population is likely to have spoken Turkic". However, genetic studies found a mixture of western and eastern Eurasian ancestries, suggesting

648-606: A common gene pool , and historical experiences. Some of the most notable modern Turkic ethnic groups include the Altai people , Azerbaijanis , Chuvash people , Gagauz people , Kazakhs , Kyrgyz people , Turkmens , Turkish people , Tuvans , Uyghurs , Uzbeks , and Yakuts . The first known mention of the term Turk ( Old Turkic : 𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰰 Türük or 𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰰:𐰜𐰇𐰛 Kök Türük , Chinese : 突厥 , Pinyin : Tūjué < Middle Chinese * tɦut-kyat < * dwət-kuɑt , Old Tibetan : drugu ) applied to only one Turkic group, namely,

756-608: A consequence of the Northern Wei's extensive contacts with Central Asia, Turkic sources identified Tabgach, also transcribed as Tawjach, Tawġač, Tamghaj, Tamghach, Tafgaj, and Tabghaj, as the ruler or country of China until the 13th century. The Orkhon inscriptions in the Orkhon Valley in modern-day Mongolia from the 8th century identify Tabgach as China. I myself, wise Tonyukuk , lived in Tabgach country. (As

864-639: A fruit) 'just fully ripe'; (of a human being) 'in the prime of life, young, and vigorous'". Hakan Aydemir (2022) also contends that Türk originally did not mean "strong, powerful" but "gathered; united, allied, confederated" and was derived from Pre- Proto-Turkic verb * türü "heap up, collect, gather, assemble". The earliest Turkic-speaking peoples identifiable in Chinese sources are the Yenisei Kyrgyz and Xinli , located in South Siberia. Another example of an early Turkic population would be

972-596: A generic name for Inner Asians (whether Turkic- or Mongolic-speaking). Only in modern era do modern historians use Turks to refer to all peoples speaking Turkic languages , differentiated from non-Turkic speakers. According to some researchers (Duan, Xue, Tang, Lung, Onogawa, etc.) the later Ashina tribe descended from the Tiele confederation . The Tiele however were probably one of many early Turkic groups, ancestral to later Turkic populations. However, according to Lee & Kuang (2017), Chinese histories do not describe

1080-508: A large genetic diversity within the Xiongnu. The Turkic-related component may be brought by eastern Eurasian genetic substratum. Using the only extant possibly Xiongnu writings, the rock art of the Yinshan and Helan Mountains , some scholars argue that the older Xiongnu writings are precursors to the earliest known Turkic alphabet, the Orkhon script . Petroglyphs of this region dates from

1188-513: A lower frequency of the Baikal component (c. 22%) and a lack of the Han-like component, being closer to other Indo-Iranian groups. A subsequent study in 2022 also found that the spread of Turkic-speaking populations into Central Asia happened after the spread of Indo-European speakers into the area. Another 2022 study found that all Altaic‐speaking (Turkic, Tungusic, and Mongolic) populations "were

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1296-522: A member of Southern Qi royalty. Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei 's sister the Shouyang Princess was wedded to Emperor Wu of Liang 's son Xiao Zong  [ zh ] . One of Emperor Xiaowu of Northern Wei 's sisters was married to Zhang Huan, a Han Chinese, according to the Book of Zhou (Zhoushu). His name is given as Zhang Xin in the Book of Northern Qi (Bei Qishu) and History of

1404-575: A mixture of dominant Siberian Neolithic ancestry and non-negligible YRB ancestry", suggesting their origins were somewhere in Northeast Asia, most likely the Amur river basin . Except Eastern and Southern Mongolic-speakers, all "possessed a high proportion of West Eurasian-related ancestry, in accordance with the linguistically documented language borrowing in Turkic languages". A 2023 study analyzed

1512-820: A possible source for this folk etymology, yet Golden thinks this connection requires more data. It is generally accepted that the name Türk is ultimately derived from the Old-Turkic migration-term 𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰰 Türük / Törük , which means 'created, born' or 'strong'. Turkologist Peter B. Golden agrees that the term Turk has roots in Old Turkic , yet is not convinced by attempts to link Dili , Dingling , Chile , Tele , and Tiele , which possibly transcribed * tegrek (probably meaning ' cart '), to Tujue , which transliterated to Türküt . Scholars, including Toru Haneda, Onogawa Hidemi, and Geng Shimin believed that Di , Dili , Dingling , Chile and Tujue all came from

1620-619: A powerful faction of northern China. They created two other dynasties, including the Later Jin and Later Han and Northern Han (Later Han and Northern Han were ruled by the same family, with the latter being a rump state of the former). The Shatuo Liu Zhiyuan was a Buddhist and he worshipped the Mengshan Giant Buddha in 945. The Shatuo dynasties were replaced by the Han Chinese Song dynasty . The Shatuo became

1728-527: A shared "Neolithic Hongshan ancestry", but in contrary primary Ancient Northeast Asian (ANA) Neolithic ancestry from the Amur region , supporting an origin from Northeast Asia rather than Manchuria. Around 2,200 BC, the (agricultural) ancestors of the Turkic peoples probably migrated westwards into Mongolia , where they adopted a pastoral lifestyle, in part borrowed from Iranian peoples . Given nomadic peoples such as Xiongnu , Rouran and Xianbei share underlying genetic ancestry "that falls into or close to

1836-596: A significant portion of the Uyghur population abandoned their nomadic lifestyle for a sedentary one. The Uyghur Khaganate produced extensive literature, and a relatively high number of its inhabitants were literate. The official state religion of the early Uyghur Khaganate was Manichaeism , which was introduced through the conversion of Bögü Qaghan by the Sogdians after the An Lushan rebellion . The Uyghur Khaganate

