119-695: The Blackburn Roc (company designation B-25 ) was a naval fighter aircraft designed and produced by the British aviation company Blackburn Aircraft . It took its name from the mythical bird of the tales of the Arabian Nights, the Roc . It was operated by the Fleet Air Arm (FAA) and was active during the Second World War . The Roc was designed to Air Ministry Specification O.30/35 and
238-421: A boat using an outboard or other motor and must be inspected. Stainless steel should never be used for fittings permanently in the water. Owners should check that the correct grade of stainless steel is used in a fitting. Working boats may use lower-cost galvanized steel , but the hardware may need to be re-galvanized or replaced eventually. The dinghy is generally carried inverted amidships on yachts, on top of
357-584: A by now mediocre performance. The first Eindecker victory came on 1 July 1915, when Leutnant Kurt Wintgens , of Feldflieger Abteilung 6 on the Western Front, downed a Morane-Saulnier Type L. His was one of five Fokker M.5 K/MG prototypes for the Eindecker , and was armed with a synchronized aviation version of the Parabellum MG14 machine gun. The success of the Eindecker kicked off
476-470: A cadre of exceptional pilots. In the United Kingdom, at the behest of Neville Chamberlain (more famous for his 'peace in our time' speech), the entire British aviation industry was retooled, allowing it to change quickly from fabric covered metal framed biplanes to cantilever stressed skin monoplanes in time for the war with Germany, a process that France attempted to emulate, but too late to counter
595-520: A carrier-based turret-armed fighter for the Fleet Air Arm (FAA). The Blackburn Aircraft design team was headed by G. E. Petty. It was decided to pursue a derivative of its new Skua dive bomber , of which two prototypes had been ordered for the Fleet Air Arm earlier that year. There were several substantial differences, not least that the Skua did not use a turret; the fuselage was widened around
714-555: A close-fitting 70-gallon external fuel tank were also present on the underside of the central fuselage. On 28 April 1937, the Air Ministry placed an "off the drawing board" order for 136 Rocs. As Blackburn already had full order books for the Skua and the Botha torpedo bomber, it was decided to sub-contract the detailed design and production of the aircraft to Boulton Paul at Wolverhampton ; this arrangement has been attributed for
833-435: A competitive cycle of improvement among the combatants, both sides striving to build ever more capable single-seat fighters. The Albatros D.I and Sopwith Pup of 1916 set the classic pattern followed by fighters for about twenty years. Most were biplanes and only rarely monoplanes or triplanes . The strong box structure of the biplane provided a rigid wing that allowed the accurate control essential for dogfighting. They had
952-443: A difficult deflection shot. The first step in finding a real solution was to mount the weapon on the aircraft, but the propeller remained a problem since the best direction to shoot is straight ahead. Numerous solutions were tried. A second crew member behind the pilot could aim and fire a swivel-mounted machine gun at enemy airplanes; however, this limited the area of coverage chiefly to the rear hemisphere, and effective coordination of
1071-426: A dinghy will have an oar on each side. A single sculling oarlock or notch on the transom is less common, but requires less space; and is used with a single sculling oar moving back and forth, never leaving the water, as used on a sampan . Many modern dinghies are made of synthetic materials. These require minimal care and do not rot but can suffer from fibre glass pox which is caused by the ingress of saltwater through
1190-410: A dinghy. If a dinghy is towed, an extra line with a loop in the end (known as a lazy painter) can be attached to a dinghy so that if the towing line breaks, there is a line to grab with a boat hook. This makes retrieval easier at sea, especially if the boat is partially swamped. In some countries dinghies have names or registration numbers. On hard dinghies these are usually on the bow, on inflatables on
1309-552: A form that would replace all others in the 1930s. As collective combat experience grew, the more successful pilots such as Oswald Boelcke , Max Immelmann , and Edward Mannock developed innovative tactical formations and maneuvers to enhance their air units' combat effectiveness. Allied and – before 1918 – German pilots of World War I were not equipped with parachutes , so in-flight fires or structural failures were often fatal. Parachutes were well-developed by 1918 having previously been used by balloonists, and were adopted by
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#17327795596421428-664: A great deal of ground-attack work. In World War II, the USAAF and RAF often favored fighters over dedicated light bombers or dive bombers , and types such as the Republic P-47 Thunderbolt and Hawker Hurricane that were no longer competitive as aerial combat fighters were relegated to ground attack. Several aircraft, such as the F-111 and F-117, have received fighter designations though they had no fighter capability due to political or other reasons. The F-111B variant
1547-400: A hard V-bottom hull and a fifteen-horsepower (11 kW) outboard can reach speeds of 25 mph (40 km/h; 22 kn). The gas tank is usually placed under the rear thwart. Engines always swing up so the dinghy can be grounded without damage. Since the transom may need to be cut down for the engine to fit properly, an engine well should be used to prevent low waves from splashing over
1666-418: A larger dinghy. Space can be saved by storing items in containers or bags that are tied to the dinghy. Dinghies are sometimes used as lifeboats. Recently, self-rescue dinghies have returned to use as proactive lifeboats that can be sailed to safety. Rigid dinghies for small yachts are very small, about 2 m (6 ft 6 + 3 ⁄ 4 in), usually with a pram (blunt) bow to get more beam (width) in
1785-431: A number of twin-engine fighters were built; however they were found to be outmatched against single-engine fighters and were relegated to other tasks, such as night fighters equipped with radar sets. By the end of the war, turbojet engines were replacing piston engines as the means of propulsion, further increasing aircraft speed. Since the weight of the turbojet engine was far less than a piston engine, having two engines
1904-550: A part of military nomenclature, a letter is often assigned to various types of aircraft to indicate their use, along with a number to indicate the specific aircraft. The letters used to designate a fighter differ in various countries. In the English-speaking world, "F" is often now used to indicate a fighter (e.g. Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II or Supermarine Spitfire F.22 ), though "P" used to be used in
