North America
107-659: South America Oceania Burgenland Croats ( Croatian : Gradišćanski Hrvati , German : Burgenlandkroaten , Hungarian : Burgenlandi horvátok , Slovak : Burgendlandskí Chorváti ) are ethnic Croats in the Austrian state of Burgenland , along with Croats in neighboring Hungary and Slovakia . Around 320,000 residents of Austria identify as of Croat heritage; 56,785 have, as sole or multiple nationality, Croatian citizenship as at 2017. Between 87,000 and 130,000 of them are Burgenland Croats. Since 1993, Croatian organizations have appointed their representatives to
214-536: A national awakening of Hungarian language and culture which increased the political tensions between the Hungarian-speaking lesser houses and the germanophone and francophone magnates, fewer than half of whom were ethnic Magyars. Magyarization as a social policy began in earnest in the 1830s, when Hungarian started replacing Latin and German in educational contexts. Although this phase of Magyarization lacked religious and ethnic elements—language use
321-636: A Hungarian majority. To secure the ruling party's success, the districts in minority regions were delineated to be smaller than those in Hungarian-majority regions. This strategy enabled the election of a greater number of representatives from minority districts to parliament, which further shrunk the value of votes in ethnic Hungarian territories. Consequently, the Liberal Party was able to sustain its parliamentary majority for an extended period with considerable success. The census system of
428-461: A common polycentric standard language is used, consisting of several standard varieties , similar to the existing varieties of German , English or Spanish . The aim of the new Declaration is to stimulate discussion on language without the nationalistic baggage and to counter nationalistic divisions. The terms "Serbo-Croatian", "Serbo-Croat", or "Croato-Serbian", are still used as a cover term for all these forms by foreign scholars, even though
535-713: A common Hungarian culture throughout medieval Hungarian history. Even at the time of the Hungarian conquest , the Hungarian tribal alliance was made up of tribes from different ethnic backgrounds. The Kabars , for example, were of Turkic origin, as were later groups, such as the Pechenegs and Cumans , who settled in Hungary between the 9th and 13th centuries. Still-extant Turkic toponyms, such as Kunság (Cumania), reflect this history. The subjugated local population in
642-593: A common South Slavic literary language. Specifically, three major groups of dialects were spoken on Croatian territory, and there had been several literary languages over four centuries. The leader of the Illyrian movement Ljudevit Gaj standardized the Latin alphabet in 1830–1850 and worked to bring about a standardized orthography. Although based in Kajkavian-speaking Zagreb , Gaj supported using
749-556: A distinct regional identity. As a reward for their military achievements, the Hungarian crown granted titles of nobility to some Romanian knezes . Many of these nobles houses, such as the Drágffy (Drăgoștești, Kendeffy (Cândești), Majláth (Mailat) or Jósika families, assimilated into the Hungarian nobility by taking on the Hungarian language and converting to Catholicism. Although the Kingdom of Hungary had become an integral part of
856-504: A full-fledged allegiance to the Hungarian nation. Of course since Latin was the official language until 1844 and the country was directly governed from Vienna (which excluded any large-scale governmental assimilation policy from the Hungarian side before the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 ), the factor of spontaneous assimilation should be given due weight in any analysis relating to the demographic tendencies of
963-420: A maximum of 6,700 applications in 1897, mostly due to pressure from authorities and employers in the government sector. Statistics show that between 1881 and 1905 alone, 42,437 surnames were Magyarized, although this represented less than 0.5% of the total non-Hungarian population of the Kingdom of Hungary. Voluntary Magyarization of German or Slavic-sounding surnames remained a typical phenomenon in Hungary during
1070-635: A million were ethnically non-Hungarians) mainly Romanians and Serbs had migrated to their newly established mother states in large numbers, like the Principality of Serbia or the Kingdom of Romania , who proclaimed their independence in 1878. Amongst them were such noted people as the early aviator Aurel Vlaicu (represented on the 50 Romanian lei banknote ), writer Liviu Rebreanu (first illegally in 1909, then legally in 1911), and Ion Ivanovici . Many also migrated to Western Europe and other parts of
1177-517: A mixture of all three principal dialects (Chakavian, Kajkavian and Shtokavian), and calling it "Croatian", "Dalmatian", or "Slavonian". Historically, several other names were used as synonyms for Croatian, in addition to Dalmatian and Slavonian, and these were Illyrian (ilirski) and Slavic (slovinski) . It is still used now in parts of Istria , which became a crossroads of various mixtures of Chakavian with Ekavian, Ijekavian and Ikavian isoglosses . The most standardised form (Kajkavian–Ikavian) became
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#17327722188941284-595: A particularly quick rate; nearly all middle-class Jews and Germans and many middle-class Slovaks and Ruthenes spoke Hungarian. Overall, between 1880 and 1910, the percentage of the total population that spoke Hungarian as its first language rose from 46.6% to 54.5%. Most Magyarization occurred in central Hungary and among the educated middle classes, largely the result of urbanization and industrialization . It hardly touched rural, peasant, and peripheral populations; among these groups, linguistic frontiers did not shift significantly between 1800 and 1900. Despite
1391-510: A proposal to lower the fees for changing one's name. The proposal was accepted by the Parliament and the fee was lowered from 5 forints to 50 krajcárs . After this the name changes peaked in 1881 and 1882 (with 1261 and 1065 registered name changes), and continued in the following years at an average of 750–850 per year. During the Bánffy administration there was another increase, reaching