1944-463: A syncretic religion. The Göktürks were the first Turkic people to write Old Turkic in a runic script, the Orkhon script . The Khaganate was also the first state known as "Turk". It eventually collapsed due to a series of dynastic conflicts, but many states and peoples later used the name "Turk". The Göktürks ( First Turkic Kaganate ) quickly spread west to the Caspian Sea. Between 581 and 603

2052-524: A transcription into Turkic languages of the Chinese name "Great Han " ( 大漢 , s 大汉 , Dà Hàn , MC * Dàj Xàn ) . Tuoba is the atonal pinyin romanization of the Mandarin pronunciation of the Chinese 拓跋 ( Tuòbá ), whose pronunciation at the time of its transcription into Middle Chinese has been reconstructed as * tʰak-bɛt or * Thak-bat . The same name also appears with

2160-560: A wide range of both East Asian and West-Eurasian physical appearances and genetic origins, in part through long-term contact with neighboring peoples such as Iranic , Mongolic , Tocharian , Uralic and Yeniseian peoples. Many vastly differing ethnic groups have throughout history become part of the Turkic peoples through language shift , acculturation , conquest , intermixing , adoption , and religious conversion . Nevertheless, Turkic peoples share, to varying degrees, non-linguistic characteristics like cultural traits, ancestry from

2268-551: Is Khitāy, lower which is Barkhān in the vicinity of Kashgar. But now Tawjāch is known as Maṣīn and Khitai as Ṣīn. At the time of his writing, China's northern fringe was ruled by Khitan-led Liao dynasty while the remainder of China proper was ruled by the Northern Song dynasty . Arab sources used Sīn (Persian: Chīn) to refer to northern China and Māsīn (Persian: Machīn) to represent southern China. In his account, al-Kashgari refers to his homeland, around Kashgar, then part of

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2376-570: Is a tonal language with predominantly mono-syllabic roots, but it shares certain grammatical traits central to the Tibeto-Burman branch. It used to be debated as to whether Tangut belonged to the Yi or Qiangic subdivision of Tibeto-Burman. The Tanguts, called the Dangxiang ( 党項 ; Dǎngxiàng ) in Chinese, are typically regarded by Chinese scholars to be synonymous with or at least related to

2484-650: Is to be associated with the Xinglongwa culture and the succeeding Hongshan culture , based on varying degrees of specific East Asian genetic substratum among modern Turkic speakers. According to historians, "the Proto-Turkic subsistence strategy included an agricultural component, a tradition that ultimately went back to the origin of millet agriculture in Northeast China". This view is however questioned by other geneticists, who found no evidence for

2592-840: The Tongdian , they were "mixed barbarians" ( 雜胡 ; záhú ) who migrated from Pingliang (now in modern Gansu province , China ) to the Rourans seeking inclusion in their confederacy and protection from the prevailing dynasty. Alternatively, according to the Book of Zhou , History of the Northern Dynasties , and New Book of Tang , the Ashina clan was a component of the Xiongnu confederation. Göktürks were also posited as having originated from an obscure Suo state (索國), north of

2700-604: The 9th millennium BCE to the 19th century, and consists mainly of engraved signs (petroglyphs) and few painted images. Excavations done during 1924–1925 in Noin-Ula kurgans located in the Selenga River in the northern Mongolian hills north of Ulaanbaatar produced objects with over 20 carved characters, which were either identical or very similar to the runic letters of the Turkic Orkhon script discovered in

2808-473: The Caucasus , China, and northern Iraq. The Turkic language family was traditionally considered to be part of the proposed Altaic language family . Howeover since the 1950s, a majority of linguists have rejected the proposal, after supposed cognates were found not to be valid, hypothesized sound shifts were not found, and Turkic and Mongolic languages were found to be converging rather than diverging over

2916-708: The Dingling . In Late Antiquity itself, as well as in and the Middle Ages , the name "Scythians" was used in Greco-Roman and Byzantine literature for various groups of nomadic " barbarians " living on the Pontic-Caspian Steppe who were not related to the actual Scythians. Medieval European chroniclers subsumed various Turkic peoples of the Eurasian steppe as "Scythians". Between 400 CE and

3024-618: The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period starting with Later Tang. The Shatuo chief Zhuye Chixin's family was adopted by the Tang dynasty and given the title prince of Jin and the Tang dynasty imperial surname of Li, which is why the Shatuo of Later Tang claimed to be restoring the Tang dynasty and not founding a new one. The official language of these dynasties was Chinese and they used Chinese titles and names. Some Shaotuo Turk emperors (of

3132-678: The Gyalrongic branch of Tibeto-Burman. Western Xia was annihilated by the Mongol Empire in 1227, most of its written records and architecture were destroyed. Today the Tangut language and its unique script are extinct; only fragments of Tangut literature remain. The Tangut language , otherwise known as Fan , belongs to the Tibeto-Burman branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family. Like many other Sino-Tibetan languages, it

3240-529: The Göktürks , who were also mentioned, as türüg ~ török , in the 6th-century Khüis Tolgoi inscription , most likely not later than 587 AD. A letter by Ishbara Qaghan to Emperor Wen of Sui in 585 described him as "the Great Turk Khan". The Bugut (584 CE) and Orkhon inscriptions (735 CE) use the terms Türküt , Türk and Türük . During the first century CE, Pomponius Mela refers to