2023-563: A patrolling Roc of 806 Naval Air Squadron , flown by pilot Midshipman A. G. Day, shot down a Junkers Ju 88 bomber from below. Towards the end of 1940, the Roc was largely relegated to air sea rescue and target-towing duties. Only sporadic engagements occurred after this point, with no substantial accomplishments occurring. The Roc was withdrawn during 1943. On 31 December 1935, the Air Ministry issued Specification O.30/35 , which sought
2142-638: A range of specialized aircraft types. Some of the most expensive fighters such as the US Grumman F-14 Tomcat , McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle , Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor and Russian Sukhoi Su-27 were employed as all-weather interceptors as well as air superiority fighter aircraft, while commonly developing air-to-ground roles late in their careers. An interceptor is generally an aircraft intended to target (or intercept) bombers and so often trades maneuverability for climb rate. As
2261-399: A relatively low maximum speed of only 223 mph (194 kn; 359 km/h). The float plane version of the Roc was even slower, leading to the cancellation of plans to equip float plane squadrons with the type. Cancellation of the project was discussed but this move was dismissed largely due to the wider impact on aircraft production. During April 1939, the conventional version of the Roc
2380-742: A result, during the early months of these campaigns, Axis air forces destroyed large numbers of Red Air Force aircraft on the ground and in one-sided dogfights. In the later stages on the Eastern Front, Soviet training and leadership improved, as did their equipment. By 1942 Soviet designs such as the Yakovlev Yak-9 and Lavochkin La-5 had performance comparable to the German Bf 109 and Focke-Wulf Fw 190 . Also, significant numbers of British, and later U.S., fighter aircraft were supplied to aid
2499-439: A sectional two-piece rigid dinghy that is towed while in harbour and disassembled into two nesting pieces while off-shore; typically the bow section fits inside the stern and is stored upside down on deck. There are several types of collapsible rigid dinghy that dismantle into a series of flat panels for easy stowage. Inflatable tubes can be fitted to an existing hard dinghy, increasing buoyancy and stability. A dinghy should have
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#17327795596422618-643: A separate (and vulnerable) radiator, but had increased drag. Inline engines often had a better power-to-weight ratio . Some air forces experimented with " heavy fighters " (called "destroyers" by the Germans). These were larger, usually twin-engined aircraft, sometimes adaptations of light or medium bomber types. Such designs typically had greater internal fuel capacity (thus longer range) and heavier armament than their single-engine counterparts. In combat, they proved vulnerable to more agile single-engine fighters. The primary driver of fighter innovation, right up to
2737-466: A shorter length. Larger dinghies are towed and should have reserve buoyancy, an automatic bailer, and a cover to prevent them from being lost at sea. Most masters prefer a tow cable long enough to put the dinghy on the back side of the swell to prevent the dinghy from ramming the transom of the yacht. Inflatables are inconvenient to tow and take extra time to inflate but are very compact and fit easily into place while at sea. Space can also be saved by using
2856-420: A single operator, who flew the aircraft and also controlled its armament. They were armed with one or two Maxim or Vickers machine guns, which were easier to synchronize than other types, firing through the propeller arc. Gun breeches were in front of the pilot, with obvious implications in case of accidents, but jams could be cleared in flight, while aiming was simplified. The use of metal aircraft structures
2975-582: A size range of 12 to 14 feet (3.7 to 4.3 m) or 12 to 16 feet (3.7 to 4.9 m). Dinghies are designed for a range of uses. Some are intended as a tender for a larger vessel. Others are small utility boats, used where a larger boat is not needed. Many are designed primarily for sailing. These fall into two groups: those intended for racing and those for non-competitive leisure use. A rigid-hulled dinghy can be made of wood (using either traditional or modern techniques), fibreglass or, more recently, moulded polypropylene. Inflatable dinghies solve some of
3094-416: A strong ring on the bow. The ring secures the painter (the line that anchors the boat to a dock), and is used for towing and anchoring. Ideally, the dinghy should also have two other rings (one on each side of the stern transom) which, with the bow ring, are used for lifting and securing the dinghy for stowage. The only other essential pieces of hardware are rowlocks (also known as oarlocks). Conventionally,
3213-537: A wave. Both rudders and lee boards have swiveling tips so the dinghy can be landed. Rudders are often arranged so the tiller folds against the rudder to make a compact package. Racing dinghies usually have a daggerboard or centreboard to better sail upwind. The trunk is in the middle of what would otherwise be cargo area. A self-rescue dinghy intended to be used as a proactive lifeboat has leeboards on either side, to allow for maximum open cockpit area. Solar propulsion uses hybrid flexible solar panels integrated into
3332-402: Is a fast, heavily armed and long-range type, able to act as an escort fighter protecting bombers , to carry out offensive sorties of its own as a penetration fighter and maintain standing patrols at significant distance from its home base. Bombers are vulnerable due to their low speed, large size and poor maneuvrability. The escort fighter was developed during World War II to come between
3451-549: Is able to defend itself while conducting attack sorties. The word "fighter" was first used to describe a two-seat aircraft carrying a machine gun (mounted on a pedestal) and its operator as well as the pilot . Although the term was coined in the United Kingdom, the first examples were the French Voisin pushers beginning in 1910, and a Voisin III would be the first to shoot down another aircraft, on 5 October 1914. However at
3570-531: Is for transfers from larger boats, especially when the larger boat cannot dock at a suitably-sized port or marina . The term "dinghy towing" sometimes is used to refer to the practice of towing a car or other smaller vehicle behind a motorhome , by analogy to towing a dinghy behind a yacht . The term is a loanword from the Bengali ḍiṅgi , Urdu ḍīngī , and Hindi ḍieṁgī . The term "dinghy" has some variability in its definition, but
