Misplaced Pages

#131868

124-633: Sulawesi (formerly known as the Celebes) is a large island, extraordinarily contorted in shape, lying between Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo ) and the Maluku Island group (also known as the Moluccas). It is an island abundant in natural resources with a rich and varied array of cultures, including some of the most distinctive and anthropologically significant in Indonesia. The dominant groups of

248-919: A food source , and as a raw product, and depicted often in arts, such as in bamboo paintings and bambooworking . Bamboo, like wood , is a natural composite material with a high strength-to-weight ratio useful for structures. Bamboo's strength-to-weight ratio is similar to timber , and its strength is generally similar to a strong softwood or hardwood timber. Some bamboo species have displayed remarkable strength under test conditions. Bambusa tulda of Bangladesh and adjoining India has tested as high as 60,000 psi (400 MPa) in tensile strength . Other bamboo species make extraordinarily hard material. Bambusa tabacaria of China contains so much silica that it will make sparks when struck by an axe. Bambuseae (tropical woody bamboos) Olyreae (herbaceous bamboos) Arundinarieae (temperate woody bamboos) Pooideae Oryzoideae Bamboos have long been considered

372-429: A local delicacy . Bamboo is also used for livestock feed with research showing some bamboo varieties have higher protein content over other varieties of bamboo. Bamboo forestry (also known as bamboo farming, cultivation, agriculture or agroforestry) is a cultivation and raw material industry that provides the raw materials for the broader bamboo industry, worth over 72 billion dollars globally in 2019. Historically

496-931: A monophyletic group ; instead, the tropical woody and herbaceous bamboos are sister to the temperate woody bamboos. Altogether, more than 1,400 species are placed in 115 genera. 21 genera: 73 genera: 31 genera: Acidosasa , Ampelocalamus , Arundinaria , Bashania , Bergbambos , Chimonobambusa , Chimonocalamus , Drepanostachyum , Fargesia , Ferrocalamus , Gaoligongshania , Gelidocalamus , Himalayacalamus , Indocalamus , Indosasa , Kuruna , Oldeania , Oligostachyum , Phyllostachys , Pleioblastus , Pseudosasa , Sarocalamus , Sasa , Sasaella , Sasamorpha , Semiarundinaria , Shibataea , Sinobambusa , Thamnocalamus , Vietnamocalamus , Yushania . Most bamboo species are native to warm and moist tropical and to warm temperate climates. Their range also extends to cool mountainous regions and highland cloud forests . In

620-524: A slash and burn variety to wet-rice cultivation, and pig and buffalo raising. The native religion is megalithic and animist . Many of these native practices remain including animal sacrifices , ostentatious funeral rites and huge communal feasts. Their native faith only began to change when Protestant missionaries first arrived in 1909 with Dutch colonists. Today, the Toraja are 60 per cent Protestant Christians and 10 per cent Muslim. The beliefs of

744-532: A UNESCO World Heritage Site . The coast of northern tip of Sulawesi is identified as a site of highest marine biodiversity importance in the Coral Triangle . Early in the Pleistocene, Sulawesi had a dwarf elephant and a dwarf form of Stegodon , (an elephant relative, S. sompoensis ); later both were replaced by larger forms. A giant suid , Celebochoerus , was also formerly present. It

868-702: A blooming interval well in excess of 130 years. The lack of environmental impact on the time of flowering indicates the presence of some sort of "alarm clock" in each cell of the plant which signals the diversion of all energy to flower production and the cessation of vegetative growth. This mechanism, as well as the evolutionary cause behind it, is still largely a mystery. Some bamboo species are acknowledged as having high potential for becoming invasive species . A study commissioned by International Bamboo and Rattan Organisation , found that invasive species typically are varieties that spread via rhizomes rather than by clumping, as most commercially viable woody bamboos do. In

992-676: A chance to govern a difficult group. Padbruge commented that in the 1700s the Kaili population was significantly high and were a highly militant society. In the 1850s, a civil war erupted between the Kaili groups, including the Banawa, in which the Dutch colonial government decided to intervene. In the late 19th century, the Sarasins journeyed through the Palu valley as part of a major initiative to bring

1116-644: A cluster between Sulawesi and Maluku . All the above-mentioned islands and many smaller ones off the coasts of Sulawesiare administratively part of Sulawesi's six provinces. The island slopes up from the shores of the deep seas surrounding the island to a high, mostly non-volcanic, mountainous interior. Active volcanoes are found in the northern Minahasa Peninsula , stretching north to the Sangihe Islands . The northern peninsula contains several active volcanoes such as Mount Lokon , Mount Awu , Soputan and Karangetang . According to plate reconstructions ,