3348-533: The Huang Chao rebellion. As a reward the Tang central government granted the Tangut general Li Sigong the three prefectures of Xia ( Chinese : 夏州 , Tangut: 𘒂𗉔 ), Sui ( Chinese : 綏州 , Tangut: 𗉢𗉔 ), and Yin ( Chinese : 銀州 , Tangut: 𘝰𗉔 ) as hereditary titles under the Dingnan Jiedushi . After the collapse of Tang China, multiple warlords started to form new states in

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3456-487: The Huayan - Chan tradition of Guifeng Zongmi (Chinese: 圭峰宗密, 780–841) and his master Huayan Chengguan was the most influential. A number of texts previously believed to be of native Tangut origin turned out to be translations of Khitan source texts. The degree of Tibetan impact on the formation of Tangut Buddhism still remains unexplored, especially in the light of new discoveries showing that Tangut Buddhism owed more to

3564-780: The Jin in the Spring and Autumn period . Historically they were established after the 6th century BCE. The Tiele were first mentioned in Chinese literature from the 6th to 8th centuries. Some scholars (Haneda, Onogawa, Geng, etc.) proposed that Tiele , Dili , Dingling , Chile , Tele , & Tujue all transliterated underlying Türk ; however, Golden proposed that Dili , Dingling , Chile , Tele , & Tiele transliterated Tegrek while Tujue transliterated Türküt , plural of Türk . The appellation Türük ( Old Turkic : 𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰰) ~ Türk (OT: 𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰚) (whence Middle Chinese 突厥 * dwət-kuɑt > * tɦut-kyat > standard Chinese : Tūjué )

3672-748: The Kara-Khanid Khanate , as Lower China. The rulers of the Karakanids adopted Tamghaj Khan (Turkic: the Khan of China) in their title, and minted coins bearing this title. Much of the realm of the Karakhanids including Transoxania and the western Tarim Basin had been under the rule of the Tang dynasty prior to the Battle of Talas in 751, and the Karakhanids continued to identify with China, several centuries later. The Tabgatch name for

3780-546: The Notes on Transmitting the Dharma Treasure through Generations implies that at the period of 760's some sort of Buddhism was spread in the region of Helanshan, where the Tangut were already residing.　Concerning the late 8th century Helanshan Buddhism, little can be said: the doctrines of the lu (律) school and the teaching of Sichuan Chan of Rev. Kim (金和尚) seem to be known there. Worship of Confucianism also existed in

3888-846: The Ongud Turks living in Inner Mongolia after the Song dynasty conquered the last Shatuo dynasty of Northern Han. The Ongud assimilated to the Mongols. The Yenisei Kyrgyz allied with China to destroy the Uyghur Khaganate in the year 840 AD. From the Yenisei River , the Kyrgyz pushed south and eastward in to Xinjiang and the Orkhon Valley in central Mongolia, leaving much of the Uyghur civilization in ruins. Much of

3996-578: The Orkhon Valley . The earliest certain mentioning of the politonym "Turk" was in the Chinese Book of Zhou . In the 540s AD, this text mentions that the Turks came to China's border seeking silk goods and a trade relationship. A Sogdian diplomat represented China in a series of embassies between the Western Wei dynasty and the Turks in the years 545 and 546. According to the Book of Sui and

4104-553: The Qiang people. Historically, "Qiang" was a collective term for the multiple ethnic groups who lived on the western borderlands of China, including the modern Qiang people (Rma). The name Tangut first appears in the Orkhon inscriptions of 735. In their own Tangut language, the Tanguts called themselves Mi-niah (Miñak). Until the 19th century, the term Minjak was still used to refer to the area inhabited by Qiang people in today's Ngawa Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture. Speakers of

4212-848: The Turcae in the forests north of the Sea of Azov , and Pliny the Elder lists the Tyrcae among the people of the same area. However, English archaeologist Ellis Minns contended that Tyrcae Τῦρκαι is "a false correction" for Iyrcae Ἱύρκαι, a people who dwelt beyond the Thyssagetae , according to Herodotus ( Histories , iv. 22), and were likely Ugric ancestors of Magyars . There are references to certain groups in antiquity whose names might have been foreign transcriptions of Tür(ü)k , such as Togarma , Turukha / Turuška , Turukku and so on; but

4320-650: The Tuyuhun and Khitan languages. The Tuoba were a Xianbei clan. The distribution of the Xianbei people ranged from present day Northeast China to Mongolia , and the Tuoba were one of the largest clans among the western Xianbei, ranging from present day Shanxi province and westward and northwestward. They established the state of Dai from 310 to 376 AD and ruled as the Northern Wei from 386 to 536. The Tuoba states of Dai and Northern Wei also claimed to possess

4428-434: The Western Turkic Khaganate in Kazakhstan separated from the Eastern Turkic Khaganate in Mongolia and Manchuria during a civil war. The Han-Chinese successfully overthrew the Eastern Turks in 630 and created a military Protectorate until 682. After that time the Second Turkic Khaganate ruled large parts of the former Göktürk area. After several wars between Turks, Chinese and Tibetans, the weakened Second Turkic Khaganate

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4536-403: The Xianbei Tuoba royal family in the 480s. More than fifty percent of Tuoba Xianbei princesses of the Northern Wei were married to southern Chinese men from the imperial families and aristocrats from southern China of the Southern dynasties who defected and moved north to join the Northern Wei. Some Chinese exiled royalty fled from southern China and defected to the Xianbei. Several daughters of

4644-413: The quality of earth in the Chinese Wu Xing theory. All the chieftains of the Tuoba were revered as emperors in the Book of Wei and the History of the Northern Dynasties . A branch of the Tuoba in the west known as the Tufa also ruled the Southern Liang dynasty from 397 to 414 AD during the Sixteen Kingdoms period. The Northern Wei started to arrange for Chinese elites to marry daughters of

