The breadbasket of a country or of a region is an area which, because of the richness of the soil and/or advantageous climate, produces large quantities of wheat or other grain. Rice bowl is a similar term used to refer to Southeast Asia; California's Salinas Valley is sometimes referred to as America's salad bowl . Such regions may be the subject of fierce political disputes, which may even escalate into full military conflicts.
158-406: Breadbaskets have become important within the global food system by concentrating global food-production in a small number of countries and, in countries such as India, in small geographic regions. As climate change increases weather variability around the world, the likelihood of multiple breadbaskets failing at a time increases dramatically . The 2022 food crises has been in part facilitated by
316-683: A Sub-Divisional Magistrate , and again into blocks. Blocks consists of panchayats (village councils) and town municipalities. The capital and largest city of the state is Kolkata —the third-largest urban agglomeration and the seventh-largest city in India. Asansol is the second-largest city and urban agglomeration in West Bengal. Major planned cities of West Bengal include Bidhannagar , New Town , Kalyani , Haldia , Durgapur and Kharagpur . Kolkata has some planned neighbourhoods like New Garia , Tollygunge , and Lake Town . Siliguri
474-651: A circular economy . In April 2020 , the EU's Scientific Advice Mechanism delivered to European Commissioners a Scientific Opinion on how to transition to a sustainable food system, informed by an evidence review report undertaken by European academies . In June 2023 , the Scientific Advice Mechanism delivered a second piece of advice, this time on the role of consumers in a sustainable food system, again based on an evidence review report by SAPEA . The main conclusion of this advice was: Until now,
632-692: A free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 ( license statement/permission ). Text taken from The State of Food and Agriculture 2021. Making agrifood systems more resilient to shocks and stresses, In brief , FAO, FAO. [REDACTED] This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 ( license statement/permission ). Text taken from Robust transport networks support agrifood systems' resilience , FAO, FAO. West Bengal West Bengal ( / b ɛ n ˈ ɡ ɔː l / ; Bengali : Poshchim Bongo , pronounced [ˈpoʃtʃim ˈbɔŋɡo] , abbr. WB )
790-655: A phytogeographic viewpoint, the southern part of West Bengal can be divided into two regions: the Gangetic plain and the littoral mangrove forests of the Sundarbans. The alluvial soil of the Gangetic plain, combined with favourable rainfall, makes this region especially fertile. Much of the vegetation of the western part of the state has similar species composition with the plants of the Chota Nagpur plateau in
948-410: A welfare state , West Bengal's economy is based on agricultural production and small and medium-sized enterprises . The state's cultural heritage, besides varied folk traditions, ranges from stalwarts in literature including Nobel-laureate Rabindranath Tagore to scores of musicians, film-makers and artists. For several decades, the state underwent political violence and economic stagnation after
1106-468: A Vanga kingdom prince, conquered Lanka (modern-day Sri Lanka) and named the country Sinhala kingdom . The kingdom of Magadha was formed in the 7th century BCE, consisting of the regions now comprising Bihar and Bengal. It was one of the four main kingdoms of India at the time of the lives of Mahavira , the principal figure of Jainism and Gautama Buddha , founder of Buddhism . It consisted of several janapadas , or kingdoms. Under Ashoka ,
1264-457: A desired quality. For farming cooperatives that share resources, the burden of investment is disbursed to all members rather than being concentrated in a single individual. A criticism of cooperatives is that reduced competition can reduce efficiency Alternative food systems refer to resilient foods or emergency foods, which can be defined as those foods, food production methods or interventions that would allow for significant food availability in
1422-637: A fair and just return for their work, continuity of income and decent working and living conditions through sustainable development" Like organic food systems, fair trade relies on transparency and the flow of information. Well-known examples of fair trade commodities are coffee and cocoa . Vertical farms , automation , solar energy production, novel alternatives to pesticides, online food delivery ICTs, and other technologies may allow for localization or modified food production alongside policies such as eco-tariffs, targeted subsidies and meat taxes. The IPCC Special Report on Climate Change and Land describes
1580-593: A good way to revitalize a community. The decreased distance of food transportation has also been promoted for its environmental benefits. Also, farmers can enjoy a better quality of life because producing healthier food will allow them to be paid more, and not live under the poverty line. Both proponents and critics of local food systems warn that they can lead to narrow inward-looking attitudes or 'local food patriotism', and that price premiums and local food cultures can be elitist and exclusive. In contrast, many food sovereignty activists argue that local production of food
1738-410: A greater reliance on local knowledge, creating a stronger knowledge community amongst farmers. The transparency of food information is vital for organic food systems as a means through which consumers are able to identify organic food. As a result, a variety of certification bodies have emerged in organic food systems that set the standards for organic identification. Organic agriculture is promoted for
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#17328018595031896-550: A leading voice on decisions where public governance authorities have become dependent on private sector funding. Lobbying influences trade agreements for food systems which led to creating barriers to competition and technical barriers to trade . Concerns around corporate governance within food systems as a substitute for regulation were raised by the Institute for Multi-Stakeholder Initiative Integrity. In April 2023, United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and
2054-414: A lesser extent, wine—are perhaps the valley's highest-profile product, but equally (if not more) important are cotton, nuts (especially almonds and pistachios), citrus, and vegetables. 70% of the world's and 100% of the U.S. supply of almonds comes from the valley. Oranges, peaches, garlic, tangerines, tomatoes, kiwis, hay, alfalfa and numerous other crops have been harvested with great success. According to
2212-430: A low of 10.3% in 2010–2011 to a high of 17.11% in 2013–2014. The growth rate was 13.35% in 2014–2015. The state's per capita income has lagged the all India average for over two decades. As of 2014–2015, per capita NSDP at current prices was Rs 78,903. Per-capita NSDP growth rate at current prices varied from 9.4% in 2010–2011 to a high of 16.15% in 2013–2014. The growth rate was 12.62% in 2014–2015. In 2015–2016,
2370-490: A major centre for the jute and tea industries. Years after independence, West Bengal is dependent on the central government for help in meeting its demands for food; food production remained stagnant, and the Indian green revolution bypassed the state. However, there has been a significant increase in food production since the 1980s and the state now has a surplus of grains. The state's share of total industrial output in India
2528-586: A major change when the Left Front won the 1977 assembly election, defeating the incumbent Indian National Congress. The Left Front, led by the Communist Party of India (Marxist) , governed the state for the next three decades. The state's economic recovery gathered momentum after the central government introduced economic liberalisations in the mid-1990s. This was aided by the advent of information technology and IT-enabled services . Beginning in
2686-618: A major role in the Indian independence movement , in which revolutionary groups such as Anushilan Samiti and Jugantar were dominant. Armed attempts against the British Raj from Bengal reached a climax when news of Subhas Chandra Bose leading the Indian National Army against the British reached Bengal. The Indian National Army was subsequently routed by the British. When India gained independence in 1947, Bengal
2844-399: A major wheat-producing region thanks to its dark soil called tirs and relatively abundant rainfall (avg. 400 mm/year). Northeast China (officially the three provinces of Heilongjiang , Jilin and Liaoning ), particularly the colder northern region, was once known as the "Great Northern Wilderness" (北大荒) due to its scarcity of population before mass migration of Han Chinese into