1240-625: A commercial basis in the Great Lakes region of east-central Africa, especially in Rwanda. In the United States, several companies are growing, harvesting, and distributing species such as Phyllostachys nigra (Henon) and Phyllostachys edulis (Moso). The two general patterns for the growth of bamboo are "clumping", and "running", with short and long underground rhizomes, respectively. Clumping bamboo species tend to spread slowly, as

1364-484: A crew of ten about three months to build and another month to carve and paint the outside walls. Bamboo scaffold is erected for the duration of the construction phase. Traditionally tongue and groove joinery has been used without the need for nails. A number of components are pre-fabricated with final assembly in-situ . Although built on a log cabin -style sub-structure, tongkonan are set on large vertical wooden piles with mortises cut into their ends to grasp

SECTION 10

#1732771918132

1488-457: A dish called gulai rebung . Other recipes using bamboo shoots are sayur lodeh (mixed vegetables in coconut milk) and lun pia (sometimes written lumpia : fried wrapped bamboo shoots with vegetables). The shoots of some species contain toxins that need to be leached or boiled out before they can be eaten safely. Pickled bamboo, used as a condiment, may also be made from the pith of the young shoots. The sap of young stalks tapped during

1612-706: A diverse group of mostly evergreen perennial flowering plants making up the subfamily Bambusoideae of the grass family Poaceae . Giant bamboos are the largest members of the grass family, in the case of Dendrocalamus sinicus having individual stalks ( culms ) reaching a length of 46 meters (151 ft), up to 36 centimeters (14 in) in thickness and a weight of up to 450 kilograms (1,000 lb). The internodes of bamboos can also be of great length. Kinabaluchloa wrayi has internodes up to 2.5 meters (8 ft) in length. and Arthrostylidium schomburgkii has internodes up to 5 meters (16 ft) in length, exceeded in length only by papyrus . By contrast,

1736-809: A dominant raw material in South and South East Asia, the global bamboo industry has significantly grown in recent decades in part because of the high sustainability of bamboo as compared to other biomass cultivation strategies, such as traditional timber forestry . For example, as of 2016, the U.S. Fiber corporation Resource Fiber is contracting farmers in the United States for bamboo cultivation. Or in 2009, United Nations Industrial Development Organization published guidelines for cultivation of bamboo in semi-arid climates in Ethiopia and Kenya. Because bamboo can grow on otherwise marginal land , bamboo can be profitably cultivated in many degraded lands. Moreover, because of

1860-403: A flower, star, or eye, another depicted astronomic rays of light. In January 2021, archaeologists announced the discovery of cave art that is at least 45,500 years old in a Leang Tedongnge cave. According to the journal Science Advances , the cave painting of a warty pig is the earliest evidence of human settlement of the region. An adult male pig, measuring 136 cm x 54 cm and what

1984-402: A garnish known as hendua . It is also cooked with tender pumpkin leaves to make sag green leaves. In Konkani cuisine, the tender shoots ( kirlu ) are grated and cooked with crushed jackfruit seeds to prepare kirla sukke . In southern India and some regions of southwest China, the seeds of the dying bamboo plant are consumed as a grain known as "bamboo rice". The taste of cooked bamboo seeds

2108-637: A hand was 39,900 years old, which brings it among the oldest known hand stencils in the world (the record is detained so far by a 64,000 years-old stencil hand made by a Neanderthal in Maltravieso cave , Cáceres , Spain). Dr. Maxime Aubert, of Griffith University in Queensland , Australia , said that was the minimum age for the outline in Pettakere Cave in Maros , and added: "Next to it

2232-425: A human. Mountain gorillas of Central Africa also feed on bamboo, and have been documented consuming bamboo sap which was fermented and alcoholic; chimpanzees and elephants of the region also eat the stalks. The larvae of the bamboo borer (the moth Omphisa fuscidentalis ) of Laos , Myanmar , Thailand and Yunnan, China feed off the pulp of live bamboo. In turn, these caterpillars are considered

2356-400: A meeting place. Common to Toraja of all religions is the cultural centrality of the tongkonan as ancestral homes. The homes are the focus of family identity and tradition, representing the descendants of a founding ancestor. Kis Jovak et al. (1988) describes the tongkonan as being not simply a house but symbolising a Torajan's microcosm . As the focus of ancestral identity, it is through

2480-424: A mixture of hunting and gathering and swidden or shifting agriculture. Speculative planting of wet rice may have taken place along the margins of the lakes and rivers. In Central Sulawesi, there are more than 400 granite megaliths , which various archaeological studies have dated to be from 3000 BC to AD 1300. They vary in size from a few centimeters to approximately 4.5 meters (15 ft). The original purpose of