4752-414: The "Black Headed". The Red Faced Tanguts were seen as commoners while the Black Headed Tanguts made up the elite priestly caste . Although Buddhism was extremely popular among the Tangut people, many Tangut herdsmen continued to practice a kind of shamanism known as Root West (Melie). The black caps worn by Root West shamans give the Black Headed caste its name. According to Tangut myth, the ancestor of

4860-552: The "western Eurasian origin and multiple origin hypotheses". However, they also noted that "Central Steppe and early Medieval Türk exhibited a high but variable degree of West Eurasian ancestry, indicating there was a genetic substructure of the Türkic empire." The early medieval Türk samples were modelled as having 37.8% West Eurasian ancestry and 62.2% Ancient Northeast Asian ancestry and historic Central Steppe Türk samples were also an admixture of West Eurasian and Ancient Northeast Asian ancestry, while historic Karakhanid, Kipchak and

4968-530: The 13th century; in the 14th century, Islam became the official religion under Uzbeg Khan where the general population (Turks) as well as the aristocracy (Mongols) came to speak the Kipchak language and were collectively known as " Tatars " by Russians and Westerners. This country was also known as the Kipchak Khanate and covered most of what is today Ukraine , as well as the entirety of modern-day southern and eastern Russia (the European section). The Golden Horde disintegrated into several khanates and hordes in

5076-421: The 15th and 16th century including the Crimean Khanate , Khanate of Kazan , and Kazakh Khanate (among others), which were one by one conquered and annexed by the Russian Empire in the 16th through 19th centuries. In Siberia, the Siberian Khanate was established in the 1490s by fleeing Tatar aristocrats of the disintegrating Golden Horde who established Islam as the official religion in western Siberia over

5184-432: The 16th century, Byzantine sources use the name Σκύθαι ( Skuthai ) in reference to twelve different Turkic peoples. In the modern Turkish language as used in the Republic of Turkey, a distinction is made between "Turks" and the "Turkic peoples" in loosely speaking: the term Türk corresponds specifically to the "Turkish-speaking" people (in this context, "Turkish-speaking" is considered the same as "Turkic-speaking"), while

5292-453: The 5th–16th centuries, partially overlapping with the Mongol Empire period. Based on single-path IBD tracts, the common Turkic ancestral population lived prior to these migration events, and likely stem from a similar source population as Mongolic peoples further East. Historical data suggests that the Mongol Empire period acted as secondary force of "turkification", as the Mongol conquest "did not involve massive re-settlements of Mongols over

5400-431: The 8th century, and the alphabets were generally replaced by the Old Uyghur alphabet in the East and Central Asia , Arabic script in the Middle and Western Asia, Cyrillic in Eastern Europe and in the Balkans, and Latin alphabet in Central Europe. The latest recorded use of Turkic alphabet was recorded in Central Europe's Hungary in 1699 CE. The Turkic runiform scripts, unlike other typologically close scripts of

5508-426: The 8th century, the Old Turkic form of the name was Tabγač ( 𐱃𐰉𐰍𐰲 ), usually anglicized as Tabgatch or Tabgach. The name appears in other Central Asian accounts as Tabghāj and Taugash and in Byzantine Greek sources like Theophylact Simocatta 's History as Taugas ( ‹See Tfd› Greek : Ταυγάς ) and Taugast ( Ταυγάστ ). Zhang Xushan and others have argued for the name's ultimate derivation from

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5616-421: The Ashina and the Göktürks as descending from the Dingling or the Tiele confederation. It has even been suggested that the Xiongnu themselves, who were mentioned in Han dynasty records, were Proto-Turkic speakers. The Turks may ultimately have been of Xiongnu descent. Although little is known for certain about the Xiongnu language(s), it seems likely that at least a considerable part of Xiongnu tribes spoke

5724-449: The Black Headed Tanguts was a heavenly white crane , while the ancestor of the Red Faced Tanguts was a monkey. Tangut kings went by the title of Wuzu. According to sources in the Tangut language, the Tangut state known now as the Western Xia was named 𗴂𗹭𗂧𘜶 translated as "Great State of White and Lofty" ( phôn¹ mbın² lhi̯ə tha² ). Although the Chinese translation of this name ( Chinese : 白高大國 ; pinyin : Báigāo Dàguó )

5832-427: The DNA of Empress Ashina (568–578 AD), a Royal Göktürk, whose remains were recovered from a mausoleum in Xianyang , China . The authors determined that Empress Ashina belonged to the North-East Asian mtDNA haplogroup F1d , and that approximately 96-98% of her autosomal ancestry was of Ancient Northeast Asian origin, while roughly 2-4% was of West Eurasian origin, indicating ancient admixture. This study weakened

5940-530: The First Turkic Khaganate. The original Old Turkic name Kök Türk derives from kök ~ kö:k , "sky, sky-coloured, blue, blue-grey". Unlike its Xiongnu predecessor, the Göktürk Khaganate had its temporary Khagans from the Ashina clan, who were subordinate to a sovereign authority controlled by a council of tribal chiefs. The Khaganate retained elements of its original animistic- shamanistic religion, that later evolved into Tengriism , although it received missionaries of Buddhist monks and practiced

6048-413: The Kangar union was located in the Ulytau mountains. Among the Pechenegs, the Kangar formed the elite of the Pecheneg tribes. After being defeated by the Kipchaks , Oghuz Turks , and the Khazars , they migrated west and defeated Magyars , and after forming an alliance with the Bulgars , they defeated the Byzantine Army. The Pecheneg state was established by the 11th century and at its peak carried