3002-407: A mix of incentives, information and binding policies governing all aspects of food production and distribution. Private sector corporations have been successful in building partnerships with governments which allows discussion and collaboration for how food systems work and are governed. Public–private partnerships and private sector led multistakeholder governance have positioned corporations as
3160-437: A more excellent balance between food price and the cost of producing it. It is mainly defined by more direct trading and communication systems whereby producers have greater control over the conditions of trade and garner a greater fraction of the sale price. The main goal of Fair Trade is to "change international commercial relations in such a way that disadvantaged producers can increase their control over their own future, have
3318-501: A much lower impact on increases in travel time and food costs than where food is transported further distances. Organic food systems are characterized by a reduced dependence on chemical inputs and an increased concern for transparency and information. Organic produce is grown without the chemical pesticides and fertilizers of industrial food systems, and livestock is reared without the use of antibiotics or growth hormones . The reduced inputs of organic agriculture can also lead to
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#17328018595033476-476: A natural fish nursery, supporting coastal fishes along the Bay of Bengal. Recognising its special conservation value, the Sundarbans area has been declared a Biosphere Reserve . West Bengal is governed through a parliamentary system of representative democracy , a feature the state shares with other Indian states. Universal suffrage is granted to residents. There are two branches of government. The legislature,
3634-411: A number of steel plants. Important manufacturing industries include: engineering products, electronics, electrical equipment, cables, steel, leather, textiles, jewellery, frigates, automobiles, railway coaches and wagons. The Durgapur centre has established several industries in the areas of tea, sugar, chemicals and fertilisers . Natural resources like tea and jute in nearby areas have made West Bengal
3792-412: A population density of 1,029 inhabitants per square kilometre (2,670/sq mi) making it the second-most densely populated state in India, after Bihar. The literacy rate is 77.08%, higher than the national rate of 74.04%. Data from 2010 to 2014 showed the life expectancy in the state was 70.2 years, higher than the national value of 67.9. The proportion of people living below the poverty line in 2013
3950-627: A population: growing, harvesting, processing, packaging , transporting , marketing , consumption, distribution , and disposal of food and food-related items. It also includes the inputs needed and outputs generated at each of these steps. Food systems fall within agri-food systems, which encompass the entire range of actors and their interlinked value-adding activities in the primary production of food and non-food agricultural products, as well as in food storage, aggregation, post-harvest handling, transportation, processing, distribution, marketing, disposal, and consumption. A food system operates within and
4108-544: A semi-independent state under the Nawabs of Bengal , and showed signs of the world's first Industrial Revolution . The Koch dynasty in northern Bengal flourished during the 16th and 17th centuries; it weathered the Mughals and survived until the advent of the British colonial era. Several European traders reached this area in the late 15th century. The British East India Company defeated Siraj ud-Daulah ,
4266-465: A series of failures in key breadbasket regions, and the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine has created significant potential disruption of the respective breadbasket regions that are important for global wheat and oil seed production. Sicily and the province of Africa were considered the breadbaskets of the Roman Republic . Later, in the imperial era, Hispania (and specifically, Baetica )
4424-407: A share of the harvest, is a relatively new trend, at the extreme end of direct local food production. An FAO study on food transport networks of 90 countries finds that where food is transported more locally and where the network is denser – such as in high-income countries and densely populated countries like China, India, Nigeria and Pakistan –, systematic disturbances (i.e., adverse events), have
4582-399: A social justice issue. This has given rise to numerous social movements whose goal is to increase access to healthy and culturally appropriate foods, among a wide variety of groups. These movements are often described as belonging to a more significant food justice movement. Scientists estimated the extensive pesticide pollution risks worldwide with a new environmental model and found that
4740-455: A third of global agricultural land is at high risk for such pollution, of which a third are high-biodiversity regions. Recent studies aimed at measuring and valuing the hidden costs of agrifood systems have used True Cost Accounting (TCA), an accounting approach that measures and values the hidden impacts of economic activities on the environment , society and health . These impacts are regarded as hidden because they are not reflected in
4898-520: A varied: food processing began when the number of consumers started proliferating. The demand for cheap and efficient calories climbed, resulting in nutrition decline; and industrialized agriculture, due to its reliance on economies of scale to reduce production costs, often leads to the compromising of local, regional, or even global ecosystems through fertilizer runoff, nonpoint source pollution, and greenhouse gas emission . The need to reduce production costs in an increasingly global market can cause
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5056-476: A violent Marxist – Maoist movement by groups known as the Naxalites damaged much of the city's infrastructure, leading to a period of economic stagnation and deindustrialisation . The Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971 resulted in an influx of millions of refugees to West Bengal, causing significant strains on its infrastructure. The 1974 smallpox epidemic killed thousands. West Bengal politics underwent
5214-535: A wide availability of relevant data. However, the hidden impacts related to human and social capitals might be more difficult to find. Examples include impacts on working conditions (human capital) and cultural identity (social capital). In 2019, a study by the World Bank estimated the hidden costs of foodborne diseases (from unsafe food) in low and middle-income countries and found these to amount to USD 95.2 billion. Three other studies have attempted to estimate
5372-469: Is a state in the eastern portion of India . It is situated along the Bay of Bengal , along with a population of over 91 million inhabitants within an area of 88,752 km (34,267 sq mi) as of 2011. The population estimate as of 2023 is 102,552,787. West Bengal is the fourth-most populous and thirteenth-largest state by area in India, as well as the eighth-most populous country subdivision of
5530-541: Is a net importer of foodstuffs from the Western World. Since subsistence agriculture was the dominant economic system in most of Morocco's history, it's difficult to speak of a breadbasket region. All regions produced their own wheat and barley to feed themselves and their livestock. With the European commercial penetration in the second half of the 19th century, Morocco started to export wheat to Europe despite
5688-599: Is a part of the eastern Himalayas mountain range. In this region is Sandakfu , which, at 3,636 m (11,929 ft), is the highest peak in the state. The narrow Terai region separates the hills from the North Bengal plains , which in turn transitions into the Ganges delta towards the south. The Rarh region intervenes between the Ganges delta in the east and the western plateau and high lands . A small coastal region
5846-482: Is also important in identifying foods that possess extrinsic qualities that do not affect the nature of the food per se, but affect its production, such as animal welfare , social justice issues, and environmental concerns. One of the primary ways transparency is achieved is through certification and/or the use of food labels. In the United States, some certification originates in the public sector, such as
6004-508: Is also related to local food production. Food sovereignty activists argue that local communities should not only have access to nutritious and culturally appropriate foods, but that those communities should also be able to define the means by which their food is produced. Various forms of urban agriculture locate food production in densely populated areas not traditionally associated with farming. Garden sharing , where urban and suburban homeowners offer land access to food growers in exchange for