2604-465: A more typical growth rate for many commonly cultivated bamboos in temperate climates is in the range of 30–100 mm (1–4 in) per day during the growing period. Primarily growing in regions of warmer climates during the late Cretaceous period , vast fields existed in what is now Asia. Some of the largest timber bamboo grow over 30 m (100 ft) tall, and be as large as 250–300 mm (10–12 in) in diameter. The size range for mature bamboo

SECTION 20

#1732771918132

2728-639: A peninsula stretching southwards from Southwest Sulawesi into the Flores Sea are administratively part of Sulawesi. The Sangihe Islands and Talaud Islands stretch northward from the northeastern tip of Sulawesi, while Buton and Muna Islands and their neighbors lie off its southeast peninsula, the Togian Islands are in the Gulf of Tomini, and Peleng Island and the Banggai Islands form

2852-446: A plant declines and often dies entirely. In fact, many species only flower at intervals as long as 65 or 120 years. These taxa exhibit mass flowering (or gregarious flowering), with all plants in a particular 'cohort' flowering over a several-year period. Any plant derived through clonal propagation from this cohort will also flower regardless of whether it has been planted in a different location. The longest mass flowering interval known

2976-699: A prosperity and ritual sacrifice. Cockerels are represented in the colours of red, white, yellow and black; colors which represent the indigenous Toraja religion the Aluk To Dolo (the Way of the Ancestors). Black symbolises death and darkness; yellow, God's blessing and power; white, the colour of flesh and bone symbolising purity; and red, the colour of blood symbolising human life. The pigments are sourced from common materials; black from soot; white from lime ; red and yellow from colored earth; and tuak (palm wine)

3100-857: A result of the status quo. In 1905, the entire island became part of the Dutch state colony of the Netherlands East Indies until Japanese occupation in the Second World War . During the Indonesian National Revolution , the Dutch Captain 'Turk' Westerling led campaigns in which hundreds, maybe thousands died during the South Sulawesi Campaign . Following the transfer of sovereignty in December 1949, Sulawesi became part of

3224-435: A ritual sense, the tongkonan , like many traditional Indonesian housing styles, has a small, dark and smoky interior, and consequently is losing favour amongst contemporary Torajans. Instead, many Torajan villagers are choosing to live in a single storey 'Pan-Indonesia' style residence. The more spacious, brighter and more ventilated bugis -type dwelling is also increasingly being adopted. An approach more in line with tradition

3348-587: A single Miocene collision of West Sulawesi with the Sula Spur, the western end of an ancient folded belt of Variscan origin in the Late Paleozoic. The Bone Basin lies between the eastern and western arms of Sulawesi. According to recent studies, the basin has been opened up due to extensional forces. The basin is bounded by normal faults on each side of the basin. Each side of the basin is surrounded by uplifted basement rock with young sediments found in

3472-490: A wide range of hardiness depending on species and locale. Small or young specimens of an individual species produce small culms initially. As the clump and its rhizome system mature, taller and larger culms are produced each year until the plant approaches its particular species limits of height and diameter. Many tropical bamboo species die at or near freezing temperatures, while some of the hardier temperate bamboos survive temperatures as low as −29 °C (−20 °F). Some of

3596-412: Is 120 years, and it is for the species Phyllostachys bambusoides (Sieb. & Zucc.). In this species, all plants of the same stock flower at the same time, regardless of differences in geographic locations or climatic conditions, and then the bamboo dies. The commercially important bamboo Guadua, or Cana brava ( Guadua angustifolia ) bloomed for the first time in recorded history in 1971, suggesting

3720-410: Is a pig that has a minimum age of 35,400 years old, and this is one of the oldest figurative depictions in the world, if not the oldest one." On 11 December 2019, a team of researchers led by Dr. Maxime Aubert announced the discovery of the oldest hunting scenes in prehistoric art in the world that is more than 44,000 years old from the limestone cave of Leang Bulu' Sipong 4. Archaeologists determined

3844-635: Is a sustainable crop that brings environmental, economic and social benefits. Its production can be used from construction to food. Recently, it was qualified and classified for the National Commission for Sustainable Development Objectives - CNDOS of the Presidency of the Republic of the federal government of Brazil. Bamboo used for construction purposes must be harvested when the culms reach their greatest strength and when sugar levels in

Tongkonan - Misplaced Pages Continue

3968-587: Is an island in Indonesia . One of the four Greater Sunda Islands , and the world's 11th-largest island , it is situated east of Borneo , west of the Maluku Islands , and south of Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago . Within Indonesia, only Sumatra , Borneo, and Papua are larger in territory, and only Java and Sumatra are more populous. The landmass of Sulawesi includes four peninsulas:

4092-415: Is home to a large number of endemic rodent genera. Murid rodent genera endemic to Sulawesi and immediately adjacent islands (such as the Togian Islands , Buton Island , and Muna Island ) are Bunomys , Echiothrix , Margaretamys , Taeromys and Tateomys as well as the single-species genera Eropeplus , Hyorhinomys , Melasmothrix , Paucidentomys , Paruromys , Sommeromys and

4216-427: Is likely a Sulawesi or Celebes warty pig (Sus celebensis), was depicted with horn-like facial warts and two hand prints above its hindquarters. According to co-author Adam Brumm, there are two other pigs that are partly preserved and it appears the warty pig was observing a fight between the two other pigs. A bronze Amaravathi statue was discovered at Sikendeng , South Sulawesi near Karama river in 1921 which

4340-571: Is not known why these two ingredients appeared together; one was perhaps the product of the other. In 1367, several identified polities located on the island were mentioned in the Javanese manuscript Nagarakretagama dated from the Majapahit period. Canto 14 mentioned polities including Gowa, Makassar, Luwu and Banggai. It seems that by the 14th century, polities in the island were connected in an archipelagic maritime trading network, centered in

4464-417: Is obtained through a series of vertical hanging spars supporting upwardly angled beams. A vertical free-standing pole supports that portion of the ridge pole extending beyond the ridge purlin . Bamboo staves bound with rattan are assembled transversely in layers and tied longitudinally to the rafters forming the roof. The under roofing is of bamboo culm. Wooden boards laid over thick hardwood joists form

4588-459: Is related to the species, soil and climate conditions. Some send out runners of several meters a year, while others stay in the same general area for long periods. If neglected, over time, they can cause problems by moving into adjacent areas. Bamboos include some of the fastest-growing plants on Earth, with reported growth rates up to 910 mm (36 in) in 24 hours. These depend on local soil and climatic conditions, as well as species, and

4712-450: Is reported to be similar to wheat and the appearance similar to rice, but bamboo seeds have been found to have lower nutrient levels than both. The seeds can be pulverized into a flour with which to make cakes. The Indian state of Sikkim has promoted bamboo water bottles to keep the state free from plastic bottles The empty hollow in the stalks of larger bamboo is often used to cook food in many Asian cultures. Soups are boiled and rice

4836-486: Is species-dependent, with the smallest bamboos reaching only several inches high at maturity. A typical height range covering many of the common bamboos grown in the United States is 4.5–12 m (15–39 ft), depending on species. Anji County of China, known as the "Town of Bamboo", provides the optimal climate and soil conditions to grow, harvest, and process some of the most valued bamboo poles available worldwide. Unlike all trees, individual bamboo culms emerge from

4960-402: Is the saddleback roof with gables that are dramatically upswept. The internal space is small in comparison with the overwhelming roof structure that covers it. Interiors are typically cramped and dark with few windows, however, most of daily life is lived outside the homes, with interiors simply intended for sleeping, storage, meetings and occasionally protection. A large tongkonan can take

5084-402: Is the house of the highest authority and it is used as the center of government. The second type is tongkonan pekamberan , which belongs to the family group members, who have some authorities in local traditions (known as adat ). The last one is tongkonan batu , which belongs to the ordinary family members. Tongkonan are customarily built facing north-south. Dominating the entire structure

Tongkonan - Misplaced Pages Continue

5208-424: Is the original ancestral home in which the aluk of a particular adat territory were established. Tongkonan according to its literal translation, is the place 'to sit' and it is the traditional centre of governance. Customarily people would assemble to sit in a place of historical significance to discuss and resolve matters of communal import. This site would be the seat of residence of the most respected member of

5332-684: Is thought that many of the migrants to Sulawesi arrived via the Philippines , while Sulawesi in turn served as a way station for migrants to Flores . A Pleistocene faunal turnover is recognized, with the competitive displacement of several indigenous tarsiers by more recently arriving ones and of Celebochoerus by other medium-sized herbivores like the babirusa , anoa and Celebes warty pig . There are 127 known extant native mammalian species in Sulawesi. A large percentage, 62% (79 species) are endemic , meaning that they are found nowhere else in

5456-460: Is to add an extra storey and a saddleback roof which fulfils contemporary expectations of space and brightness, while maintaining the prestige of a tongkonan . Tongkonan are a viable part of the market for managed tourism, their seminal value drawing enough people to make Tana Toraja one of Indonesia's most significant destinations for international tourists ; a region particularly popular with European visitors. Today, because tourism has displayed