1498-523: A separate language that is considered key to national identity, in the sense that the term Croatian language includes all language forms from the earliest times to the present, in all areas where Croats live, as realized in the speeches of Croatian dialects, in city speeches and jargons, and in the Croatian standard language. The issue is sensitive in Croatia as the notion of a separate language being
1605-761: Is controversial for native speakers, and names such as "Bosnian-Croatian-Montenegrin-Serbian" (BCMS) are used by linguists and philologists in the 21st century. In 1997, the Croatian Parliament established the Days of the Croatian Language from March 11 to 17. Since 2013, the Institute of Croatian language has been celebrating the Month of the Croatian Language , from February 21 ( International Mother Language Day ) to March 17 (the day of signing
1712-470: Is a part of Burgenland Croats' cultural identity. Around 40 tamburica orchestras were active among them. Orchestra "Tamburica Štikapron" was established in 1961. Since 2011, Croatian Culture Association in Burgenland (HKDG) organizes Festival klapov (" Klapa festival"). Burgenland Croats' Folklore ensemble Kolo Slavuj ( Folklorni ansambl gradišćanskih Hrvatov Kolo Slavuj ) is known for choreographes of
1819-447: Is also official in the regions of Burgenland (Austria), Molise (Italy) and Vojvodina (Serbia). Additionally, it has co-official status alongside Romanian in the communes of Carașova and Lupac , Romania . In these localities, Croats or Krashovani make up the majority of the population, and education, signage and access to public administration and the justice system are provided in Croatian, alongside Romanian. Croatian
1926-576: Is based on the Chakavian dialect . Burgenland Croatian includes phrases no longer used in standard Croatian, as well as certain phrases and words taken from German and Hungarian . Names are often written according to Hungarian orthography, due to the Magyarisation policies during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Almost all Burgenland Croats are fluent in German. After the dissolution of
2033-424: Is clearly a single language with a single grammatical system." Croatian, although technically a form of Serbo-Croatian , is sometimes considered a distinct language by itself. This is at odds with purely linguistic classifications of languages based on mutual intelligibility ( abstand and ausbau languages ), which do not allow varieties that are mutually intelligible to be considered separate languages. "There
2140-426: Is commonly characterized by the ijekavian pronunciation (see an explanation of yat reflexes ), the sole use of the Latin alphabet, and a number of lexical differences in common words that set it apart from standard Serbian. Some differences are absolute, while some appear mainly in the frequency of use. However, as professor John F. Bailyn states, "an examination of all the major 'levels' of language shows that BCS
2247-595: Is like a huge machine, at one end of which the Slovak youths are thrown in by the hundreds, and at the other end of which they come out as Magyars. Schools funded by churches and communes had the right to provide education in minority languages. These church-funded schools, however, were mostly founded before 1867, that is, in different socio-political circumstances. In practice, the majority of students in commune-funded schools who were native speakers of minority languages were instructed exclusively in Hungarian. Beginning with
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#17327722188942354-521: Is no data about the voting rights of the Jewish people, because they were counted automatically as Hungarians, due to their Hungarian mother tongue. People of Jewish origin were disproportionately represented among the businessmen and intellectuals in the country, thus making the ratio of Hungarian voters much higher. Officially, Hungarian electoral laws never contained any legal discrimination based on nationality or language. The high census suffrage
2461-399: Is no doubt of the near 100% mutual intelligibility of (standard) Croatian and (standard) Serbian, as is obvious from the ability of all groups to enjoy each others' films, TV and sports broadcasts, newspapers, rock lyrics etc.", writes Bailyn. Differences between various standard forms of Serbo-Croatian are often exaggerated for political reasons. Most Croatian linguists regard Croatian as
2568-640: Is no regulatory body that determines the proper usage of Croatian. However, in January 2023, the Croatian Parliament passed a law that prescribes the official use of the Croatian language, regulates the establishment of the Council for the Croatian language as a coordinating advisory body whose work will be focused on the protection and development of the Croatian language. State authorities, local and regional self-government entities are obliged to use
2675-1099: Is officially used and taught at all universities in Croatia and at the University of Mostar in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Studies of Croatian language are held in Hungary (Institute of Philosophy at the ELTE Faculty of Humanities in Budapest ), Slovakia (Faculty of Philosophy of the Comenius University in Bratislava ), Poland ( University of Warsaw , Jagiellonian University , University of Silesia in Katowice , University of Wroclaw , Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznan ), Germany ( University of Regensburg ), Australia (Center for Croatian Studies at
2782-648: Is the standardised variety of the Serbo-Croatian pluricentric language mainly used by Croats . It is the national official language and literary standard of Croatia , one of the official languages of Bosnia and Herzegovina , Montenegro , the Serbian province of Vojvodina , the European Union and a recognized minority language elsewhere in Serbia and other neighbouring countries. In
2889-774: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Croatian (2009 Croatian government official translation): Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English: Magyarisation Magyarization ( UK : / ˌ m æ dʒ ər aɪ ˈ z eɪ ʃ ən / US : / ˌ m ɑː dʒ ər ɪ -/ , also Hungarianization ; Hungarian : magyarosítás [ˈmɒɟɒroʃiːtaːʃ] ), after "Magyar"—the Hungarian autonym —was an assimilation or acculturation process by which non-Hungarian nationals living in