6162-411: Is also the top global exporter of soybeans , sugarcane , orange juice , coffee , poultry , beef , maize , and the second biggest exporter of pork and cotton . The country also has a significant presence as producer and exporter of rice , wheat , eggs , cocoa , beans , nuts , and diverse fruits and vegetables. During the 19th and 20th centuries, Argentina was known as the breadbasket of
6320-593: Is an economically important city, strategically located in the northeastern Siliguri Corridor (Chicken's Neck) of India. Other larger cities and towns in West Bengal are Howrah , Chandannagar , Bardhaman, Baharampur , Jalpaiguri , and Purulia etc. (figures in crores of Indian rupees ) As of 2015 , West Bengal has the sixth-highest GSDP in India. GSDP at current prices (base 2004–2005) has increased from Rs 2,086.56 billion in 2004–05 to Rs 8,00,868 crores in 2014–2015, reaching Rs 10,21,000 crores in 2017–18. GSDP per cent growth at current prices varied from
6478-551: Is an important component of addressing the causes of climate change and adapting to it . A 2020 review conducted for the European Union found that up to 37% of global greenhouse gas emissions could be attributed to the food system, including crop and livestock production, transportation, changing land use (including deforestation), and food loss and waste. Reduction of meat production, which accounts for ~60% of greenhouse gas emissions and ~75% of agriculturally used land ,
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6636-587: Is called for to address this challenge. In January 2020 , the EU put improvements to the food system at the core of the European Green Deal . The European Commission 's 'Farm to Fork strategy for a sustainable food system' was published in May 2020 , which laid out how European countries will reduce greenhouse gas emissions, protect biodiversity, reduce food waste and chemical pesticide use, and contribute to
6794-529: Is dictated by elevation and precipitation . For example, the foothills of the Himalayas, the Dooars , are densely wooded with sal and other tropical evergreen trees. Above an elevation of 1,000 metres (3,300 ft), the forest becomes predominantly subtropical. In Darjeeling, which is above 1,500 metres (4,900 ft), temperate forest trees like oaks , conifers and rhododendrons predominate. 3.26% of
6952-414: Is essential to achieving food security, especially among indigenous communities, and thus are crucial to the public health of those communities. Examples of local food systems include community-supported agriculture , farmers markets and farm to school programs. They have been associated with the 100 Mile Diet and Low Carbon Diet , as well as the slow food movement . The food sovereignty movement
7110-642: Is in the extreme south, while the Sundarbans mangrove forests form a geographical landmark at the Ganges delta. The main river in West Bengal is the Ganges , which divides into two branches. One branch enters Bangladesh as the Padma , or Pôdda , while the other flows through West Bengal as the Bhagirathi River and Hooghly River . The Farakka barrage over the Ganges feeds the Hooghly branch of
7268-470: Is influenced by social, political, economic, technological and environmental contexts. It also requires human resources that provide labor, research and education. Food systems are either conventional or alternative according to their model of food lifespan from origin to plate. Food systems are dependent on a multitude of ecosystem services . For example, natural pest regulations, microorganisms providing nitrogen-fixation, and pollinators. According to
7426-611: Is much less research devoted to sustainability labelling in comparison to nutritional labelling. To conclude, shaping the information environment through labelling is necessary but not sufficient to advance healthy and sustainable diets". [REDACTED] This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 ( license statement/permission ). Text taken from The State of Food and Agriculture 2019. Moving forward on food loss and waste reduction, In brief , 24, FAO, FAO. [REDACTED] This article incorporates text from
7584-518: Is often considered the country's breadbasket due to its wheat, sunflower, and maize fields. The Overberg region in the Western Cape is also known as the breadbasket of South Africa due to its large wheat fields, as well as fruit growing. Zimbabwe , formerly known as Rhodesia , was known as the breadbasket of Africa until 2000, exporting wheat, tobacco, and maize to the wider world, especially to other African nations. However today, Zimbabwe ,
7742-476: Is often described in terms of food security . The 1996 World Food Summit defined food security as a state in which "all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life. " Many groups argue that food security is largely determined by a given person's socioeconomic status, race, ethnicity, or other socially defined categories, making food access
7900-1014: Is often referred to as the Breadbasket of the Pacific Northwest, due to its high production of cereal wheat and lentils. [1] During the Civil War , the Shenandoah Valley was known as the Breadbasket of the Confederacy. Additionally, the San Joaquin Valley in California has also been called the breadbasket of the world. The San Joaquin Valley produces the majority of the 12.8% of the United States' agricultural production (as measured by dollar value) that comes from California. Grapes—table, raisin, and, to
8058-681: Is one major component of this change. The global food system is facing major interconnected challenges, including mitigating food insecurity , effects from climate change , biodiversity loss , malnutrition , inequity, soil degradation , pest outbreaks , water and energy scarcity, economic and political crises, natural resource depletion , and preventable ill-health. Local food systems are networks of food production and consumption that aim to be geographically and economically accessible and direct. They contrast to industrial food systems by operating with reduced food transportation and more direct marketing , leading to fewer people between
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#17328018595038216-517: Is the state's principal food crop. Rice, potato, jute , sugarcane and wheat are the state's top five crops. Tea is produced commercially in northern districts; the region is well known for Darjeeling and other high-quality teas. State industries are localised in the Kolkata region, the mineral-rich western highlands, and the Haldia Port region. The Durgapur-Asansol colliery belt is home to
8374-540: Is why they are regarded as the most valuable winery in Spain (...) In the kingdoms of Granada and Seville the vines are quite abundant (...) The olive harvest is so rich as prodigious in the four kingdoms of Andalusia .» In irrigated lands, the orchards of Valencia and Murcia also stand out, since it has always been said that in Spain there were only two orchards, that of Valencia and that of Murcia . The autonomous community of Castile and León has also been considered
8532-620: The Dunedin being the first ship to complete a truly successful transport of refrigerated meat. She was refitted with a refrigeration machine with which she took the first load of frozen meat from New Zealand to the United Kingdom. Food system The term food system describes the interconnected systems and processes that influence nutrition , food , health , community development , and agriculture . A food system includes all processes and infrastructure involved in feeding
8690-501: The 26th-highest ranking among Indian states in human development index , with the index value being lower than the Indian average. The state government debt of ₹ 6.47 lakh crore (US$ 78 billion), or 37.67% of GSDP, has dropped from 40.65% since 2010–11. West Bengal has three World Heritage sites and ranks as the eight-most visited tourist destination in India and third-most visited state of India globally. The origin of
8848-631: The Bengal Legislative Council and the Bengal Legislative Assembly voted on the Partition of Bengal in 1947 along religious lines into two independent dominions : West Bengal, a Hindu-majority Indian state, and East Bengal , a Muslim-majority province of Pakistan which later became the independent Bangladesh. The state was also flooded with Hindu refugees from East Bengal (present-day Bangladesh) in
9006-693: The British Crown , administered by the Viceroy of India . The Bengal Renaissance and the Brahmo Samaj socio-cultural reform movements significantly influenced the cultural and economic life of Bengal. Between 1905 and 1911 an abortive attempt was made to divide the province of Bengal into two zones. Bengal suffered from the Great Bengal famine in 1943, which claimed three million lives during World War II. Bengalis played
9164-830: The Chief Minister although the titular head of government is the Governor . The Governor is the Head of State appointed by the President of India . The leader of the party or coalition with a majority in the Legislative Assembly is appointed as the Chief Minister by the Governor. The Council of Ministers is appointed by the Governor on the advice of the Chief Minister. The Council of Ministers reports to