6156-416: The Later Jin, Later Han and Northern Han) also claimed patrilineal Han Chinese ancestry. After the fall of the Tang dynasty in 907, the Shatuo Turks replaced them and created the Later Tang dynasty in 923. The Shatuo Turks ruled over a large part of northern China, including Beijing . They adopted Chinese names and united Turkic and Chinese traditions. Later Tang fell in 937 but the Shatuo rose to become

6264-430: The Mongol Empire. Some of them led Mongol armies, e.g. Cha'an, into the conquest of China. After the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) was established, the Tangut troops were incorporated into the Mongol army in their subsequent military conquests in central and southern China. The Tangut were considered Semu under the Yuan class system, thus separating them from the North Chinese. As late as the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), there

6372-526: The Northern Dynasties (Beishi) which mention his marriage to a Xianbei princess of Wei. His personal name was changed due to a naming taboo on the emperor's name. He was the son of Zhang Qiong. When the Eastern Jin dynasty ended, Northern Wei received the Han Chinese Jin prince Sima Chuzhi  [ zh ] as a refugee. A Northern Wei Princess married Sima Chuzhi, giving birth to Sima Jinlong (司馬金龍). Northern Liang Xiongnu King Juqu Mujian 's daughter married Sima Jinlong. According to Zhou (2006)

6480-667: The Proto-Turkic Urheimat: the southern Altai-Sayan region, and in Southern Siberia , from Lake Baikal to eastern Mongolia . Other studies suggested an early presence of Turkic peoples in Mongolia, or Tuva . A possible genealogical link of the Turkic languages to Mongolic and Tungusic languages, specifically a hypothetical homeland in Manchuria , such as proposed in the Transeurasian hypothesis , by Martine Robbeets , has received support but also criticism, with opponents attributing similarities to long-term contact. The proto-Turkic-speakers may be linked to Neolithic East Asian agricultural societies in Northeastern China , which

6588-533: The Qiangic Muya language in western Kangding calls themselves Minyak. Geographic names such as Min river and Min county (Gansu) are pointed to this root. According to William of Rubruck , who travelled to various parts of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century, the Tanguts were valiant and had big swarthy men among them, in contrast to the Uyghurs , who were "of medium size, like us". The Tangut people I saw were tall but swarthy. The Iugurs are of medium build like our own people. The early Tanguts inhabited

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6696-454: The Song dynasty Zhao royal family, he adopted a Tangut surname 𗼨𗆟 , rendered in Chinese as "Weiming" ( Chinese : 嵬名 ). He made Xingqing ( Chinese : 興慶 , modern Yinchuan ) his capital city. In the thirteenth century, Genghis Khan unified the northern grasslands of Mongolia and led his troops in six rounds of attacks against the Western Xia over a period of twenty-two years (1205, 1207, 1209–10, 1211–13, 1214–19, 1225–27). During

6804-415: The Tang dynasty in fighting against their fellow Turkic people in the Uyghur Khaganate . In 839, when the Uyghur khaganate (Huigu) general Jueluowu (掘羅勿) rose against the rule of then-reigning Zhangxin Khan , he elicited the help from Zhuye Chixin by giving Zhuye 300 horses, and together, they defeated Zhangxin Khan, who then committed suicide, precipitating the subsequent collapse of the Uyghur Khaganate. In

6912-414: The Tangut people adopted many Han/Tang Chinese culture, but also maintained their own customs, as is proven by the vast amount of literature which survived the Tangut state itself. The Western Xia founder Li Deming's son, Li Yuanhao, enthroned as Emperor Jingzong , sought to differentiate the Tangut state from that of its rival Han-led Song China and started to nurture a national Tangut identity by ordering

7020-463: The Tangut state strictly forbade religious teachers from accepting compensation or reward for their teaching services. Although the state did not support an official school of Buddhism, it did protect all religious sites and objects within the country's boundaries. As in China, becoming a Buddhist monk required government approval and anyone found to have taken the vows of a monk without such government oversight faced severe punishment. Remarkably for

7128-519: The Tuoba and their Rouran enemies descended from common ancestors. The Weishu stated that the Rourans were of Donghu origins and the Tuoba originated from the Xianbei, who were also Donghu's descendants. The Donghu ancestors of Tuoba and Rouran were most likely proto-Mongols . Nomadic confederations of Inner Asia were often linguistically diverse, and Tuoba Wei comprised the para-Mongolic Tuoba as well as assimilated Turkic peoples such as Hegu (紇骨) and Yizhan (乙旃); consequently, about one quarter of

7236-443: The Tuoba tribal confederation was composed of Dingling elements as Tuoba migrated from northeastern Mongolia to northern China. Alexander Vovin (2007) identifies the Tuoba language as a Mongolic language . On the other hand, Juha Janhunen proposed that the Tuoba might have spoken an Oghur Turkic language . René Grousset , writing in the early 20th century, identifies the Tuoba as a Turkic tribe . According to Peter Boodberg ,

7344-400: The Turkic Karluk samples had 50.6%-61.1% West Eurasian ancestry and 38.9%–49.4% Iron Age Yellow River farmer ancestry. A 2020 study also found "high genetic heterogeneity and diversity during the Türkic and Uyghur periods" in the early medieval period in Eastern Eurasian Steppe . The earliest separate Turkic peoples, such as the Gekun (鬲昆) and Xinli (薪犁), appeared on the peripheries of

7452-457: The Turkic word Türk , which means 'powerful' and 'strength', and its plural form is Türküt . Even though Gerhard Doerfer supports the proposal that türk means 'strong' in general, Gerard Clauson points out that "the word türk is never used in the generalized sense of 'strong'" and that türk was originally a noun and meant "'the culminating point of maturity' (of a fruit, human being, etc.), but more often used as an [adjective] meaning (of