2996-532: The Americas . Many Slovak intellectuals and activists (such as national activist Janko Kráľ who started a peasent's revolt) were imprisoned or even sentenced to death for high treason during the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 . One of the incidents that shocked European public opinion was the Černová (Csernova) massacre in which 15 people were killed and 52 injured in 1907. The massacre caused
3103-631: The Austro-Hungarian monarchy in 1918, the area in which the Burgenland Croats lived was divided between Austria , Czechoslovakia and Hungary . After 1921, most of these areas became part of Austria, which established a new province of Burgenland , which later gave the Burgenland identifier to these Croats. In 1922, Austria founded the Apostolic administration of Burgenland, and began to abolish bilingual schools, by introducing
3210-715: The Declaration on the Name and Status of the Croatian Literary Language ). In the late medieval period up to the 17th century, the majority of semi-autonomous Croatia was ruled by two domestic dynasties of princes ( banovi ), the Zrinski and the Frankopan , which were linked by inter-marriage. Toward the 17th century, both of them attempted to unify Croatia both culturally and linguistically, writing in
3317-474: The Dual Monarchy , liberal laws regarding ethnicity enabled them to rekindle their language and heritage. However, when a 1900 census revealed that only 18.8% of the population of Burgenland spoke Hungarian , severe policies of Magyarization were implemented, revoking many individual and community rights. The Burgenland Croats were also persecuted by Austro-German nationalists after World War I , and by
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3424-566: The House of Habsburg 's Austrian Empire following the liberation of Buda in 1686, Latin remained the administrative language until 1784, and then again between 1790 and 1844. Emperor Joseph II influenced by Enlightenment absolutism , pushed for the replacement of Latin by German as the empire's official language during his reign (1780–1790). Many lesser Hungarian nobles perceived Joseph's language reform as German cultural hegemony , and they insisted on their right to use Hungarian. This sparked
3531-691: The Jewish people who spoke Hungarian as first language in the kingdom were automatically considered Hungarians, a sentiment supported by many of them , who had a magnitude higher rate of tertiary education than the Christian populations). By 1910 about 900,000 religious Jews made up approximately 5% of the population of Hungary and about 23% of Budapest's citizenry. They accounted for 20% of all general grammar school students, and 37% of all commercial scientific grammar school students, 31.9% of all engineering students, and 34.1% of all students in human faculties of
3638-520: The Kingdom of Hungary in the 19th century. The other key factor in mass ethnic changes is that between 1880 and 1910 about 3 million people from Austria-Hungary migrated to the United States alone. More than half of them were from Hungary (at least 1.5 million or about 10% of the total population) alone. Besides the 1.5 million that migrated to the US (two thirds of them or about
3745-623: The Kingdom of Hungary , then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire , adopted the Hungarian national identity and language in the period between the Compromise of 1867 and Austria-Hungary's dissolution in 1918. Magyarization occurred both voluntarily and as a result of social pressure , and was mandated in certain respects by specific government policies. Before World War I , only three European countries declared ethnic minority rights, and enacted minority-protecting laws:
3852-622: The Latin alphabet and are living in parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina , different parts of Croatia , southern parts (inc. Budapest ) of Hungary as well in the autonomous province Vojvodina of Serbia . The Institute of Croatian Language and Linguistics added the Bunjevac dialect to the List of Protected Intangible Cultural Heritage of the Republic of Croatia on 8 October 2021. Article 1 of
3959-982: The Macquarie University ), Northern Macedonia (Faculty of Philology in Skopje ) etc. Croatian embassies hold courses for learning Croatian in Poland, United Kingdom and a few other countries. Extracurricular education of Croatian is hold in Germany in Baden-Württemberg , Berlin , Hamburg and Saarland , as well as in North Macedonia in Skopje , Bitola , Štip and Kumanovo . Some Croatian Catholic Missions also hold Croatian language courses (for. ex. CCM in Buenos Aires ). There
4066-454: The Slovak , Romanian , Serbian , and Croatian minorities in Hungary and Transylvania , who felt threatened by both German and Hungarian cultural hegemony. These revivals would blossom into nationalist movements in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries and contribute to Austria-Hungary's collapse in 1918. The term Magyarization is used in regards to the national policies put into use by
4173-698: The interwar period . After the Treaty of Trianon this mistreatment included prejudicial court proceedings, overtaxation, and biased application of social and economic legislation in those countries. Magyarization usually refers specifically to the policies that were enforced in Austro-Hungarian Transleithania in the 19th century and early 20th century, especially after the Compromise of 1867 especially after Count Menyhért Lónyay 's premiership beginning in 1871. When referring to personal and geographic names, Magyarization refers to
4280-730: The 1540s whereby many Croats left Slavonia . The third and last wave of emigration came in the 1750s and 1760s. Specifically from Dalmatia, Croatia a smaller group went across the Adriatic Sea to the Molise region of Italy , the Molise Croats . The Burgenland Croats developed their own orthography during the Counter-Reformation , however, assimilation soon followed with the language being banned from use in churches and schools. After falling under Hungarian rule in
4387-400: The 1879 Primary Education Act and the 1883 Secondary Education Act, the Hungarian state made more efforts to reduce the use of non-Magyar languages, in strong violation of the 1868 Nationalities Law. In about 61% of these schools the language used was exclusively Magyar, in about 20% it was mixed, and in the remainder some non-Magyar language was used. The ratio of minority-language schools
Burgenland Croats - Misplaced Pages Continue