9322-479: The European Union 's Scientific Advice Mechanism found that, without significant change, emissions would increase by 30–40% by 2050 due to population growth and changing consumption patterns, and concluded that "the combined environmental cost of food production is estimated to amount to some $ 12 trillion per year, increasing to $ 16 trillion by 2050". Another 2020 study concluded that reducing emissions from
9480-583: The Ganges delta , the Rarh region , the coastal Sundarbans and the Bay of Bengal . The state's main ethnic group are the Bengalis , with the Bengali Hindus forming the demographic majority. The area's early history featured a succession of Indian empires , internal squabbling, and a tussle between Hinduism and Buddhism for dominance. Ancient Bengal was the site of several major Janapadas , while
9638-535: The Global Food Safety Initiative (GFSI) announced a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) to improve food safety and sustainable food systems in Africa. Transparency within food systems refers to the full disclosure of information about rules, procedures, and practices at all levels within a food production and supply chain . Transparency ensures that consumers have detailed information about
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#17328018595039796-676: The Government of West Bengal proposed a change in the official name of the state to Paschim Banga ( Bengali : পশ্চিমবঙ্গ Pôshchimbônggô ). This is the native name of the state, literally meaning "western Bengal" in the native Bengali language. In August 2016 the West Bengal Legislative Assembly passed another resolution to change the name of West Bengal to "Bengal" in English and "Bangla" in Bengali. Despite
9954-471: The IPCC , the global food system , including all of the various industries involved in sustainable and conventional food systems, provide employment for 1 billion people. This global food system is facing a number of challenges created by impeding global food security issues created by climate change and non-climate change stresses on the system. About 34% of total greenhouse gas emissions are attributable to
10112-979: The Lok Sabha and 16 seats to the Rajya Sabha of the Indian Parliament . Politics in West Bengal is dominated by the All India Trinamool Congress (AITC), Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), Indian National Congress (INC), and the Left Front alliance (led by the Communist Party of India (Marxist) or CPI(M)). Following the West Bengal State Assembly Election in 2011 , the All India Trinamool Congress and Indian National Congress coalition under Mamata Banerjee of
10270-665: The Maurya Empire of Magadha in the 3rd century BCE extended over nearly all of South Asia , including Afghanistan and parts of Balochistan . From the 3rd to the 6th centuries CE, the kingdom of Magadha served as the seat of the Gupta Empire . Two kingdoms—Vanga or Samatata, and Gauda—are said in some texts to have appeared after the end of the Gupta Empire although details of their ascendancy are uncertain. The first recorded independent king of Bengal
10428-572: The Nawabs of Murshidabad , who nominally respected the sovereignty of the Mughals in Delhi . Several independent Hindu states were established in Bengal during the Mughal period, including those of Pratapaditya of Jessore District and Raja Sitaram Ray of Bardhaman . Following the death of Emperor Aurangzeb and the Governor of Bengal, Shaista Khan , the proto-industrialised Mughal Bengal became
10586-603: The Scientific Advice Mechanism to the European Commission concluded that "Evidence generally supports a moderate impact of nutrition labelling on (un)healthy consumption in different contexts (retail, out-of-home). Sustainability-oriented labels tend to reach those who are already motivated and interested, and they strongly depend on the trustworthiness of labels, given that sustainability cannot be directly observed by consumers. However, there
10744-685: The Suhma kingdom . One of the earliest foreign references to Bengal is a mention by the Ancient Greeks around 100 BCE of a land named Gangaridai located at the mouths of the Ganges . Bengal had overseas trade relations with Suvarnabhumi (Burma, Lower Thailand, the Lower Malay Peninsula and Sumatra ). According to the Sri Lankan chronicle Mahavamsa , Prince Vijaya ( c. 543 – c. 505 BCE ),
10902-648: The Trinamool Congress government's efforts to forge a consensus on the name change resolution, the Indian National Congress , the Left Front and the Bharatiya Janata Party opposed the resolution. However, the central government has turned down the proposal maintaining the state should have one single name for all languages instead of three and it should not be the same as that of any other territory (pointing out that
11060-529: The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Organic label. Others have their origin in private sector certification (e.g., Humanely Raised, Certified Humane). Some labels do not rely on certification, such as the USDA's Country of Origin Label (COOL). Participation in local food systems such as Community Supported Agriculture (CSA), Farmers Markets, food cooperatives, and farmer cooperatives also enhances transparency. Diverse program are promoting purchase of locally grown and marketed foods. In June 2023 ,
11218-470: The West Bengal Surface Transport Corporation and the Calcutta Tramways Company . There are also private bus companies. The railway system is a nationalised service without any private investment. Hired forms of transport include metered taxis and auto rickshaws , which often ply specific routes in cities. In most of the state, cycle rickshaws and in Kolkata, hand-pulled rickshaws and electric rickshaws are used for short-distance travel. According to
11376-471: The environmental impacts of agriculture , such as land use impacts , and reducing food prices or preventing shortages . International policy has increasingly approached policy from a food systems perspective: Sustainable Development Goal 2: Zero Hunger and Sustainable Development Goal 12 : "responsible consumption and production" focus on sustainable food systems and Sustainable and in September 2021
11534-420: The 1970s, the state has managed to revive its economy steadily throughout the years. The state has shown improvement regarding bandhs ( strikes ) and educational infrastructure. Significant strides have been made in reducing unemployment, though the state suffers from substandard healthcare services, a lack of socio-economic development, poor infrastructure, unemployment and civil violence. In 2006
11692-590: The 19th century, access to the Californian and Australian markets made wheat export a very lucrative activity, leading to the Chilean wheat cycle . In the mid-19th century, those countries experienced large gold rushes , which created a large demand for wheat. Chile was at the time the "only wheat producer of some importance in the Pacific". The Murray-Darling Basin is seen as Australia 's breadbasket, being
11850-411: The 2002 Census of Agriculture's ranking of market value of agricultural products sold, nine of the nation's top 10, and 12 of the top 20, producing counties are in California. Brazil is the second biggest grain exporter in the world, with 19% of the international market share, and the fourth grain producer country (rice, barley, soybeans, corn and wheat) behind the United States, China and India. Brazil
12008-476: The All India Trinamool Congress was elected to power with 225 seats in the legislature. Prior to this, West Bengal was ruled by the Left Front for 34 years (1977–2011), making it the world's longest-running democratically elected communist government. Banerjee was re-elected twice as Chief Minister in the 2016 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election and 2021 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election with 211 and 215 seats respectively, an absolute majority by
12166-567: The Bay of Bengal. In early summer, brief squalls and thunderstorms known as Kalbaisakhi , or Nor'westers, often occur. West Bengal receives the Bay of Bengal branch of the Indian Ocean monsoon that moves in a southeast to northwest direction. Monsoons bring rain to the whole state from June to September. Heavy rainfall of above 250 centimetres (98 in) is observed in the Darjeeling , Jalpaiguri , and Cooch Behar district . During
12324-516: The Legislative Assembly. The Assembly is unicameral with 295 members , or MLAs, including one nominated from the Anglo-Indian community. Terms of office run for five years unless the Assembly is dissolved before the completion of the term. Auxiliary authorities known as panchayats , for which local body elections are regularly held, govern local affairs. The state contributes 42 seats to