3689-496: Is generally a small open boat which may be powered by oars, sail or an outboard motor. Some individual examples have the option of being powered by all three of these methods, some by two, and some by just one means of propulsion. A dinghy does not have a cabin or a fixed keel. The upper size limit is often stated as 20 feet (6.1 m) length. Particularly small examples are 6 feet (1.8 m) long. Dinghies used as ship's boats , particularly in naval use, are often stated as having
Blackburn Roc - Misplaced Pages Continue
3808-623: Is known as an interceptor . Recognized classes of fighter include: Of these, the Fighter-bomber , reconnaissance fighter and strike fighter classes are dual-role, possessing qualities of the fighter alongside some other battlefield role. Some fighter designs may be developed in variants performing other roles entirely, such as ground attack or unarmed reconnaissance . This may be for political or national security reasons, for advertising purposes, or other reasons. The Sopwith Camel and other "fighting scouts" of World War I performed
3927-431: Is limited. Some newer dinghies have much greater buoyancy, giving them more carrying capacity than older boats of the same size. On yachts shorter than 10 m (32 ft 10 in), there is usually not enough room for a reasonably sized dinghy. A dinghy is useful to avoid the need for expensive dock or slip space, so owners of small yachts compromise by carrying a small rigid dinghy or deflated inflatable, or by towing
4046-562: The Combined Bomber Offensive . Unescorted Consolidated B-24 Liberators and Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress bombers, however, proved unable to fend off German interceptors (primarily Bf 109s and Fw 190s). With the later arrival of long range fighters, particularly the North American P-51 Mustang , American fighters were able to escort far into Germany on daylight raids and by ranging ahead attrited
4165-685: The Fairey Fulmar and the Hawker Sea Hurricane . During April 1939, preparations commenced for the Roc's entry into squadron service; that same month, the fifth production aircraft was delivered to the Central Flying School to assist with personnel familiarisation. Later that year, deliveries of the Roc commenced to the Skua-equipped 800 and 803 Naval Air Squadrons , with three or four Rocs supplementing
4284-585: The Junkers D.I , made with corrugated duralumin , all based on his experience in creating the pioneering Junkers J 1 all-metal airframe technology demonstration aircraft of late 1915. While Fokker would pursue steel tube fuselages with wooden wings until the late 1930s, and Junkers would focus on corrugated sheet metal, Dornier was the first to build a fighter (the Dornier-Zeppelin D.I ) made with pre-stressed sheet aluminum and having cantilevered wings,
4403-510: The RAF and the USAAF against German industry intended to wear down the Luftwaffe. Axis fighter aircraft focused on defending against Allied bombers while Allied fighters' main role was as bomber escorts. The RAF raided German cities at night, and both sides developed radar-equipped night fighters for these battles. The Americans, in contrast, flew daylight bombing raids into Germany delivering
4522-588: The Sopwith Tabloid and Bristol Scout . The French and the Germans didn't have an equivalent as they used two seaters for reconnaissance, such as the Morane-Saulnier L , but would later modify pre-war racing aircraft into armed single seaters. It was quickly found that these were of little use since the pilot couldn't record what he saw while also flying, while military leaders usually ignored what
4641-737: The Stangensteuerung in German, for "pushrod control system") devised by the engineers of Anthony Fokker 's firm was the first system to enter service. It would usher in what the British called the " Fokker scourge " and a period of air superiority for the German forces, making the Fokker Eindecker monoplane a feared name over the Western Front , despite its being an adaptation of an obsolete pre-war French Morane-Saulnier racing airplane, with poor flight characteristics and
4760-498: The carvel or clinker methods. Favoured woods, in order of rot-resistance, are white oak, black locust , species of cedar and pine , true as well as African and Asian mahoganies , fir and spruce . Rot resistance depends on paint as well as protection from rainwater. Plastic hardware is sometimes used, but bronze and stainless steel are good corrosion -resistant materials for hardware, although stainless steel can be subject to crevice corrosion after many years especially in
4879-470: The Air Ministry decided to select Blackburn's proposal instead. Similar to the Skua, the B-25 Roc was a two-seat low-wing cantilever monoplane of all-metal construction. It was fitted with a retractable tailwheel undercarriage and its wings could be folded for storage aboard aircraft carriers. Attachment points for a float undercarriage were present as standard, unlike on the Skua. The Roc also retained
Blackburn Roc - Misplaced Pages Continue
4998-668: The British Royal Flying Corps and Royal Air Force referred to them as " scouts " until the early 1920s, while the U.S. Army called them "pursuit" aircraft until the late 1940s (using the designation P, as in Curtiss P-40 Warhawk , Republic P-47 Thunderbolt and Bell P-63 Kingcobra ). The UK changed to calling them fighters in the 1920s , while the US Army did so in the 1940s. A short-range fighter designed to defend against incoming enemy aircraft
5117-639: The British, the Americans, the Spanish (in the Spanish civil war) and the Germans. Given limited budgets, air forces were conservative in aircraft design, and biplanes remained popular with pilots for their agility, and remained in service long after they ceased to be competitive. Designs such as the Gloster Gladiator , Fiat CR.42 Falco , and Polikarpov I-15 were common even in the late 1930s, and many were still in service as late as 1942. Up until
5236-517: The Channel. On 26 September 1940, during one such patrol, Pilot Officer D. H. Clarke and his gunner, Sergeant Hunt, engaged a Heinkel He 59 seaplane, also on a rescue mission, which had fired on them first. The two aircraft exchanged fire until they reached the coast of France where the Heinkel escaped in a damaged condition. Some Rocs were dispatched to distant locations such as Bermuda , however,
5355-627: The Defiant, with four .303 in (7.7 mm) Browning machine guns . The turret could rotate in any direction and the guns elevated as high as 85 degrees above the horizon; this movement was achieved via a control column. The turret was hydraulically powered by an electrically-driven pump, the guns were fired electrically and had integrated automatic interruption to prevent the tail unit or propeller being hit. Additional armaments included two 250 lb (110 kg) bombs and eight practice bombs, carried upon bomb racks under each wing; provisions for