4494-619: The 50th anniversary of the Declaration, at the beginning of 2017, a two-day meeting of experts from Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia and Montenegro was organized in Zagreb, at which the text of the Declaration on the Common Language of Croats, Bosniaks, Serbs and Montenegrins was drafted. The new Declaration has received more than ten thousand signatures . It states that in Croatia, Serbia, Bosnia-Herzegovina and Montenegro
4601-706: The Burgenland Croats folklore, created in collaboration with Ivan Ivančan ( hr ) . Croatian Cultural Association in Burgenland organizes annual Croatian Football Cup [ hr ] since 1989. There are few football clubs formed of Burgenland Croats: SV Nova Gora (from Neuberg ), ASK Pajngrt, SC Filež ( Nikitsch ), ASKÖ Klimpuh ( Klingenbach ), ASKÖ Stinjaki ( Stinatz ), SC/ESV Pandrof ( Pandorf ), ASV Rasporak ( Draßburg ), SV Otava ( Antau ), SK Mali Borištof ( Kleinwarasdorf ) and ASV Cindrof ( Siegendorf ). Croatian language North America South America Oceania Croatian ( / k r oʊ ˈ eɪ ʃ ən / ; hrvatski [xř̩ʋaːtskiː] )
4708-730: The Carpathian Basin, mainly in the lowlands, also took on the Hungarian language and customs during the high medieval period. Similarly, some historians claim that ancestors of the Szeklers ( Transylvanian Hungarians) were Avars or Turkic Bulgars who began using the Hungarian language in the Middle Ages. Others argue the Szeklers descended from a Hungarian-speaking " Late Avar " population or from ethnic Hungarians who, after receiving unique settlement privileges, developed
4815-678: The Council for National Minorities of the Austrian government. The to-be Burgenland Croats began to emigrate from Lika , Krbava , Kordun , Banovina , Moslavina and Western Bosnia . These areas were occupied by the Turks (Ottomans) during the Turkish wars (1533–1584). The refugee Croats were given land and independent ecclesiastical rights by the Austrian King Ferdinand I , because many of their villages had been pillaged by
4922-566: The Croatian elite. In the 1860s, the Zagreb Philological School dominated the Croatian cultural life, drawing upon linguistic and ideological conceptions advocated by the members of the Illyrian movement. While it was dominant over the rival Rijeka Philological School and Zadar Philological Schools , its influence waned with the rise of the Croatian Vukovians (at the end of the 19th century). Croatian
5029-433: The Croatian language. The current standard language is generally laid out in the grammar books and dictionaries used in education, such as the school curriculum prescribed by the Ministry of Education and the university programmes of the Faculty of Philosophy at the four main universities . In 2013, a Hrvatski pravopis by the Institute of Croatian Language and Linguistics received an official sole seal of approval from
5136-537: The Danube and Tisza rivers), and Tiszántúl , however the change of names in Upper Hungary (today mostly Slovakia) or Transylvania (now in Romania) remained a marginal phenomenon. Hungarian authorities put constant pressure upon all non-Hungarians to Magyarize their names and the ease with which this could be done gave rise to the nickname of Crown Magyars (the price of registration being one korona). A private non-governmental civil organization "Central Society for Name Magyarization" (Központi Névmagyarositó Társaság)
5243-422: The German language to all primary schools. This process was temporarily stopped after the adoption of The National Education Act , which allowed for Croatian-language elementary schools. After Hitler annexed Austria in 1938 , this law was abolished. In 1955, the Austrian State Treaty was signed. It gave permission to the Burgenland Croats to use Croatian in education, judiciary, and public administration. With
5350-443: The German population from 40.8% to 26.41%. The first Hungarian government after the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 , the 1867–1871 liberal government led by Count Gyula Andrássy and sustained by Ferenc Deák and his followers, passed the 1868 Nationality Act, that declared "all citizens of Hungary form, politically, one nation, the indivisible unitary Hungarian political nation ( politikai nemzet ), of which every citizen of
5457-542: The Holy Widow Judith Composed in Croatian Verses ". The Croatian–Hungarian Agreement designated Croatian as one of its official languages. Croatian became an official EU language upon accession of Croatia to the European Union on 1 July 2013. In 2013, the EU started publishing a Croatian-language version of its official gazette. Standard Croatian is the official language of the Republic of Croatia and, along with Standard Bosnian and Standard Serbian , one of three official languages of Bosnia and Herzegovina . It
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#17327722188945564-647: The Kingdom of Hungary to lose prestige in the eyes of the world when English historian R. W. Seton-Watson , Norwegian writer Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson and Russian writer Leo Tolstoy championed this cause. The case being a proof for the violence of Magyarization is disputed, partly because the sergeant who ordered the shooting and all the shooters were ethnic Slovaks and partly because of the controversial figure of Andrej Hlinka . The writers who condemned forced Magyarization in printed publications were likely to be put in jail either on charges of treason or for incitement of ethnic hatred . The Hungarian secondary school
5671-444: The Kingdom of Hungary. In 1900, nearly a third of the deputies were elected by fewer than 100 votes, and close to two-thirds were elected by fewer than 1000 votes. Due to economic reasons Transylvania had an even worse representation: the more Romanian a county was, the fewer voters it had. Out of the Transylvanian deputies sent to Budapest, 35 represented the 4 mostly Hungarian counties and the major towns (which together formed 20% of
5778-411: The Ministry of Education. The most prominent recent editions describing the Croatian standard language are: Also notable are the recommendations of Matica hrvatska , the national publisher and promoter of Croatian heritage, and the Miroslav Krleža Institute of Lexicography , as well as the Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts . Numerous representative Croatian linguistic works were published since