12482-482: The Northeast into the "Great Northern Granary" (北大仓) that produce many times the crop yields needed for local consumption. West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh along with Telangana are said to be the "rice bowl" of India. The island of Mindanao is known as the country's food basket . With the well-deserved nickname of the granero de España , the accession of the great Andalusian valley meant
12640-745: The Trinamool Congress. The state has one autonomous region, the Gorkhaland Territorial Administration . As of 1 November 2023, West Bengal is divided into 23 districts . Each district is governed by a district collector or district magistrate, appointed by either the Indian Administrative Service or the West Bengal Civil Service . Each district is subdivided into sub-divisions, governed by
12798-643: The United Nations hosted the first Food Systems Summit . Conventional food systems operate on economies of scale . These food systems are geared towards a production model that requires maximizing efficiency in order to lower consumer costs and increase overall production, and they utilize economic models such as vertical integration , economic specialization , and global trade . The growing soil quality degradation, climate change, and growing world population put pressure on agricultural land, leading to innovations to increase agricultural productivity on
12956-752: The West Bengal Legislative Assembly, consists of elected members and special office bearers such as the Speaker and Deputy Speaker, who are elected by the members. Assembly meetings are presided over by the Speaker or the Deputy Speaker in the Speaker's absence. The judiciary is composed of the Calcutta High Court and a system of lower courts. Executive authority is vested in the Council of Ministers headed by
13114-555: The academic literature. In September 2019 , the EU 's Chief Scientific Advisors stated that adapting the European food system for the future should be a high priority for the EU: Although availability of food is not perceived as an immediate, major concern in Europe, the challenge to ensure a long-term, safe, nutritious and affordable supply of food, from both land and the oceans, remains. A portfolio of coordinated strategies
13272-475: The adjoining state of Jharkhand. The predominant commercial tree species is Shorea robusta , commonly known as the sal tree . The coastal region of Purba Medinipur exhibits coastal vegetation; the predominant tree is the Casuarina . A notable tree from the Sundarbans is the ubiquitous sundari ( Heritiera fomes ), from which the forest gets its name. The distribution of vegetation in northern West Bengal
13430-441: The advent of industrial agriculture and the infrastructure built around conventional food systems has enabled the world population to expand beyond the " Malthusian catastrophe " limitations. According to the IPCC , food supply per capita has increased by more than 30% since 1961. However, conventional food systems are largely based on the availability of inexpensive fossil fuels , which is necessary for mechanized agriculture ,
13588-497: The arrival of the monsoons, low pressure in the Bay of Bengal region often leads to the formation of storms in the coastal areas . Winter (December–January) is mild over the plains with average minimum temperatures of 15 °C (59 °F). A cold and dry northern wind blows in the winter, substantially lowering the humidity level. The Darjeeling Himalayan Hill region experiences a harsh winter, with occasional snowfall. The "India State of Forest Report 2017", recorded forest area in
13746-420: The assurance of cereal supplies, especially wheat, but also olive trees, vineyards, orange trees, sugar cane, etc. to which corn, strawberries, lemons, rice, etc. would later be added. In 1826, Alexandre de Laborde comments: «Andalusia is so abundant in wheat that it is rightly called "the breadbasket of Spain," in terms of harvesting twice as much as its consumption. Andalusia produces many exquisite wines, which
13904-552: The beginning of communist rule in 1977 before it rebounded. In 2023–24, the economy of West Bengal is the sixth-largest state economy in India with a gross state domestic product (GSDP) of ₹ 17.19 lakh crore (US$ 210 billion), and has the country's 20th-highest GSDP per capita of ₹ 121,267 (US$ 1,500) as of 2020–21. Despite being one of the fastest-growing major economies, West Bengal has struggled to attract foreign direct investment due to adverse land acquisition policies, poor infrastructure , and red tape . It also has
14062-480: The breadbasket of Spain, since large quantities of cereals are grown on its lands, mainly in addition to vineyards and legumes. Almería, with its sea of plastic , is considered the “garden of Europe”. In Canada, a major grain-growing area is called the Canadian prairies . Sometimes the province of Saskatchewan , also known for producing a huge supplement of potash , is further singled out from within this region as
14220-749: The calories to support the global population even without agriculture. According to the book Feeding Everyone No Matter What and peer-reviewed study paths to a full solution include: global-scale conversion including natural gas-digesting bacteria ( single cell protein ), extracting food from leaves , and conversion of fiber by enzymes , mushroom or bacteria growth, or a two-step process involving partial decomposition of fiber by fungi and/or bacteria and feeding them to animals such as beetles , ruminants (cattle, sheep, etc.), rats and chickens . Most alternative food work covers carbohydrates and protein, but there are also ways to make synthetic fat Indeed, because fats are generally achiral (see chirality ),
14378-603: The conquests of Alexander the Great , the Crusades , the expansion of Islam , the journeys of Marco Polo , and the exploration and colonization of the Americas by Europeans led to the introduction and redistribution of new foods to the world at large, and food systems began to intermingle on a global scale. After World War II , the advent of industrialized agriculture and more robust global trade mechanisms have evolved into
14536-590: The country. The economy of West Bengal has witnessed many surprising changes in direction. The agricultural sector in particular rose to 8.33% in 2010–11 before tumbling to −4.01% in 2012–13. Many major industries such as the Uttarpara Hindustan Motors car manufacturing unit, the jute industry, and the Haldia Petrochemicals unit experienced shutdowns in 2014. In the same year, plans for a 300 billion Jindal Steel project
14694-483: The current global food system as potentially having major food security risks due to changes created by climate change, including changing local weather conditions, socioeconomic effects of climate change, vulnerability of certain types of agriculture (such as pastoral) and changes in diets due to availability. The food system is one of the largest sources of greenhouse gas emissions, attributable for between 21 and 37% of global emissions. In 2020, an evidence review for
14852-603: The decades following the 1947 partition of India , transforming its landscape and shaping its politics. The early and prolonged exposure to British administration resulted in an expansion of Western education , culminating in developments in science, institutional education, and social reforms in the region, including what became known as the Bengali Renaissance . Several regional and pan−Indian empires throughout Bengal's history have shaped its culture , cuisine , and architecture . Post-Indian independence, as
15010-410: The development of sustainable agricultural practices, development of more sustainable food distribution systems, creation of sustainable diets , and reduction of food waste throughout the system. Sustainable food systems have been argued to be central to many or all 17 Sustainable Development Goals . Moving to sustainable food systems, including via shifting consumption to sustainable diets ,
15168-475: The districts of: Nadia, North 24 Parganas, Hooghly, Bardhaman and East Medinipur are ODF zones, with Nadia becoming the first ODF district in the state in April 2015. A study conducted in three districts of West Bengal found that accessing private health services to treat illness had a catastrophic impact on households. This indicates the importance of the public provision of health services to mitigate poverty and
15326-853: The earliest cities date back to the Vedic period . The region was part of several ancient pan−Indian empires, including the Vangas , Mauryans , and the Guptas . The citadel of Gauḍa served as the capital of the Gauda kingdom , the Pala Empire , and the Sena Empire . Islam was introduced through trade with the Abbasid Caliphate , but following the Ghurid conquests led by Bakhtiyar Khalji and