5474-758: The European battlefield, played a crucial role in the eventual defeat of the Axis, which Reichmarshal Hermann Göring , commander of the German Luftwaffe summed up when he said: "When I saw Mustangs over Berlin, I knew the jig was up." Dinghy A dinghy is a type of small boat , often carried or towed by a larger vessel for use as a tender . Utility dinghies are usually rowboats or have an outboard motor . Some are rigged for sailing but they differ from sailing dinghies , which are designed first and foremost for sailing. A dinghy's main use
5593-483: The German flying services during the course of that year. The well known and feared Manfred von Richthofen , the "Red Baron", was wearing one when he was killed, but the allied command continued to oppose their use on various grounds. In April 1917, during a brief period of German aerial supremacy a British pilot's average life expectancy was calculated to average 93 flying hours, or about three weeks of active service. More than 50,000 airmen from both sides died during
5712-618: The German invasion. The period of improving the same biplane design over and over was now coming to an end, and the Hawker Hurricane and Supermarine Spitfire started to supplant the Gloster Gladiator and Hawker Fury biplanes but many biplanes remained in front-line service well past the start of World War II. While not a combatant in Spain, they too absorbed many of the lessons in time to use them. The Spanish Civil War also provided an opportunity for updating fighter tactics. One of
5831-756: The Italians developed several monoplanes such as the Fiat G.50 Freccia , but being short on funds, were forced to continue operating obsolete Fiat CR.42 Falco biplanes. From the early 1930s the Japanese were at war against both the Chinese Nationalists and the Russians in China, and used the experience to improve both training and aircraft, replacing biplanes with modern cantilever monoplanes and creating
5950-968: The Japanese Nakajima Ki-27 , Nakajima Ki-43 and Mitsubishi A6M Zero and the Italian Fiat G.50 Freccia and Macchi MC.200 . In contrast, designers in the United Kingdom, Germany, the Soviet Union, and the United States believed that the increased speed of fighter aircraft would create g -forces unbearable to pilots who attempted maneuvering dogfights typical of the First World War, and their fighters were instead optimized for speed and firepower. In practice, while light, highly maneuverable aircraft did possess some advantages in fighter-versus-fighter combat, those could usually be overcome by sound tactical doctrine, and
6069-613: The Luftwaffe to establish control of the skies over Western Europe. By the time of Operation Overlord in June 1944, the Allies had gained near complete air superiority over the Western Front. This cleared the way both for intensified strategic bombing of German cities and industries, and for the tactical bombing of battlefield targets. With the Luftwaffe largely cleared from the skies, Allied fighters increasingly served as ground attack aircraft. Allied fighters, by gaining air superiority over
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#17327795596426188-662: The Luftwaffe, and while the Luftwaffe maintained a qualitative edge over the Red Air Force for much of the war, the increasing numbers and efficacy of the Soviet Air Force were critical to the Red Army's efforts at turning back and eventually annihilating the Wehrmacht . Meanwhile, air combat on the Western Front had a much different character. Much of this combat focused on the strategic bombing campaigns of
6307-601: The Norwegian theatre, they were used to carry out combat air patrols over the fleet, but were regarded as being of little use, showing inadequate performance when intercepting German aircraft. Both Skuas and Rocs operated over the English Channel in the summer of 1940 in Operation Dynamo and Operation Aerial , the evacuations of Allied forces from Dunkirk and other French ports. What is believed to be
6426-536: The Roc floatplane was again evaluated to determine whether the aircraft could be useful as a target tug for the fleet, replacing Blackburn Shark floatplane target tugs. The Roc floatplane was rejected in this role as well, resulting in the fleet's requirements for target tugs being fulfilled by landplanes, such as the Miles Martinet , instead. By August 1940, production of the Roc had ceased and manufacturing resources were diverted to more capable aircraft such as
6545-852: The Roc's sole confirmed aerial victory occurred on 28 May 1940, when a patrolling Roc of 806 Naval Air Squadron , flown by pilot Midshipman A. G. Day, alongside two Skuas, intercepted five Junkers Ju 88s which were attacking a convoy off Ostend in Belgium. Flying underneath the Junkers while the Skuas attacked from above, Day's Roc destroyed one Ju 88 before returning safely to RAF Detling . On 12 June, Rocs and Skuas of 801 Naval Air Squadron strafed and dive-bombed German E-boats in Boulogne harbour, damaging several E-boats. On 20 June, Skuas and Rocs were used to bomb gun emplacements at Cap Gris Nez . The Roc
6664-596: The Skua; while not suitable for aerobatic manoeuvres, it demonstrated its steadiness in steep dives. The aircraft also demonstrated poor performance in some areas, particularly that its maximum speed was only 223 mph (194 kn; 359 km/h). By this point, some officials had already recognised that the Roc's performance would be inadequate; during October 1938, the Fifth Sea Lord (the Chief of Naval Air Services) Alexander Ramsay issued his recommendation that
6783-853: The Skuas. When 803 Squadron relocated to RAF Wick in northern Scotland to provide fighter cover for the Royal Naval base at Scapa Flow in the Orkney Islands , the Rocs proved ineffective; they were described by the squadron's commanding officer as a "constant hindrance", who requested that the type be replaced by additional Skuas. During the Allied campaign in Norway , a small contingent of Rocs travelled with 800 and 801 Naval Air Squadrons aboard HMS Ark Royal (By this point, 803 Squadron had abandoned its Rocs to become an all-Skua squadron). In
6902-555: The Soviet Polikarpov I-16 . The later German design was earlier in its design cycle, and had more room for development and the lessons learned led to greatly improved models in World War II. The Russians failed to keep up and despite newer models coming into service, I-16s remaining the most common Soviet front-line fighter into 1942 despite being outclassed by the improved Bf 109s in World War II. For their part,
7021-598: The Soviet war effort as part of Lend-Lease , with the Bell P-39 Airacobra proving particularly effective in the lower-altitude combat typical of the Eastern Front. The Soviets were also helped indirectly by the American and British bombing campaigns, which forced the Luftwaffe to shift many of its fighters away from the Eastern Front in defense against these raids. The Soviets increasingly were able to challenge