5885-413: The Nazis during World War II . During this time, they tried to assimilate the Burgenland Croats. The Croats gained minority status in the Austrian Treaty of Independence of 1955 . Since then, they and their culture have undergone something of a renaissance, with the language being taught at schools and spoken in Church, wherever there is a large enough minority. Despite the presence of many languages in
5992-461: The Pannonian Plain during Ottoman rule, i.e. before those Habsburg administrative measures), Croats and Romanians. Various ethnic groups lived side by side (this ethnic heterogeneity is preserved until today in certain parts of Vojvodina , Bačka and Banat ). After 1867, Hungarian became the lingua franca on this territory in the interaction between ethnic communities, and individuals who were born in mixed marriages between two non-Magyars often grew
6099-758: The Romanian language, while in the Kingdom of Romania there were only 2,505 (the Romanian Kingdom gained its independence from the Ottoman Empire only two years before, in 1878). The process of Magyarization culminated in 1907 with the lex Apponyi (named after education minister Albert Apponyi ) which expected all primary school children to read, write and count in Hungarian for the first four years of their education. From 1909 religion also had to be taught in Hungarian. "In 1902 there were in Hungary 18,729 elementary schools with 32,020 teachers, attended by 2,573,377 pupils, figures which compare favourably with those of 1877, when there were 15,486 schools with 20,717 teachers, attended by 1,559,636 pupils. In about 61% of these schools
6206-1034: The Spiritual songs) (1611). By the mid-19th century, Burgenland Croatian literature had a predominantly religious character and was intended mostly for peasants . The main writers were priests and nuns. In the second half of the 19th century, teachers begin to write, thanks to that many school textbooks and calendars were written. The most popular Burgeland Croat writers are: J. Mulih (1694–1754), Godefrid Palković (1714–78), L. Bogović (1719–89), E. M. Kragel (1725–88), M. Laáb (cca. 1746–1823), J. Ficko (1772–1843), M. Drobilić (1808–91), T. Jordan (1815–93), G. Glavanić (1833–72), M. Naković (1840–1900), I. Mušković (1848–1930), M. Borenić (1850–1939), Ivan Čuković (1865–1944), P. Jandrišević (1879–1938), I. Blažević (1888–1946), Mate Meršić Miloradić (1850–1928), Ignac Horvat (1895–1973), Martin Meršić, A. Blazović (1921–2004), Franz Probst (1919–93), N. Benčić (b. 1938), Ivan (Lav) Sučić (b. 1938), Mathilda Bölcs (b. 1949), J. Čenar (b. 1956), P. Tyran (b. 1955) and H. Gassner (b. 1955). The first book about
6313-421: The Turks. This gave the Croats a safe place to live while providing Austria with a buffer zone between Vienna and the Ottoman Empire to the south and east. The first wave of emigration came in the 1530s, after the Turks destroyed almost all the settlements between the river Una and the mountain Velebit , along with the land between the river Kupa and the mountain range Kapela . The second wave came in
6420-824: The adoption of the Law on National Minorities in 1976, use of Croatian in public life became limited. After a constitutional complaint was heeded in 1987, parts of the law were changed and Croatian was introduced as an official language in 6 out of 7 districts of Burgenland. Newspapers of the Burgenland Croats are: Crikveni glasnik (Church Gazett), 1946; Naše selo (Our village), 1947; Naš tjednik (Our weekly), 1947; Naša domovina (Our homeland), 1952; Glas (Voice), 1957; Novi glas (New Voice), 1969; Put (Way), 1981). The beginnings of literacy are linked to: Klimpuški misal (Klimpuški Missal ) (1501), S. Consul Histrianus and Anton Dalmatin's Postila ( Postil ) (1568), Duševne pesne (Spiritual songs) (1609), and Grgur Mekinić Pythiraeus's Druge knjige duševnih pesan (Other books of
6527-442: The beginning of the 20th century, in addition to designing a phonological orthography. Croatian is written in Gaj's Latin alphabet . Besides the Shtokavian dialect, on which Standard Croatian is based, there are two other main supradialects spoken on the territory of Croatia, Chakavian and Kajkavian . These supradialects, and the four national standards, are usually subsumed under the term "Serbo-Croatian" in English; this term
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#17327722188946634-555: The country, whatever his personal nationality ( nemzetiség ), is a member equal in rights." The Education Act, passed the same year, shared this view as the Magyars simply being primus inter pares ("first among equals"). At this time ethnic minorities de jure had a great deal of cultural and linguistic autonomy, including in education, religion, and local government. However, after education minister Baron József Eötvös died in 1871, and in Andrássy became imperial foreign minister , Deák withdrew from active politics and Menyhért Lónyay
6741-481: The cultivated language of administration and intellectuals from the Istrian peninsula along the Croatian coast, across central Croatia up into the northern valleys of the Drava and the Mura . The cultural apex of this 17th century idiom is represented by the editions of " Adrianskoga mora sirena " ("The Siren of the Adriatic Sea") by Petar Zrinski and " Putni tovaruš " ("Traveling escort") by Katarina Zrinska . However, this first linguistic renaissance in Croatia
6848-664: The dismemberment of Kingdom of Hungary. Although the 1868 Hungarian Nationalities Law guaranteed legal equality to all citizens, including in language use, in this period practically only Hungarian was used in administrative, judicial, and higher educational contexts. By 1900, Transleithanian state administration, businesses, and high society spoke Hungarian almost exclusively, and by 1910, 96% of civil servants, 91% of all public employees, 97% of judges and public prosecutors, 91% of secondary school teachers and 89% of medical doctors had learned Hungarian as their first language. Urban and industrial centers' Magyarization proceeded at
6955-408: The dual monarchy, the spread of Hungarian as the second language remained limited. In 1880, 5.7% of the non-Hungarian population, or 109,190 people, claimed to have a knowledge of the Hungarian language; the proportion rose to 11% (183,508) in 1900, and to 15.2% (266,863) in 1910. These figures reveal the reality of a bygone era, one in which millions of people could conduct their lives without speaking