15484-571: The ecological benefits of reduced chemical application, the health benefits of lower chemical consumption, the economic benefits that accrue to farmers through a price premium, and the social benefits of increased transparency in the food system. Organic food systems have been criticized for being elitist and inaccessible like local food systems. Critics have also suggested that organic agriculture has been conventionalized such that it mimics industrial food systems using pesticides and fertilizers that are organically derived Cooperatives can exist both at
15642-411: The end of British rule over the Indian subcontinent the Bengal Legislative Council and the Bengal Legislative Assembly voted on the Partition of Bengal along religious lines into two separate entities: West Bengal, which continued as an Indian state and East Bengal , a province of Pakistan , which came to be known be as East Pakistan and later became the independent Bangladesh . In 2011
15800-597: The entire Bengal region. Mosques , madrasas and khanqahs were built throughout these stages. During the Islamic Bengal Sultanate , founded in 1352, Bengal was a major world trading nation and was often referred by the Europeans as the richest country with which to trade. Later, in 1576, it was absorbed into the Mughal Empire . Subsequent Muslim conquests helped spread Islam throughout
15958-624: The establishment of the Delhi Sultanate , the Muslim faith spread across the entire Bengal region. During the Bengal Sultanate , the territory was a major trading nation in the world, and was often referred by the Europeans as the "richest country to trade with". It was absorbed into the Mughal Empire in 1576. Simultaneously, some parts of the region were ruled by several Hindu states , and Baro-Bhuyan landlords, and part of it
16116-487: The face of a global catastrophic food shock (GCFS). Such alternatives may also help to decouple food production and land use, thereby avoiding the greenhouse gas emissions and habitat loss associated with agriculture. An expected 345.2 million people projected to be food insecure in 2023 – more than double the number in 2020, but a global catastrophe such as nuclear winter could threaten billions with mass starvation. Several studies have argued resilient food could provide
16274-437: The farmer and the consumer. As a result, relationships that are developed in local food systems emerge from face-to-face interactions, potentially leading to a stronger sense of trust and social connectedness between actors. In addition to this, consumers can also encourage farmers to be environmentally friendly by teaching them about practices such as organic farming. As a result, some scholars suggest that local food systems are
16432-410: The farmer end of food production and the consumer end. Farming cooperatives refer to arrangements where farmers pool resources, either to cultivate their crops or get their crops to market. Consumer cooperatives often refer to food cooperatives where members buy a share in the store. Cooperative grocery stores, unlike corporate grocery stores, are socially owned, and thus surpluses cannot be taken from
16590-424: The geographical area of West Bengal is protected land, comprising fifteen wildlife sanctuaries and five national parks— Sundarbans National Park , Buxa Tiger Reserve , Gorumara National Park , Neora Valley National Park and Singalila National Park . Extant wildlife includes Indian rhinoceros , Indian elephant , deer, leopard , gaur , tiger and crocodiles , as well as many bird species. Migratory birds come to
16748-541: The global food system to be essential for achieving the Paris Agreement 's climate goals . The IPCC 's and the EU 's reports concluded that adapting the food system to reduce greenhouse gas emissions impacts and food security concerns, while shifting towards a sustainable diet , is feasible . The European Union 's Scientific Advice Mechanism has published a systematic review of all European policies related to sustainable food systems, and their analyses in
16906-426: The global food system. In 2020 an EU evidence review found that food system gas emissions are on course to increase by 30–40% by 2050 due to population growth and dietary change. It is crucial to build the resilience of agrifood systems so that they have the capacity over time, in the face of any disruption, to sustainably ensure availability of and access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food for all, and sustain
17064-556: The hidden costs of global agrifood systems. FOLU (2019) estimated them at USD 12 trillion, while Hendricks et al (2023) estimated them at USD 19 trillion. However, the latter, acknowledges the uncertainly in the estimate and concludes that the value would be between USD 7.2 trillion and USD 51.8 trillion. The third estimate in the 2023 edition of the FAO report: The State of Food and Agriculture estimates global hidden costs from agrifood systems to be USD 12.7 trillion. This study also acknowledges
17222-619: The last independent Nawab, in the Battle of Plassey in 1757. The company gained the right to collect revenue in Bengal subah (province) in 1765 with the signing of the treaty between the East India company and the Mughal emperor following the Battle of Buxar in 1764. The Bengal Presidency was established in 1765; it later incorporated all British-controlled territory north of the Central Provinces (now Madhya Pradesh ), from
17380-562: The limited available land and urban space. Though conventional farming practices have increased crop yield through the use of climate-smart agriculture (CSA) , smallholder farming systems and limited knowledge of CSA remain constraints for enjoying economies of scale and sustainable crop production and food security. The term "conventional" when describing food systems is largely due to comparisons made to it by proponents of other food systems, collectively known as alternative food systems . The development of food systems can be traced back to
17538-423: The livelihoods of agrifood systems' actors. Transitioning to sustainable food systems is critical for addressing global challenges such as climate change , hunger , biodiversity loss , and deforestation . Addressing issues at each stage in the system, can have system-wide effects for 30-40 percent of food produced is lost from post-harvest up to retail and the consumer. Reducing food waste then reduces
17696-408: The loss of traditional food systems in less developed countries , and have negative impacts on the population health , ecosystems, and cultures in those countries. As a result of these forces, 2018 estimates suggest that 821 million people are currently undernourished, and 2 billion adults are overweight and obese. The issue of having minimal access to food, or access to primarily unhealthy food,
17854-661: The main breadbasket of Canada. In the United States, an important region is the Corn Belt , where maize and soybeans are major crops, which generally extends from the Great Lakes south through Missouri . Further to the west in both the United States and Canada, east of the Rocky Mountains , is the Wheat Belt , where the climate is too severe for maize or soybeans. The Palouse region of Eastern Washington state
18012-458: The main policy focus in the EU has been on providing consumers with more information. But this is not enough. People choose food not just through rational reflection, but also based on many other factors: food availability, habits and routines, emotional and impulsive reactions, and their financial and social situation. So we should consider ways to unburden the consumer and make sustainable, healthy food an easy and affordable choice. That will require
18170-403: The major dimensions (i.e. environmental, health and social) of agrifood system hidden costs, allowing not only comparison across countries, but also across the different dimensions. A sustainable food system is a type of food system that provides healthy food to people and creates sustainable environmental, economic, and social systems that surround food. Sustainable food systems start with
18328-409: The manufacture or collection of chemical fertilizers , the processing of food products, and the packaging of the foods. The increase in the availability of food since 1961 has primarily been driven by an 800% increase in the use of nitrogen fertilizers (which are fossil fuel dependent) and high water usage (an increase of over 100% since 1961). The impacts of these intense resource processes are many
18486-461: The market prices of products and services, i.e. not included in the operational profit and loss accounts. The scope of these studies differs depending on the research question being addressed, the geographical coverage and the hidden impacts to be included in the analysis. There are many hidden impacts and some are difficult to measure or quantify. For example, environmental externalities such GHG emissions are easy to include in any TCA analysis due to