7140-451: The US for pursuit (e.g. Curtiss P-40 Warhawk ), a translation of the French "C" ( Dewoitine D.520 C.1 ) for Chasseur while in Russia "I" was used for Istrebitel , or exterminator ( Polikarpov I-16 ). As fighter types have proliferated, the air superiority fighter emerged as a specific role at the pinnacle of speed, maneuverability, and air-to-air weapon systems – able to hold its own against all other fighters and establish its dominance in
7259-529: The United States, Russia, India and China. The first step was to find ways to reduce the aircraft's reflectivity to radar waves by burying the engines, eliminating sharp corners and diverting any reflections away from the radar sets of opposing forces. Various materials were found to absorb the energy from radar waves, and were incorporated into special finishes that have since found widespread application. Composite structures have become widespread, including major structural components, and have helped to counterbalance
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#17327795596427378-440: The ability to gather information by reconnaissance over the battlefield. Early fighters were very small and lightly armed by later standards, and most were biplanes built with a wooden frame covered with fabric, and a maximum airspeed of about 100 mph (160 km/h). A successful German biplane, the Albatross, however, was built with a plywood shell, rather than fabric, which created a stronger, faster airplane. As control of
7497-409: The advantages of fighting above Britain's home territory allowed the RAF to deny Germany air superiority, saving the UK from possible German invasion and dealing the Axis a major defeat early in the Second World War. On the Eastern Front , Soviet fighter forces were overwhelmed during the opening phases of Operation Barbarossa . This was a result of the tactical surprise at the outset of the campaign,
7616-534: The airspace over armies became increasingly important, all of the major powers developed fighters to support their military operations. Between the wars, wood was largely replaced in part or whole by metal tubing, and finally aluminum stressed skin structures (monocoque) began to predominate. By World War II , most fighters were all-metal monoplanes armed with batteries of machine guns or cannons and some were capable of speeds approaching 400 mph (640 km/h). Most fighters up to this point had one engine, but
7735-433: The basis for an effective "fighter" in the modern sense of the word. It was based on small fast aircraft developed before the war for air racing such with the Gordon Bennett Cup and Schneider Trophy . The military scout airplane was not expected to carry serious armament, but rather to rely on speed to "scout" a location, and return quickly to report, making it a flying horse. British scout aircraft, in this sense, included
7854-414: The bombers and enemy attackers as a protective shield. The primary requirement was for long range, with several heavy fighters given the role. However they too proved unwieldy and vulnerable, so as the war progressed techniques such as drop tanks were developed to extend the range of more nimble conventional fighters. The penetration fighter is typically also fitted for the ground-attack role, and so
7973-400: The coachroof where there is the most space. It is useful for a dinghy carried this way to have handholds built into the bottom, making launching easier and providing handholds on deck. Most yachts launch their dinghies by hand or with a simple lifting tackle rigged from the main mast. Davits over the transom is convenient and elegant, but sailing in a heavy following sea could cause the loss of
8092-539: The defense budgets of modern armed forces. The global combat aircraft market was worth $ 45.75 billion in 2017 and is projected by Frost & Sullivan at $ 47.2 billion in 2026: 35% modernization programs and 65% aircraft purchases, dominated by the Lockheed Martin F-35 with 3,000 deliveries over 20 years. A fighter aircraft is primarily designed for air-to-air combat . A given type may be designed for specific combat conditions, and in some cases for additional roles such as air-to-ground fighting. Historically
8211-616: The delayed delivery of the company's own turret aircraft, the Defiant. On 23 December 1938, the prototype Roc performed its maiden flight in the hands of Blackburn test pilot H. J. Wilson. Contractor's trials were conducted at Brough after which, during March 1939, the aircraft was delivered to Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment (A&AEE) at RAF Martlesham Heath for handling and armaments trials. Early modifications, such as alternative de Havilland -supplied propellers, were also evaluated. Early flight testing revealed its handling to be not only acceptable but superior to that of
8330-550: The design approach of the Italians and Japanese made their fighters ill-suited as interceptors or attack aircraft. During the invasion of Poland and the Battle of France , Luftwaffe fighters—primarily the Messerschmitt Bf 109 —held air superiority, and the Luftwaffe played a major role in German victories in these campaigns. During the Battle of Britain , however, British Hurricanes and Spitfires proved roughly equal to Luftwaffe fighters. Additionally Britain's radar-based Dowding system directing fighters onto German attacks and
8449-401: The development of the Roc be abandoned. Production was allowed to continue as the project's cancellation would have caused too much disruption for Boulton Paul; plans were laid to adapt the aircraft to perform target towing and other secondary duties. As well as its primary role as a carrier-based fighter, the Roc was also required to be capable of operating as a floatplane . A conversion kit
8568-522: The early 1960s since both were believed unusable at the speeds being attained, however the Vietnam War showed that guns still had a role to play, and most fighters built since then are fitted with cannon (typically between 20 and 30 mm (0.79 and 1.18 in) in caliber) in addition to missiles. Most modern combat aircraft can carry at least a pair of air-to-air missiles. In the 1970s, turbofans replaced turbojets, improving fuel economy enough that
8687-513: The fighter. Rifle-caliber .30 and .303 in (7.62 and 7.70 mm) calibre guns remained the norm, with larger weapons either being too heavy and cumbersome or deemed unnecessary against such lightly built aircraft. It was not considered unreasonable to use World War I-style armament to counter enemy fighters as there was insufficient air-to-air combat during most of the period to disprove this notion. The rotary engine , popular during World War I, quickly disappeared, its development having reached