7560-403: The Uyghur population relocated to the southwest of Mongolia, establishing the Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom in Gansu where their descendants are the modern day Yugurs and Qocho Kingdom in Turpan, Xinjiang. The Kangar Union ( Qanghar Odaghu ) was a Turkic state in the former territory of the Western Turkic Khaganate (the entire present-day state of Kazakhstan , without Zhetysu ). The capital of

7668-445: The Volga region and mixed with local Volga Finns to become the Volga Bulgars in what is today Tatarstan . These Bulgars were conquered by the Mongols following their westward sweep under Ogedei Khan in the 13th century. Other Bulgars settled in Southeastern Europe in the 7th and 8th centuries, and mixed with the Slavic population, adopting what eventually became the Slavic Bulgarian language . Everywhere, Turkic groups mixed with

7776-528: The Western Xia, which has led to some claims that the Tangut religion was rooted in Confucianism, but this was incomparable with the degree of popularity of Buddhism. Tangut literature is dominated by Buddhist scriptures while secular teachings including the Chinese classics were rarely available in the Tangut language. The Tangut state enforced strict laws pertaining to the teaching of religious beliefs and rigorously screened potential teachers. Before he

7884-621: The Xianbei Tuoba Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei were married to Chinese elites: the Han Chinese Liu Song royal Liu Hui married Princess Lanling of the Northern Wei; Princess Huayang  [ zh ] married Sima Fei  [ zh ] , a descendant of Jin dynasty (266–420) royalty; Princess Jinan  [ zh ] married Lu Daoqian  [ zh ] ; and Princess Nanyang  [ zh ] married Xiao Baoyin ( 萧宝夤 ),

7992-554: The Xiongnu. The Ashina tribe were famed metalsmiths and were granted land south of the Altai Mountains (金山 Jinshan ), which looked like a helmet , from which they were said to have gotten their name 突厥 ( Tūjué ), the first recorded use of "Turk" as a political name. In the 6th-century, Ashina's power had increased such that they conquered the Tiele on their Rouran overlords' behalf and even overthrew Rourans and established

8100-590: The Yuan and Ming courts of China where they served as the spiritual guides to princes and emperors. Their influence also extended to the court of the Tangut Xia Kingdom where a disciple of Dusum Khyenpa was given the title "Supreme Teacher" by a Tangut Xixia King[.] After the fall of the Western Xia, the influx of refugees into Tibet led to the adoption of the Pehar deity into Tibetan Buddhism , eventually in

8208-554: The centuries. Opponents of the theory proposed that the similarities are due to mutual linguistic influences between the groups concerned. The Turkic alphabets are sets of related alphabets with letters (formerly known as runes ), used for writing mostly Turkic languages . Inscriptions in Turkic alphabets were found in Mongolia . Most of the preserved inscriptions were dated to between 8th and 10th centuries CE. The earliest positively dated and read Turkic inscriptions date from

8316-630: The conquered territories. Instead, the Mongol war machine was progressively augmented by various Turkic tribes as they expanded, and in this way Turkic peoples eventually reinforced their expansion over the Eurasian steppe and beyond." A 2018 autosomal single-nucleotide polymorphism study suggested that the Eurasian Steppe slowly transitioned from Indo European and Iranian -speaking groups with largely western Eurasian ancestry to increasing East Asian ancestry with Turkic and Mongolian groups in

8424-462: The creation of an official Tangut script and by instituting laws that reinforced traditional Tangut customs. One of the laws he mandated called for citizens to wear traditional ethnic apparel and another required men to wear their hair short or shaved as opposed to the Chinese custom of wearing hair long and knotted. Abandoning the royal Chinese surnames of "Li", previously bestowed by the Tang dynasty Li royal family, and "Zhao", subsequently bestowed by

8532-554: The first character transcribed as 托 or 㩉 and with the second character transcribed as 拔 ; it has also been anglicized as T'o-pa and as Toba . The name is also attested as Tufa ( 禿髮 , Tūfà or Tūfǎ ), whose Middle Chinese pronunciation has been reconstructed as * tʰuwk-pjot , * T'ak-bwat , or * T'ak-buat . The name is also sometimes clarified as the Tuoba Xianbei ( 拓跋 鮮卑 , Tuòbá Xiānbēi ). According to Hyacinth (Bichurin) , an early 19th-century scholar,

8640-602: The former territories of Tang China. The Tanguts expanded their realm southwest towards their old homelands. In 1002 they conquered Ling Prefecture and set up their first capital there under the name of Xiping. By 1036 they had annexed the Guiyi Circuit and the Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom , even pushing into Tibetan territory and conquering Xining . The state of Western Xia was proclaimed in 1038. Being subjects of Tang China previously for two centuries,

8748-462: The haplogroup frequencies of the Tuoba Xianbei were 43.75% haplogroup D , 31.25% haplogroup C , 12.5% haplogroup B , 6.25% haplogroup A and 6.25% "other." Zhou (2014) obtained mitochondrial DNA analysis from 17 Tuoba Xianbei, which indicated that these specimens were, similarly, completely East Asian in their maternal origins, belonging to haplogroups D, C, B, A and haplogroup G . As

8856-855: The important role as the state oracle, the Nechung Oracle . Turkic peoples The Turkic peoples are a collection of diverse ethnic groups of West , Central , East , and North Asia as well as parts of Europe , who speak Turkic languages . According to historians and linguists, the Proto-Turkic language originated in Central-East Asia, potentially in Altai-Sayan region , Mongolia or Tuva . Initially, Proto-Turkic speakers were potentially both hunter-gatherers and farmers; they later became nomadic pastoralists . Early and medieval Turkic groups exhibited