7062-406: The electorate. The participation of other ethnic groups was as follows: Slovaks (10.7% in population, 10.4% in the electorate), Romanians (16.1% in population, 9.9% in the electorate), Rusyns (2.5% in population, 1.7% in the electorate), Croats (1.1% in population, 1.0% in the electorate), Serbs (2.2% in population, 1.4% in the electorate), and others (2.2% in population, 1.4% in the electorate). There
7169-445: The emancipation in Hungary at a time when anti-semitic laws were still applied in Russia and Romania. Large minorities were concentrated in various regions of the kingdom, where they formed significant majorities. In Transylvania proper (1867 borders), the 1910 census finds 55.08% Romanian-speakers, 34.2% Hungarian-speakers, and 8.71% German-speakers. In the north of the Kingdom , Slovaks and Ruthenians formed an ethnic majority also, in
7276-455: The exclusive language in public life, writing in 1842 that "in one country it is impossible to speak in a hundred different languages. There must be one language, and in Hungary, this must be Hungarian." However, moderate nationalists, who supported a compromise with Austria, were less enthusiastic. Zsigmond Kemény , for example, agitated for a Magyar-led multinational state and disapproved of Kossuth's assimilatory ambitions. István Széchenyi
7383-452: The first was Hungary (1849 and 1868), the second was Austria (1867), and the third was Belgium (1898). In contrast, the legal systems of other pre-WW1 era European countries did not allow the use of European minority languages in primary schools, in cultural institutions , in offices of public administration and at the legal courts. Magyarization was ideologically based on the classical liberal concepts of individualism ( civil liberties of
7490-439: The government of the Kingdom of Hungary , which was part of the Habsburg Empire. The beginning of this process dates to the late 18th century and was intensified after the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 , which increased the power of the Hungarian government within the newly formed Austria-Hungary . some of them had little desire to be declared a national minority like in other cultures. However, Jews in Hungary appreciated
7597-794: The history of Burgenland literature, Naši pisci i književnost (Our writers and literature), was written by F. Sedenik in 1912. In 1960, Diocese Eisenstadt (Željezno) was founded. By the name and dialect there are these different groups of Burgeland Croats: Some Burgenland Croats live in Slovakia (Hrvatski Grob ( Chorvátsky Grob ), Hrvatski Jandrof ( Jarovce ), Devinsko Novo Selo ( Devinska Nova Ves ) and Čunovo , as well as in Hungary: Hrvatska Kemlja ( Horvátkimle ), Bizonja ( Bezenye ), Koljnof ( Kópháza ), Vedešin ( Hidegség ), Temerje ( Tömörd ), Plajgor ( Ólmod ), Petrovo Selo ( Szentpéterfa ), Hrvatske Šice ( Horvátlövő ), Gornji Čatar ( Felsőcsatár ), Umok ( Fertőhomok ), Narda , Hrvatski Židan ( Horvátzsidány ) Prisika ( Peresznye ) and Unda ( Und ). Tamburica
7704-564: The independence of Croatia, among them three voluminous monolingual dictionaries of contemporary Croatian. In 2021, Croatia introduced a new model of linguistic categorisation of the Bunjevac dialect (as part of New-Shtokavian Ikavian dialects of the Shtokavian dialect of the Croatian language) in three sub-branches: Dalmatian (also called Bosnian-Dalmatian), Danubian (also called Bunjevac), and Littoral-Lika. Its speakers largely use
7811-422: The key role in the political maintenance of the compromise in Hungary, because they were able to vote the pro-compromise Liberal Party into the position of the majority/ruling parties of the Hungarian parliament. The pro-compromise liberal parties were the most popular among ethnic minority voters, however i.e. the Slovak, Serb and Romanian minority parties remained unpopular among their own ethnic minority voters. On
7918-546: The language used was exclusively Magyar". Approximately 600 Romanian villages were depleted of proper schooling due to the laws. As of 1917, 2,975 primary schools in Romania were closed as a result. The effect of Magyarization on the education system in Hungary was very significant, as can be seen from the official statistics submitted by the Hungarian government to the Paris Peace Conference (formally, all
8025-528: The leaders of the Romanian, Serb and Slovak minorities aspired to full territorial autonomy instead of linguistic and cultural minority rights. Hungarian politicians, influenced by their experience during the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 , when many minorities supported the Habsburgs in opposition to Hungarian independence, and afraid of pan-slavic Russian Tzarist interventionism , viewed such autonomy as
8132-474: The mid-18th century, the first attempts to provide a Croatian literary standard began on the basis of the Neo-Shtokavian dialect that served as a supraregional lingua franca – pushing back regional Chakavian , Kajkavian , and Shtokavian vernaculars . The decisive role was played by Croatian Vukovians , who cemented the usage of Ijekavian Neo-Shtokavian as the literary standard in the late 19th and
8239-534: The more populous Neo-Shtokavian – a version of Shtokavian that eventually became the predominant dialectal basis of both Croatian and Serbian literary language from the 19th century on. Supported by various South Slavic proponents, Neo-Shtokavian was adopted after an Austrian initiative at the Vienna Literary Agreement of 1850, laying the foundation for the unified Serbo-Croatian literary language. The uniform Neo-Shtokavian then became common in
8346-458: The most important characteristic of a nation is widely accepted, stemming from the 19th-century history of Europe. The 1967 Declaration on the Status and Name of the Croatian Literary Language , in which a group of Croatian authors and linguists demanded greater autonomy for Croatian, is viewed in Croatia as a linguistic policy milestone that was also a general milestone in national politics. On
8453-533: The numerous wars fought by the Habsburg and Ottoman empires in the 16th and 17th centuries. These empty lands were repopulated, by administrative measures adopted by the Vienna Court especially during the 18th century, by Hungarians and Slovaks from the northern part of the Kingdom that avoided the devastation (see also Royal Hungary ), Swabians, Serbs (Serbs were the majority group in most southern parts of