8806-513: The gel coat. Inflatable dinghies can be made of fabrics coated with Hypalon , neoprene or PVC . Rigid dinghies can be made of glass-fibre reinforced plastic (GRP) but injection-moulded one-piece hulls are also available. Other materials for modern rigid dinghies include aluminium , marine plywood which tends to be much lighter than most types and, with the advent of sturdy, UV resistant polyurethane varnishes, wood. Some wooden dinghies (especially of classic or historical form) are built using
8925-406: The guns were subjected). Shooting with this traditional arrangement was also easier because the guns shot directly ahead in the direction of the aircraft's flight, up to the limit of the guns range; unlike wing-mounted guns which to be effective required to be harmonised , that is, preset to shoot at an angle by ground crews so that their bullets would converge on a target area a set distance ahead of
9044-433: The innovations was the development of the " finger-four " formation by the German pilot Werner Mölders . Each fighter squadron (German: Staffel ) was divided into several flights ( Schwärme ) of four aircraft. Each Schwarm was divided into two Rotten , which was a pair of aircraft. Each Rotte was composed of a leader and a wingman. This flexible formation allowed the pilots to maintain greater situational awareness, and
9163-580: The inside of the transom. Small dinghies under 3.66 m (12 ft) are usually powered by rowing with one set of oars . Beyond 4.88 m (16 ft) it is feasible to have two or even three rowers, normally using a pair of oars. In some models, sliding thwarts allow far more powerful rowing while in others, a removable thwart can permit standing rowing. Some self-rescue dinghy/yacht tender dinghies have two sets of oarlocks (rowlocks) and an adjustable middle seat to allow for ergonomically efficient rowing positions. A single sculling oar with an oarlock on
9282-514: The interceptor. The equipment necessary for daytime flight is inadequate when flying at night or in poor visibility. The night fighter was developed during World War I with additional equipment to aid the pilot in flying straight, navigating and finding the target. From modified variants of the Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.2c in 1915, the night fighter has evolved into the highly capable all-weather fighter. The strategic fighter
9401-746: The last pair of operational aircraft were withdrawn from service during June 1943. The last four Rocs stationed at HMS Daedalus in Gosport survived until late 1944, all unairworthy, with their turrets still being used for anti-aircraft defence. Royal Air Force Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm Data from British Naval Aircraft since 1912 General characteristics Performance Armament Related development Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Related lists Fighter aircraft Fighter aircraft (early on also pursuit aircraft ) are military aircraft designed primarily for air-to-air combat . In military conflict,
9520-420: The last piston engine support aircraft could be replaced with jets, making multi-role combat aircraft possible. Honeycomb structures began to replace milled structures, and the first composite components began to appear on components subjected to little stress. With the steady improvements in computers, defensive systems have become increasingly efficient. To counter this, stealth technologies have been pursued by
9639-650: The leadership vacuum within the Soviet military left by the Great Purge , and the general inferiority of Soviet designs at the time, such as the obsolescent Polikarpov I-15 biplane and the I-16 . More modern Soviet designs, including the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-3 , LaGG-3 and Yakolev Yak-1 , had not yet arrived in numbers and in any case were still inferior to the Messerschmitt Bf 109 . As
9758-404: The mast), and usable with or without a boom. Traditional working dinghies have a lee board that can be hooked over the side. This does not split the cargo space. A sailing rudder is usually tied or clipped to a simple pair of pintles (hinge pins) on the transom with the bottom pintle being longer so that the rudder can be mounted one pintle at a time. The rope keeps the rudder from floating off in
9877-506: The mid-1930s, the majority of fighters in the US, the UK, Italy and Russia remained fabric-covered biplanes. Fighter armament eventually began to be mounted inside the wings, outside the arc of the propeller, though most designs retained two synchronized machine guns directly ahead of the pilot, where they were more accurate (that being the strongest part of the structure, reducing the vibration to which
9996-424: The mid-section to accommodate it. The rival aircraft manufacturer Boulton Paul proposed the P.85 , a redesigned version of its land-based P.82 turret fighter (for Specification F.9/35 , which would enter service as the "Defiant"), alternatively powered by a Bristol Hercules radial engine or a Rolls-Royce Merlin inline engine. Although the "Sea Defiant" was expected to be 85 mph (137 km/h) faster,
10115-495: The most modern weapons, against an enemy in complete command of the air, fights like a savage…" Throughout the war, fighters performed their conventional role in establishing air superiority through combat with other fighters and through bomber interception, and also often performed roles such as tactical air support and reconnaissance . Fighter design varied widely among combatants. The Japanese and Italians favored lightly armed and armored but highly maneuverable designs such as
10234-607: The opposition. Subsequently, radar capabilities grew enormously and are now the primary method of target acquisition . Wings were made thinner and swept back to reduce transonic drag, which required new manufacturing methods to obtain sufficient strength. Skins were no longer sheet metal riveted to a structure, but milled from large slabs of alloy. The sound barrier was broken, and after a few false starts due to required changes in controls, speeds quickly reached Mach 2, past which aircraft cannot maneuver sufficiently to avoid attack. Air-to-air missiles largely replaced guns and rockets in
10353-488: The outbreak of World War I , front-line aircraft were mostly unarmed and used almost exclusively for reconnaissance . On 15 August 1914, Miodrag Tomić encountered an enemy airplane while on a reconnaissance flight over Austria-Hungary which fired at his aircraft with a revolver, so Tomić fired back. It was believed to be the first exchange of fire between aircraft. Within weeks, all Serbian and Austro-Hungarian aircraft were armed. Another type of military aircraft formed
10472-469: The outbreak of the war. Testing continued using the other conversion, with particular effort paid to addressing its instability. While the addition of an enlarged ventral fin largely resolved the problem, the effect of the floats on the aircraft's performance was too great to be ignored, as the maximum speed had fallen to only 193 mph (168 kn; 311 km/h), thus plans to form a fighter squadron equipped with Roc floatplanes were abandoned. During 1942,