18644-449: The may be synthesized without biological processes at high temperatures and pressures, the greater efficiency of which may make them more cost-effective than other synthetic macronutrients. By mixing many alternative foods micro- nutrient balance is possible. Substantially more research is needed in this area to realize resilient food systems for the globe and even wealthy nations. Fair trade has emerged in global food systems to create
18802-400: The mid-2000s, armed activists conducted minor terrorist attacks in some parts of the state. Clashes with the administration took place at several controversial locations over the issue of industrial land acquisition. This became a decisive reason behind the defeat of the ruling Left Front government in the 2011 assembly election. Although the economy was severely damaged during the unrest in
18960-400: The models of food production , presentation, delivery, and disposal that characterize conventional food systems today. The development of conventional food systems is directly responsible for decreased food prices and increased food variety. Agronomic efficiency is driven by the necessity to constantly lower production expenses, and those savings can then be passed on to the consumer. Also,
19118-583: The mouths of the Ganges and the Brahmaputra to the Himalayas and the Punjab . The Bengal famine of 1770 claimed millions of lives due to tax policies enacted by the British company. Calcutta, the headquarters of the East India company, was named the capital of British-held territories in India in 1773. The failed Indian rebellion of 1857 started near Calcutta and resulted in a transfer of authority to
19276-474: The name Bengal ( Bangla and Bongo in Bengali ) is unknown. One theory suggests the word derives from "Bang", the name of a Dravidian tribe that settled the region around 1000 BCE. The Bengali word Bongo might have been derived from the ancient kingdom of Vanga (or Banga ). Although some early Sanskrit literature mentions the name Vanga , the region's early history is obscure. In 1947, at
19434-472: The name 'Bangla' may create confusion with neighbouring Bangladesh ). Stone Age tools dating back 20,000 years have been excavated in the state, showing human occupation 8,000 years earlier than scholars had thought. According to the Indian epic Mahabharata the region was part of the Vanga kingdom. Several Vedic realms were present in the Bengal region, including Vanga , Rarh , Pundravardhana and
19592-602: The national average of 74.7 km/km (120.2 mi/sq mi). As of 2011, the total railway route length was around 4,481 km (2,784 mi). Kolkata is the headquarters of three zones of the Indian Railways — Eastern Railway and South Eastern Railway and the Kolkata Metro, which is the newly formed 17th zone of the Indian Railways. The Northeast Frontier Railway (NFR) serves
19750-512: The northern parts of the state. The Kolkata metro is the country's first underground railway. The Darjeeling Himalayan Railway , part of NFR, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site . Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose International Airport at Dum Dum , Kolkata, is the state's largest airport. Bagdogra Airport near Siliguri is a customs airport that offers international service to Bhutan and Thailand, besides regular domestic service. Kazi Nazrul Islam Airport , India's first private sector airport, serves
19908-623: The objection of the ulama (religious establishment). The Chaouia and Doukkala plains became the most important suppliers of wheat for export. This is logical given their proximity to the coast. The ports of Casablanca and Feddala, today's Mohammedia , serviced the Chaouia Plain while the port of Mazagan serviced Doukkala. After Morocco's independence, agriculture in Doukkala became geared toward irrigation so less area has been devoted to wheat, whereas Chaouia maintained its status as
20066-479: The offing to revive the economy. West Bengal has been able to attract 2% of the foreign direct investment in the last decade. As of 2011, the total length of surface roads in West Bengal was over 92,023 kilometres (57,180 miles); national highways comprise 2,578 km (1,602 mi) and state highways 2,393 km (1,487 mi). As of 2006, the road density of the state was 103.69 kilometres per square kilometre (166.87 miles per square mile), higher than
20224-630: The origins of in-situ agriculture and the production of food surpluses. These surpluses enabled the development of settled areas and contributed to the development of ancient civilizations, particularly those in the Fertile Crescent . The system of trade associated with the exchange of foodstuffs also emerged in East Asia, North America, South America, and Subsaharan Africa with common commodities of exchange such as salt , spices , fish , grains , etc. Through events in world history such as
20382-412: The percentage share of Gross Value Added (GVA) at factor cost by economic activity at the constant price (the base year 2011–2012) was Agriculture-Forestry and Fishery—4.84%, Industry 18.51% and Services 66.65%. It has been observed that there has been a slow but steady decline in the percentage share of industry and agriculture over the years. Agriculture is the leading economic sector in West Bengal. Rice
20540-404: The pooling of resources to achieve scale, facilitating access to productive resources, and enhancing marketing power. Coordination with other actors is also key to managing market risks. Mutual benefits can be achieved, for example, through forwarding contracts: farmers receive guaranteed prices for their outputs regardless of market conditions, while processors and distributors receive products of
20698-467: The production of a given food item. Traceability , by contrast, is the ability to trace to their origins all components in a food production and marketing chain, whether processed or unprocessed (e.g., meat, vegetables) foods. Concerns about transparency and traceability have been heightened with food safety scares such as bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) and Escherichia coli ( E. coli ), but do not exclusively refer to food safety . Transparency
20856-547: The production of foods to be moved to areas where economic costs (labor, taxes, etc.) are lower or environmental regulations are laxer, which are usually further from consumer markets. For example, the majority of salmon sold in the United States is raised off the coast of Chile, due in large part to less stringent Chilean standards regarding fish feed and regardless of the fact that salmon are not indigenous in Chilean coastal waters. The globalization of food production can result in
21014-409: The provisional results of the 2011 national census, West Bengal is the fourth-most-populous state in India with a population of 91,347,736 (7.55% of India's population). The state's 2001–2011 decennial population growth rate was 13.93%, lower than the 1991–2001 growth rate of 17.8% and lower than the national rate of 17.64%. The gender ratio is 947 females per 1,000 males. As of 2011, West Bengal had
21172-595: The region during the late 19th century . However, during the Japanese occupation and the puppet state Manchukuo , farming proliferated to feed the Japanese military provisions. After the establishment of the People's Republic of China, further migration and population growth ensued during the latter half of the 20th century, and industrial farming is practiced extensively over the region's fertile black soil , turning
21330-606: The region for four hundred years beginning in the 8th century. A shorter reign of the Hindu Sena dynasty followed. Rajendra Chola I of the Chola dynasty invaded some areas of Bengal between 1021 and 1023. Islam was introduced through trade with the Abbasid Caliphate . Following the Ghurid conquests led by Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji and the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate , it spread across
21488-610: The region. It was ruled by dynasties of the Bengal Sultanate and feudal lords under the Delhi Sultanate for the next few hundred years. The Bengal Sultanate was interrupted for twenty years by a Hindu uprising under Raja Ganesha . In the 16th century, Mughal general Islam Khan conquered Bengal. Administration by governors appointed by the court of the Mughal Empire gave way to semi-independence under
21646-491: The river by a feeder canal. Its water flow management has been a source of lingering dispute between India and Bangladesh. The Teesta , Torsa , Jaldhaka and Mahananda rivers are in the northern hilly region. The western plateau region has rivers like the Damodar, Ajay and Kangsabati . The Ganges delta and the Sundarbans area have numerous rivers and creeks. Pollution of the Ganges from indiscriminate waste dumped into
21804-509: The river is a major problem. Damodar , another tributary of the Ganges and once known as the "Sorrow of Bengal" (due to its frequent floods), has several dams under the Damodar Valley Project . At least nine districts in the state suffer from arsenic contamination of groundwater , and as of 2017 an estimated 1.04 crore people were afflicted by arsenic poisoning. West Bengal's climate varies from tropical savanna in