8560-414: The often-touted 'Magyarization efforts', the 1910 census revealed that approximately 87% of the minorities in the Kingdom of Hungary (8,895,925 citizens) could not speak Hungarian at all." While those nationalities who opposed Magyarization faced political and cultural challenges, these were less severe than the civic and fiscal mistreatment of minorities in some of Hungary’s neighboring countries during
8667-525: The other hand, coalitions formed by Hungarian nationalist parties - which enjoyed overwhelming support from ethnic Hungarian voters - consistently found themselves in the opposition. There was a brief exception during the period of 1906 to 1910, when the coalition of Hungarian-supported nationalist parties was able to form a government. The districts that predominantly supported the government were chiefly situated in regions inhabited by ethnic minorities, whereas opposition strongholds were found in areas with
8774-629: The person/citizens of the country rather than of nationalities/ethnic groups as communities) and civic nationalism , which encouraged ethnic minorities' cultural and linguistic assimilation, similar to the post- revolutionary "standardization" of the French language in France. By emphasizing minority rights and civil and political rights of the citizen/person based on individualism , Hungarian politicians sought to prevent establishment of politically autonomous territories for ethnic minorities. However
8881-769: The policy "One country – one language – one nation" during the Kossuth-led Revolution of 1848 . Some minority nationalists, such as the Slovak nationalist author and activist Janko Kráľ , were imprisoned or even sentenced to death in this period. As the 1848 Revolution progressed, the Austrians gained the upper hand with the help of the Russian Imperial Army. This led the Hungarian revolutionary government to attempt negotiations with Hungary's ethnic minorities, who comprised up to 40% of its armed forces. (The Hungarian revolutionary army
8988-424: The population), whereas only 30 deputies represented the other 72% of the population, which was predominantly Romanian. In 1913, even the electorate that elected only one-third of the deputies had a non-proportional ethnic composition. The Magyars who made up 54.5% of the population of the Kingdom of Hungary represented a 60.2% majority of the electorate. Ethnic Germans made up 10.4% of the population and 13.0% of
9095-482: The post-1867 Kingdom of Hungary was unfavourable to many of the non-Hungarian nationality, especially for Romanian minority because franchise was based on the income tax of the person. According to the 1874 election law, which remained unchanged until 1918, only the upper 5.9% to 6.5% of the whole population had voting rights. That effectively excluded almost the whole of the peasantry and the working class from Hungarian political life. The percentage of those on low incomes
9202-463: The progress of other European nations . For a long time, the number of non-Hungarians that lived in the Kingdom of Hungary was much larger than the number of ethnic Hungarians. According to the 1787 data, the population of the Kingdom of Hungary numbered 2,322,000 Hungarians (29%) and 5,681,000 non-Hungarians (71%). In 1809, the population numbered 3,000,000 Hungarians (30%) and 7,000,000 non-Hungarians (70%). An increasingly intense Magyarization policy
9309-487: The replacement of a non-Hungarian name with a Hungarian one. Magyarization was perceived by ethnic groups such as Romanians , Slovaks , Ruthenians ( Rusyns ), Croats , and Serbs as cultural aggression or active discrimination, especially in areas where national minorities formed the majority of the local population. Although Latin was the official language of state administration, legislation, and schooling from 1000 to 1784, smaller ethnic groups assimilated into
9416-471: The same time, the percentage of Romanian population decreased from 59.0% to 53.8% and the percentage of German population decreased from 11.9% to 10.7%. Changes were more significant in cities with predominantly German and Romanian population. For example, the percentage of Hungarian population increased in Braşov from 13.4% in 1850 to 43.43% in 1910, meanwhile the Romanian population decreased from 40% to 28.71% and
9523-414: The southern regions the majority were South Slavic Croats, Serbs and Slovenes and in the western regions the majority were Germans. The process of Magyarization did not succeed in imposing the Hungarian language as the most used language in all territories in the Kingdom of Hungary. In fact the profoundly multinational character of historic Transylvania was reflected in the fact that during the fifty years of
9630-426: The speakers themselves largely do not use it. Within ex-Yugoslavia, the term has largely been replaced by the ethnopolitical terms Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin, and Serbian. The use of the name "Croatian" for a language has historically been attested to, though not always distinctively. The first printed Croatian literary work is a vernacular Chakavian poem written in 1501 by Marko Marulić , titled " The History of
9737-449: The state's official language. The policies of Magyarization aimed to have a Hungarian language surname as a requirement for access to basic government services such as local administration, education, and justice. Between 1850 and 1910 the ethnic Hungarian population increased by 106.7%, while the increase of other ethnic groups was far slower: Serbians and Croatians 38.2%, Romanians 31.4% and Slovaks 10.7%. The Magyarization of Budapest
9844-431: The surrounding region, the Burgenland Croats preserved their Croatian language and its dialects of the Croatian regions from which they originated. Burgenland Croatian, as well as the general Croatian standard language, combines the Chakavian , Shtokavian and Kajkavian dialect. But unlike the Croatian standard language, which is mostly based on the most widespread Shtokavian dialect , the Burgenland variant of Croatian
9951-470: The universities. Jews were accounted for 48.5% of all physicians, and 49.4% of all lawyers/jurists in Hungary. Source: Paclisanu 1985 The Austro-Hungarian compromise and its supporting Liberal Party remained bitterly unpopular among the ethnic Hungarian voters, and the continuous successes of the pro-compromise Liberal Party in the Hungarian parliamentary elections caused long lasting frustration among ethnic Hungarian voters. The ethnic minorities had