8964-471: The information gap is so substantial that any connection of these ancient people to the modern Turks is not possible. The Chinese Book of Zhou (7th century) presents an etymology of the name Turk as derived from 'helmet', explaining that this name comes from the shape of a mountain where they worked in the Altai Mountains . Hungarian scholar András Róna-Tas (1991) pointed to a Khotanese-Saka word, tturakä 'lid', semantically stretchable to 'helmet', as

9072-490: The last spate of the Mongol attacks, Genghis died in Western Xia territory. The official Mongol history attributes his death to illness, whereas legends claim that he died from a wound inflicted in these battles. In 1227, the capital of Western Xia was overrun by the Mongols, who devastated its buildings and written records: all was burnt to the ground except its monastery. The last emperor was killed and tens of thousands of civilians massacred. However, many Tangut families joined

9180-602: The late Xiongnu confederation about 200 BCE (contemporaneous with the Chinese Han dynasty ) and later among the Turkic-speaking Tiele as Hegu (紇骨) and Xue (薛). The Tiele (also known as Gaoche 高車, lit. "High Carts"), may be related to the Xiongnu and the Dingling . According to the Book of Wei , the Tiele people were the remnants of the Chidi (赤狄), the red Di people competing with

9288-714: The local culture in North China than to pure Tibetan or Chinese influences. Texts belonging to the Tibetan Mahamudra tradition demonstrate that Tangut Buddhism initially evolved along the Karma Kagyu rather than Sakya lines of Buddhist transmission. A number of Tangut Buddhist institutions, such as "Imperial Preceptor" survived the Tangut State itself and could be found during the Yuan dynasty . One of

9396-602: The local populations to varying degrees. The Volga Bulgaria became an Islamic state in 922 and influenced the region as it controlled many trade routes. In the 13th century, Mongols invaded Europe and established the Golden Horde in Eastern Europe, western & northern Central Asia, and even western Siberia. The Cuman-Kipchak Confederation and Islamic Volga Bulgaria were absorbed by the Golden Horde in

9504-793: The more definite sources of Tangut Buddhism was Mount Wutai , where both Huayan and Chinese Esoteric Buddhism flourished from the late Tang dynasty up to the time of the Mongol conquest . Solonin (2005: unpaginated) links the Tanguts, the Helan Mountains and the Chan teachings of both Kim Hwasang and Baotang Wuzhu: The origins of the Tangut Chan can also be traced deeper than previously believed: information on Bao-tang Wu-zhu (保唐无住720～794) travels in North-Western China from

9612-590: The next few years, when Uyghur Khaganate remnants tried to raid Tang borders, the Shatuo participated extensively in counterattacking the Uyghur Khaganate with other tribes loyal to Tang. In 843, Zhuye Chixin, under the command of the Han Chinese officer Shi Xiong with Tuyuhun, Tangut and Han Chinese troops, participated in a raid against the Uyghur khaganate that led to the slaughter of Uyghur forces at Shahu mountain. The Shatuo Turks had founded several short-lived sinicized dynasties in northern China during

9720-512: The northeast Asian gene pool", the proto-Turkic language likely originated in northeastern Asia. Genetic data found that almost all modern Turkic peoples retained at least some shared ancestry associated with populations in "South Siberia and Mongolia" (SSM), supporting this region as the "Inner Asian Homeland (IAH) of the pioneer carriers of Turkic languages" which subsequently expanded into Central Asia. The main Turkic expansion took place during

9828-428: The partly Islamized native Siberian Tatars and indigenous Uralic peoples. It was the northernmost Islamic state in recorded history and it survived up until 1598 when it was conquered by Russia. The Uyghur Khaganate had established itself by the year 744 AD. Through trade relations established with China, its capital city of Ordu Baliq in central Mongolia's Orkhon Valley became a wealthy center of commerce, and

9936-558: The past 4000 years, including extensive Turkic migrations out of Mongolia and slow assimilation of local populations. A 2022 report suggested that Turkic and Mongolic populations in Central Asia formed via admixture events during the Iron Age between "local Indo-Iranian and a South-Siberian or Mongolian group with a high East-Asian ancestry (around 60%)". Modern day Turkmens form an outlier among Central Asian Turkic-speakers with

10044-477: The political entity has also been translated into Chinese as Taohuashi ( Chinese : 桃花石 ; pinyin : táohuā shí ). This name has been used in China in recent years to promote ethnic unity. Tangut people The Tangut people ( Tangut : 𗼎𗾧 , mjɨ nja̱ or 𗼇𘓐 , mji dzjwo ; Chinese : 党項 ; pinyin : Dǎngxiàng ; Tibetan : མི་ཉག་ , Wylie : mi nyak ; Mongolian : Тангуд ) were

10152-589: The speakers of which account for about 40% of all Turkic speakers. More than one third of these are ethnic Turks of Turkey , dwelling predominantly in Turkey proper and formerly Ottoman -dominated areas of Southern and Eastern Europe and West Asia ; as well as in Western Europe, Australia and the Americas as a result of immigration. The remainder of the Turkic people are concentrated in Central Asia, Russia,

10260-572: The steppes and mountains of southeast Qinghai and northwest Sichuan . Their home originally was in the highlands of western Sichuan. These regions correspond to the Amdo and Kham regions of the Tibetan plateau. At some point their leader Tuoba Chici, who was likely of mixed Xianbei and Qiang heritage, submitted to Tang China rule and was bestowed the title of Captain General of Western-Rong and