10591-451: The outset for dual roles. Other fighter designs are highly specialized while still filling the main air superiority role, and these include the interceptor and, historically, the heavy fighter and night fighter . Since World War I, achieving and maintaining air superiority has been considered essential for victory in conventional warfare . Fighters continued to be developed throughout World War I, to deny enemy aircraft and dirigibles
10710-487: The period of rapid re-armament in the late 1930s, were not military budgets, but civilian aircraft racing. Aircraft designed for these races introduced innovations like streamlining and more powerful engines that would find their way into the fighters of World War II. The most significant of these was the Schneider Trophy races, where competition grew so fierce, only national governments could afford to enter. At
10829-433: The period, going from a typical 180 hp (130 kW) in the 900 kg (2,000 lb) Fokker D.VII of 1918 to 900 hp (670 kW) in the 2,500 kg (5,500 lb) Curtiss P-36 of 1936. The debate between the sleek in-line engines versus the more reliable radial models continued, with naval air forces preferring the radial engines, and land-based forces often choosing inlines. Radial designs did not require
10948-456: The pilot's maneuvering with the gunner's aiming was difficult. This option was chiefly employed as a defensive measure on two-seater reconnaissance aircraft from 1915 on. Both the SPAD S.A and the Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.9 added a second crewman ahead of the engine in a pod but this was both hazardous to the second crewman and limited performance. The Sopwith L.R.T.Tr. similarly added a pod on
11067-451: The pilots reported. Attempts were made with handheld weapons such as pistols and rifles and even light machine guns, but these were ineffective and cumbersome. The next advance came with the fixed forward-firing machine gun, so that the pilot pointed the entire aircraft at the target and fired the gun, instead of relying on a second gunner. Roland Garros bolted metal deflector plates to the propeller so that it would not shoot itself out of
11186-410: The point where rotational forces prevented more fuel and air from being delivered to the cylinders, which limited horsepower. They were replaced chiefly by the stationary radial engine though major advances led to inline engines gaining ground with several exceptional engines—including the 1,145 cu in (18,760 cm ) V-12 Curtiss D-12 . Aircraft engines increased in power several-fold over
11305-575: The propeller arc was evident even before the outbreak of war and inventors in both France and Germany devised mechanisms that could time the firing of the individual rounds to avoid hitting the propeller blades. Franz Schneider , a Swiss engineer, had patented such a device in Germany in 1913, but his original work was not followed up. French aircraft designer Raymond Saulnier patented a practical device in April 1914, but trials were unsuccessful because of
11424-461: The propeller arc. Wing guns were tried but the unreliable weapons available required frequent clearing of jammed rounds and misfires and remained impractical until after the war. Mounting the machine gun over the top wing worked well and was used long after the ideal solution was found. The Nieuport 11 of 1916 used this system with considerable success, however, this placement made aiming and reloading difficult but would continue to be used throughout
11543-458: The propeller blades were fitted with metal wedges to protect them from ricochets . Garros' modified monoplane first flew in March 1915 and he began combat operations soon after. Garros scored three victories in three weeks before he himself was downed on 18 April and his airplane, along with its synchronization gear and propeller was captured by the Germans. Meanwhile, the synchronization gear (called
11662-426: The propensity of the machine gun employed to hang fire due to unreliable ammunition. In December 1914, French aviator Roland Garros asked Saulnier to install his synchronization gear on Garros' Morane-Saulnier Type L parasol monoplane . Unfortunately the gas-operated Hotchkiss machine gun he was provided had an erratic rate of fire and it was impossible to synchronize it with the propeller. As an interim measure,
11781-426: The rear transom can be a compact emergency oar. Inflatable dinghies without a rigid bottom are difficult to row more than a short distance, and are usually powered with an outboard motor , or, if necessary, paddled. Another option is an outboard motor. Two horsepower per meter can reach hull speed. Ten horsepower per metre (7.5 kW/m) will put a flat-bottomed dinghy on plane . A 3.05-metre (10 ft) dinghy with
11900-421: The role of fighter aircraft is to establish air superiority of the battlespace . Domination of the airspace above a battlefield permits bombers and attack aircraft to engage in tactical and strategic bombing of enemy targets, and helps prevent the enemy from doing the same. The key performance features of a fighter include not only its firepower but also its high speed and maneuverability relative to
12019-532: The skies above the battlefield. The interceptor is a fighter designed specifically to intercept and engage approaching enemy aircraft. There are two general classes of interceptor: relatively lightweight aircraft in the point-defence role, built for fast reaction, high performance and with a short range, and heavier aircraft with more comprehensive avionics and designed to fly at night or in all weathers and to operate over longer ranges . Originating during World War I, by 1929 this class of fighters had become known as
12138-417: The sky and a number of Morane-Saulnier Ns were modified. The technique proved effective, however the deflected bullets were still highly dangerous. Soon after the commencement of the war, pilots armed themselves with pistols, carbines , grenades , and an assortment of improvised weapons. Many of these proved ineffective as the pilot had to fly his airplane while attempting to aim a handheld weapon and make
12257-408: The steady increases in aircraft weight—most modern fighters are larger and heavier than World War II medium bombers. Because of the importance of air superiority, since the early days of aerial combat armed forces have constantly competed to develop technologically superior fighters and to deploy these fighters in greater numbers, and fielding a viable fighter fleet consumes a substantial proportion of