21962-417: The source of 40% of the nation's agricultural income, a third of the wheat harvest, 95 percent of the rice crop and other products such as fruit, wine and cotton. When New Zealand became a British colony , the fertile lands produced food that would be shipped back to England, causing New Zealand to become colloquially known (occasionally along with Australia) as Britain's breadbasket, subsequently leading to
22120-788: The southern part of the state, especially in the Sundarbans area. Kolkata is the only city in India to have trams as a mode of transport; these are operated by the Calcutta Tramways Company. Several government-owned organisations operate bus services in the state, including: the Calcutta State Transport Corporation , the North Bengal State Transport Corporation , the South Bengal State Transport Corporation ,
22278-407: The southern portions to humid subtropical in the north. The main seasons are summer, the rainy season, a short autumn and winter. While the summer in the delta region is noted for excessive humidity, the western highlands experience a dry summer like northern India. The highest daytime temperatures range from 38 to 45 °C (100 to 113 °F). At night, a cool southerly breeze carries moisture from
22436-458: The state during the winter. The high-altitude forests of Singalila National Park shelter barking deer , red panda , chinkara , takin , serow , pangolin , minivet and kalij pheasants . The Sundarbans are noted for a reserve project devoted to conserving the endangered Bengal tiger , although the forest hosts many other endangered species such as the Gangetic dolphin , river terrapin and estuarine crocodile. The mangrove forest also acts as
22594-448: The state is 16,847 km (6,505 sq mi), while in 2013, forest area was 16,805 km (6,488 sq mi), which was 18.93% of the state's geographical area, compared to the then national average of 21.23%. Reserves and protected and unclassed forests constitute 59.4%, 31.8% and 8.9%, respectively, of forested areas, as of 2009. Part of the world's largest mangrove forest, the Sundarbans in southern West Bengal. From
22752-466: The state's healthcare system was severely criticised in the aftermath of the West Bengal blood test kit scam . West Bengal is on the eastern bottleneck of India , stretching from the Himalayas in the north to the Bay of Bengal in the south. The state has a total area of 88,752 square kilometres (34,267 sq mi). The Darjeeling Himalayan hill region in the northern extreme of the state
22910-653: The store as profit. As a result, food co-ops do not work for profit, potentially keeping prices more cost representative. Other forms of cooperatives that have developed more recently include community-supported agriculture , where community members buy a share in a farm's harvest, and may also be engaged in farm labor, operating at both the consumer and producer end of food systems. Garden sharing pairs individual landowners and food growers, while variations on this approach organize groups of food gardeners for mutual assistance. Producer associations and cooperatives reinforce small-scale agricultural producers' livelihoods by allowing
23068-604: The twin cities of Asansol-Durgapur at Andal , Paschim Bardhaman . Kolkata is a major river port in eastern India. The Kolkata Port Trust manages the Kolkata and the Haldia docks. There is passenger service to Port Blair on the Andaman and Nicobar Islands . Cargo ship service operates to ports in India and abroad, operated by the Shipping Corporation of India . Ferries are a principal mode of transport in
23226-418: The uncertainty in the estimate. The FAO report shows the global value of the hidden costs has a 95 percent chance of being at least USD 10.8 trillion and a 5 percent chance of being at least USD 16 trillion. Differently from the other two studies, the FAO report assesses hidden costs of agrifood systems at the national level for 154 countries. It states these national numbers are consistent and comparable covering
23384-531: The world , due to the importance that agriculture had, and still has, in the country. Argentina's cereal cultivation is found in the Pampas region, which encompasses the provinces of Buenos Aires, Santa Fe, Córdoba and La Pampa. Within this region, many cities, such as Pergamino , Venado Tuerto and Rosario , are one of the most fertile areas in the continent. Some of the plantations include soybeans , maize, wheat, barley , sunflower and peanut, among others. In
23542-539: The world. As a part of the Bengal region of the Indian subcontinent , it borders Bangladesh in the east, and Nepal and Bhutan in the north. It also borders the Indian states of Jharkhand , Odisha , Bihar , Sikkim and Assam . The state capital is Kolkata , the third-largest metropolis , and seventh largest city by population in India. West Bengal includes the Darjeeling Himalayan hill region ,
23700-624: Was Shashanka , who reigned in the early 7th century. Shashanka is often recorded in Buddhist annals as an intolerant Hindu ruler noted for his persecution of the Buddhists. He murdered Rajyavardhana , the Buddhist king of Thanesar , and is noted for destroying the Bodhi tree at Bodhgaya , and replacing Buddha statues with Shiva lingams . After a period of anarchy, the Pala dynasty ruled
23858-528: Was 19.98%, a decline from 31.8% a decade prior. Scheduled castes and tribes form 28.6% and 5.8% of the population, respectively, in rural areas and 19.9% and 1.5%, respectively, in urban areas. In September 2017, West Bengal achieved 100% electrification, after some remote villages in the Sunderbans became the last to be electrified. As of September 2017, of 125 towns and cities in Bengal, 76 have achieved open defecation free (ODF) status. All towns in
24016-416: Was 9.8% in 1980–1981, declining to 5% by 1997–1998. In contrast, the service sector has grown at a rate higher than the national rate. The state's total financial debt stood at ₹ 1,918,350 million (US$ 23 billion) as of 2011. In the period 2004–2010, the average gross state domestic product (GSDP) growth rate was 13.9% (calculated in Indian rupee terms) lower than 15.5%, the average for all states of
24174-632: Was briefly overrun by the Suri Empire . Following the death of Emperor Aurangzeb in the early 1700s, the proto-industrialised Mughal Bengal became a semi-independent state under the Nawabs of Bengal , and showed signs of the first Industrial Revolution . The region was later annexed into the Bengal Presidency by the British East India Company after the Battle of Buxar in 1764. From 1772 to 1911, Calcutta
24332-518: Was considered the "breadbasket of Rome." Strabo mentions that " Turdetania is wonderfully fertile, it has all kinds of fruits and very abundant", and that together with province of Egypt , they are the most productive territories in the known world. Crimea was the source of a large amount of grain supplied to the Greek city-states, especially Athens . In South Africa , the Free State province
24490-408: Was integrated into West Bengal; portions of Bihar were also subsequently merged with West Bengal. Both West and East Bengal experienced large influxes of refugees during and after the partition in 1947. Refugee resettlement and related issues continued to play a significant role in the politics and socio-economic condition of the state. During the 1970s and 1980s, severe power shortages, strikes and
24648-659: Was mothballed. The tea industry of West Bengal has also witnessed shutdowns for financial and political reasons. The tourism industry of West Bengal was negatively impacted in 2017 because of the Gorkhaland agitation. However, over the years due to effective changes in the stance towards industrialisation, ease of doing business has improved in West Bengal. Steps are being taken to remedy this situation by promoting West Bengal as an investment destination. A leather complex has been built in Kolkata. Smart cities are being planned close to Kolkata, and major roadway projects are in
24806-589: Was partitioned along religious lines. The western part went to the Dominion of India and was named West Bengal. The eastern part went to the Dominion of Pakistan as a province called East Bengal (later renamed East Pakistan in 1956), becoming the independent nation of Bangladesh in 1971. In 1950 the Princely State of Cooch Behar merged with West Bengal. In 1955 the former French enclave of Chandannagar , which had passed into Indian control after 1950,
24964-423: Was the capital of all of East India Company's territories and then the capital of the entirety of India after the establishment of the Viceroyalty . From 1912 to India's Independence in 1947, it was the capital of the Bengal Province . The region was a hotbed of the Indian independence movement and has remained one of India's great artistic and intellectual centres. Following widespread religious violence ,
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