10368-587: The surname "Li". In the early 8th century, increasing pressure from the Tibetan Empire had forced the Tanguts to migrate north from their homelands in northeastern Tibet to the eastern Ordos region . By the time of the An Lushan Rebellion (755–763), the Tanguts were the predominant local power in what is now eastern Gansu , Ningxia , and northern Shaanxi . In 881 the Tanguts, who were subjects of Tang China, assisted Tang in suppressing

10476-811: The term Türki refers generally to the people of modern "Turkic Republics" ( Türki Cumhuriyetler or Türk Cumhuriyetleri ). However, the proper usage of the term is based on the linguistic classification in order to avoid any political sense. In short, the term Türki can be used for Türk or vice versa. [REDACTED]   Crimea ( disputed by Ukraine and Russia) [REDACTED] Sunan Yugur Autonomous County [REDACTED] Taymyrsky Dolgano-Nenetsky District (Russian Federation) Possible Proto-Turkic ancestry, at least partial, has been posited for Xiongnu , Huns and Pannonian Avars , as well as Tuoba and Rouran , who were of Proto-Mongolic Donghu ancestry. as well as Tatars , Rourans' supposed descendants. The Turkic languages constitute

10584-434: The time, women played a role in Tangut religious practices by serving as nuns , a position that could only be held by a woman who had been widowed or who was an unmarried virgin. Suchan (1998) traces the influence of the first several Karmapas upon the Yuan and Ming courts as well as the Western Xia, and mentions Düsum Khyenpa, 1st Karmapa Lama : The first several Karmapas are distinguished by their important status at

10692-515: The whole) Turkic people was under Tabgach subjection. In the 11th century text, the Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk ("Compendium of the languages of the Turks"), Turkic scholar Mahmud al-Kashgari , writing in Baghdad for an Arabic audience, describes Tawjach as one of the three components comprising China. Ṣīn [i.e., China] is originally three fold: Upper, in the east which is called Tawjāch; middle which

10800-510: The world, do not have a uniform palaeography as do, for example, the Gothic runiform scripts, noted for their exceptional uniformity of language and paleography. The Turkic alphabets are divided into four groups, the best known of which is the Orkhon version of the Enisei group. The Orkhon script is the alphabet used by the Göktürks from the 8th century to record the Old Turkic language . It

10908-404: Was allowed to teach, a newcomer entering the state from Tibet or India first had to seek the approval of local authorities. Doctrines taught and methods used were carefully supervised to ensure there was no possibility that the Tangut people might misunderstand the teachings. Anyone found to be a fortune-teller or charlatan faced immediate persecution. Deeming it contrary to Buddhist ethical beliefs,

11016-527: Was derived from the Middle Chinese name for Hexi , the region the Tanguts controlled ( Chinese : 河西 ). The Tanguts were primarily Buddhists. Tangut Buddhism was influenced by external elements. The entire Chinese Buddhist canon was translated into the Tangut language over a span of 50 years and published around 1090 in about 3700 fascicles. Buddhism in the Tangut state is believed to be an amalgamation of Tibetan and Chinese traditions, among which

11124-521: Was evidence of small Tangut communities in Anhui and Henan provinces. The people including members of the royal clan emigrated to western Sichuan, northern Tibet, even possibly northeast India, in some instances becoming local rulers. The Tangut people living in Central China preserved their language until at least the 16th century. Tangut society was divided into two classes: the "Red Faced" and

11232-492: Was initially reserved exclusively for the Göktürks by Chinese, Tibetans, and even the Turkic-speaking Uyghurs . In contrast, medieval Muslim writers, including Turkic speakers like Ottoman historian Mustafa Âlî and explorer Evliya Çelebi as well as Timurid scientist Ulugh Beg , often viewed Inner Asian tribes, "as forming a single entity regardless of their linguistic affiliation" commonly used Turk as

11340-771: Was later used by the Uyghur Empire ; a Yenisei variant is known from 9th-century Kyrgyz inscriptions, and it has likely cousins in the Talas Valley of Turkestan and the Old Hungarian script of the 10th century. Irk Bitig is the only known complete manuscript text written in the Old Turkic script. ( Tokhara Yabghus , Turk Shahis ) The origins of the Turkic peoples has been a topic of much discussion. Peter Benjamin Golden proposes two locations for

11448-485: Was occasionally used in Tangut sources, the state was most commonly referred to as the "Great Xia" (大夏) in Chinese-language sources of the Tangut or as the "Xia State" ( Chinese : 夏國 ) to the Song. In later historiography and in modern Chinese the Tangut state is referred to as the "Western Xia" ( Xī Xià 西夏). The Mongols and other steppe tribes referred to the Tangut kingdom as "Qashi" or "Qashin", which

11556-764: Was replaced by the Uyghur Khaganate in the year 744. The Bulgars established themselves in between the Caspian and Black Seas in the 5th and 6th centuries, followed by their conquerors, the Khazars who converted to Judaism in the 8th or 9th century. After them came the Pechenegs who created a large confederacy, which was subsequently taken over by the Cumans and the Kipchaks . One group of Bulgars settled in

11664-838: Was tolerant of religious diversity and practiced variety of religions including Buddhism, Christianity, shamanism and Manichaeism. During the same time period, the Shatuo Turks emerged as power factor in Northern and Central China and were recognized by the Tang Empire as allied power. In 808, 30,000 Shatuo under Zhuye Jinzhong defected from the Tibetans to Tang China and the Tibetans punished them by killing Zhuye Jinzhong as they were chasing them. The Uyghurs also fought against an alliance of Shatuo and Tibetans at Beshbalik. The Shatuo Turks under Zhuye Chixin ( Li Guochang ) served

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