12376-534: The storage problems for tenders for yachts, though a fast inflatable boat powered by a powerful outboard motor would not be considered a dinghy. The inflatable life rafts which equipped British military aircraft during World War 2 (and for a period before and after) were called dinghies. Dinghies usually range in length from about 1.8 to 6.1 m (6 to 20 ft). Larger auxiliary vessels are generally called tenders , pinnaces or lifeboats . Folding and take-down multi-piece (nesting) dinghies are used where space
12495-420: The target aircraft. The success or failure of a combatant's efforts to gain air superiority hinges on several factors including the skill of its pilots, the tactical soundness of its doctrine for deploying its fighters, and the numbers and performance of those fighters. Many modern fighter aircraft also have secondary capabilities such as ground attack and some types, such as fighter-bombers , are designed from
12614-485: The top wing with no better luck. An alternative was to build a "pusher" scout such as the Airco DH.2 , with the propeller mounted behind the pilot. The main drawback was that the high drag of a pusher type's tail structure made it slower than a similar "tractor" aircraft. A better solution for a single seat scout was to mount the machine gun (rifles and pistols having been dispensed with) to fire forwards but outside
12733-406: The transom and flooding the boat. A typical sail choice for a dinghy is gunter rig with a shorter mast that fits within the hull when unstepped. Sprit rigs have no boom, and the advantage that the sail can be brailed up out of the way against the mast when rowing or motoring. Lug rigs are another common single sail type used in small dinghies, both standing and balanced (with some area forward of
12852-464: The two Rotten could split up at any time and attack on their own. The finger-four would be widely adopted as the fundamental tactical formation during World War Two, including by the British and later the Americans. World War II featured fighter combat on a larger scale than any other conflict to date. German Field Marshal Erwin Rommel noted the effect of airpower: "Anyone who has to fight, even with
12971-542: The very end of the inter-war period in Europe came the Spanish Civil War . This was just the opportunity the German Luftwaffe , Italian Regia Aeronautica , and the Soviet Union's Voenno-Vozdushnye Sily needed to test their latest aircraft. Each party sent numerous aircraft types to support their sides in the conflict. In the dogfights over Spain, the latest Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighters did well, as did
13090-478: The war as the weapons used were lighter and had a higher rate of fire than synchronized weapons. The British Foster mounting and several French mountings were specifically designed for this kind of application, fitted with either the Hotchkiss or Lewis Machine gun , which due to their design were unsuitable for synchronizing. The need to arm a tractor scout with a forward-firing gun whose bullets passed through
13209-443: The war. Fighter development stagnated between the wars, especially in the United States and the United Kingdom, where budgets were small. In France, Italy and Russia, where large budgets continued to allow major development, both monoplanes and all metal structures were common. By the end of the 1920s, however, those countries overspent themselves and were overtaken in the 1930s by those powers that hadn't been spending heavily, namely
13328-427: The wing-mounted dive brakes present on the Skua but the mainplane was redesigned with a slight dihedral to obviate the upturned wingtips. It was powered by a Bristol Perseus radial engine that drove a three-bladed propeller. Amongst other things, the rear fuselage housed marine equipment, including a collapsible dinghy . The Roc's primary armament was the same Boulton Paul Type A power-operated gun turret as used on
13447-433: Was brought into FAA service. The type was present during the Allied campaign in Norway , as well as Operation Dynamo and Operation Aerial , the evacuations of Allied forces from Dunkirk and other French ports. The Roc quickly came to be viewed as inferior to existing aircraft, such as the Skua and the type had only a limited career in front-line service. The Roc's sole confirmed aerial victory occurred on 28 May 1940, when
13566-563: Was derived from the Blackburn Skua dive-bomber/fighter and developed in parallel to it. Unlike the Skua, the Roc had its armament in a turret . A large proportion of the work was subcontracted to another aircraft manufacturer, Boulton Paul , which had also designed their own turret fighter, the Boulton Paul Defiant . On 23 December 1938, the prototype Roc performed its maiden flight . Testing soon revealed it to have
13685-527: Was designed that allowed for a set of floats from a Blackburn Shark to be fitted. These floats, which was largely composed of Alclad , were fitted with pneumatically -actuated water rudders that connected directly with the aircraft's conventional braking system; the tail wheel was also replaced by a mooring ring. During testing, the first conversion demonstrated direction instability and during December 1939, it crashed at Helensburgh Marine Aircraft Experimental Establishment where it had been transferred at
13804-420: Was no longer a handicap and one or two were used, depending on requirements. This in turn required the development of ejection seats so the pilot could escape, and G-suits to counter the much greater forces being applied to the pilot during maneuvers. In the 1950s, radar was fitted to day fighters, since due to ever increasing air-to-air weapon ranges, pilots could no longer see far enough ahead to prepare for
13923-485: Was originally intended for a fighter role with the U.S. Navy , but it was canceled. This blurring follows the use of fighters from their earliest days for "attack" or "strike" operations against ground targets by means of strafing or dropping small bombs and incendiaries. Versatile multi role fighter-bombers such as the McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet are a less expensive option than having
14042-508: Was pioneered before World War I by Breguet but would find its biggest proponent in Anthony Fokker, who used chrome-molybdenum steel tubing for the fuselage structure of all his fighter designs, while the innovative German engineer Hugo Junkers developed two all-metal, single-seat fighter monoplane designs with cantilever wings: the strictly experimental Junkers J 2 private-venture aircraft, made with steel, and some forty examples of
14161-418: Was relegated to air sea rescue and target-towing duties at various locations. The majority of aircraft were dispatched from the production line to second-line squadrons. No. 2 Anti-Aircraft Co-operation Unit at Gosport received 16 Rocs to replace its Blackburn Sharks during June 1940. The type was commonly deployed for air-sea rescue patrols, searching for the survivors of sunken ships and downed aircraft in
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