10058-582: The years 1884–1901, when the SNS boycotted the election. Elections were public, voters had to say aloud who they were voting for to the electoral commission. This allowed Hungarian authorities to enact pressure on voters including the intervention of the armed forces and the persecution of Slovak candidates and their voters. The Hungarianization of names occurred mostly in bigger towns and cities, mostly in Budapest, in Hungarian majority regions like Southern Transdanubia , Danube–Tisza Interfluve (the territory between
10165-606: Was a volunteer army) On 28 July 1849, the revolutionary parliament enacted minority rights legislation, one of the first in Europe. This was insufficient to turn the tide, and the Hungarian revolutionary volunteer army under Artúr Görgey surrendered in August 1849 after the Habsburgs gained the support of Nicholas I 's Russia. The Hungarian national awakening had the lasting effect of triggering similar national revivals among
10272-462: Was also who more conciliatory toward ethnic minorities and criticized Kossuth for "pitting one nationality against another". While Széchenyi promoted Magyarization on the basis of the alleged "moral and intellectual supremacy" of Hungarian culture, he argued that Hungary had to first become worthy of emulation if Magyarization was to succeed. Kossuth's radical program gained more popular support than Széchenyi's. The nationalists thus initially supported
10379-455: Was appointed prime minister of Hungary . He became steadily more allied with the Magyar gentry, and the notion of a Hungarian political nation increasingly became one of a Magyar nation. "[A]ny political or social movement which challenged the hegemonic position of the leading role of Hungarians was liable to be repressed or charged with 'treason'..., 'libel' or 'incitement of ethnic hatred'. This
10486-474: Was founded in 1881 in Budapest . The aim of this private society was to provide advice and guidelines for those who wanted to Magyarize their surnames. Simon Telkes became the chairman of the society, and professed that "one can achieve being accepted as a true son of the nation by adopting a national name". The society began an advertising campaign in the newspapers and sent out circular letters. They also made
10593-644: Was halted by the political execution of Petar Zrinski and Fran Krsto Frankopan by the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I in Vienna in 1671. Subsequently, the Croatian elite in the 18th century gradually abandoned this combined Croatian standard. The Illyrian movement was a 19th-century pan- South Slavic political and cultural movement in Croatia that had the goal to standardise the regionally differentiated and orthographically inconsistent literary languages in Croatia, and finally merge them into
10700-554: Was higher among other nationalities than among the Magyars, with the exception of Germans and Jews who were generally richer than Hungarians, thus proportionally they had a much higher ratio of voters than the Hungarians. From a Hungarian point of view, the structure of the settlement system was based on differences in earning potential and wages. The Hungarians and Germans were much more urbanised than Slovaks, Romanians and Serbs in
10807-516: Was implemented after 1867. Although in Slovak , Romanian and Serbian historiography, administrative and often repressive Magyarization is usually singled out as the main factor accountable for the dramatic change in the ethnic composition of the Kingdom of Hungary in the 19th century, spontaneous assimilation was also an important factor. In this regard, it must be pointed out that large territories of central and southern Kingdom of Hungary lost their previous, predominantly Magyar population during
10914-487: Was not uncommon in other European countries in the 1860s but later the countries of Western Europe gradually lowered and at last abolished their census suffrage. That never happened in the Kingdom of Hungary, although electoral reform was one of the main topics of political debates in the last decades before World War I. Slovak national interests were represented by the Slovak National Party (SNS) which
11021-524: Was rapid and it implied not only the assimilation of the old inhabitants, but also the Magyarization of immigrants. In the capital of Hungary in 1850, 56% of the residents were Germans and only 33% Hungarians, but in 1910 almost 90% declared themselves Magyars. This evolution had beneficial influence on Hungarian culture and literature. According to census data, the Hungarian population of Transylvania increased from 24.9% in 1869 to 31.6% in 1910. In
11128-579: Was steadily decreasing: in the period between 1880 and 1913, when the ratio of Hungarian-only schools almost doubled, the ratio of minority language-schools almost halved. Nonetheless, Transylvanian Romanians had more Romanian-language schools under the Austro-Hungarian Empire rule than there were in the Romanian Kingdom itself. Thus, for example, in 1880, in Austro-Hungarian Empire there were 2,756 schools teaching exclusively in
11235-420: Was the main force in the fight for the emancipation of Slovaks and their main representative in establishing contacts with Romanians, Serbians and Czechs. The Hungarian government, however, did not recognize any of them as official representatives for the non-Hungarian nationalities. Pressure from the Hungarian government and irregularities at elections caused these parties to declare electoral passivity, such as in
11342-623: Was the only issue, as it would be, just a few decades later, during tsarist Russification –it nonetheless caused tensions within the Hungarian ruling class. The liberal revolutionary Lajos Kossuth advocated rapid Magyarization, pleading in the early 1840s in the newspaper Pesti Hírlap , "Let us hurry, let us hurry to Magyarize the Croats, the Romanians, and the Saxons , for otherwise we shall perish." Kossuth stressed that Hungarian had to be
11449-576: Was to be the fate of various Slovak , South Slav [e.g. Serb ], Romanian and Ruthene cultural societies and nationalist parties from 1876 onward". All of this only intensified after 1875, with the rise of Kálmán Tisza , who as minister of the Interior had ordered the closing of Matica slovenská on 6 April 1875. Until 1890, Tisza, when he served as prime minister, brought the Slovaks many other measures which prevented them from keeping pace with
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