5580-526: Is unclear, it might be considered a Portuguese rendering of the native name "Sulawesi". Sulawesi is the world's eleventh-largest island , covering an area of 186,216.16 km (71,898 sq mi) (including minor islands administered as part of Sulawesi). The central part of the island is ruggedly mountainous, such that the island's peninsulas have traditionally been remote from each other, with better connections by sea than by road. The three bays that divide Sulawesi's peninsulas are, from north to south,

5704-405: Is used to strengthen the colors. Many of the motifs are identical to those on Dong Son kettle drums. Another source of the motifs is thought to be Hindu-Buddhist, particularly the square cross motifs that may have alternatively been copied from Indian trade cloths. Christian toraja use the cross as a decorative symbol of their faith. Payment for the decorating artists has traditionally been in

5828-440: Is vertically divided into three levels: the attic where the regalia and family heirlooms are kept; the living area; and the space under the floor where domesticated animals are kept. These compare with the upper world, the middle world, and the under world. There are three types of tongkonan which are classified according to their function in society. A tongkonan layuk ('grand tongkonan') or tongkonan pesio' aluk ('aluk maker')

5952-587: The Asia-Pacific region , they occur across East Asia, from north to 50 °N latitude in Sakhalin , to south to northern Australia , and west to India and the Himalayas . China, Japan, Korea, India and Australia, all have several endemic populations. They also occur in small numbers in sub-Saharan Africa , confined to tropical areas, from southern Senegal in the north to southern Mozambique and Madagascar in

6076-465: The Austronesian ethnic group, speaking various related Malayo-Polynesian languages. Like many Indonesian ethnic groups, the Toraja were head-hunters and participants in inter-village raids; villages were thus located strategically on hill tops and were heavily fortified. The Dutch colonialists pacified the Toraja and led them to build their villages in valleys and changed their agriculture from

6200-478: The Chinese , Balinese , and Indian communities. The economy of Sulawesi is heavily centered around agriculture, fishing, mining, and forestry. The island was administered as one province between 1945 and 1960. In 1960 it was divided into two provinces – North and Central Sulawesi, and South and Southeast Sulawesi. In 1964 both of these were again divided, the former into North Sulawesi and Central Sulawesi, and

6324-673: The Ehrhartoideae . The subfamily in its current sense belongs to the BOP clade of grasses, where it is sister to the Pooideae (bluegrasses and relatives). The bamboos comprise three clades classified as tribes, and these strongly correspond with geographic divisions representing the New World herbaceous species ( Olyreae ), tropical woody bamboos ( Bambuseae ), and temperate woody bamboos ( Arundinarieae ). The woody bamboos do not form

SECTION 50

#1732771918132

6448-490: The Lariang and pygmy tarsiers) as well as diurnal macaques ( Heck's , the booted , crested black , Gorontalo , moor , and Tonkean macaques). While most of Sulawesi's mammals are placental and have Asian relatives, several species of cuscus , arboreal marsupials of Australasian origin, are also present ( Ailurops ursinus and Strigocuscus celebensis , which are diurnal and nocturnal, respectively). Sulawesi

6572-728: The Southeastern United States . Bamboo thickets called canebrakes once formed a dominant ecosystem in some parts of the Southeastern United States, but they are now considered critically endangered ecosystems. Canada and continental Europe are not known to have any native species of bamboo. Many species are also cultivated as garden plants outside of this range, including in Europe and areas of North America where no native wild bamboo exists. Recently, some attempts have been made to grow bamboo on

6696-828: The Tomini , the Tolo and the Boni . These separate the Minahasa or Northern Peninsula , the East Peninsula , the Southeast Peninsula and the South Peninsula . The Strait of Makassar runs along the western side of the island. The island is surrounded by Borneo to the west, by the Philippines to the north, by Maluku to the east, and by Flores and Timor to the south. The Selayar Islands make up

6820-517: The federal United States of Indonesia , which in 1950 became absorbed into the unitary Republic of Indonesia . The Portuguese were rumoured to have a fort in Parigi in 1555. The Kaili were an important group based in the Palu valley and related to the Toraja. Scholars relate that their control swayed under Ternate and Makassar, but this might have been a decision by the Dutch to give their vassals

6944-405: The internodal regions of the stem are usually hollow and the vascular bundles in the cross-section are scattered throughout the walls of the stalk instead of in a cylindrical cambium layer between the bark ( phloem ) and the wood ( xylem ) as in dicots and conifers . The dicotyledonous woody xylem is also absent. The absence of secondary growth wood causes the stems of monocots , including

7068-478: The palms and large bamboos, to be columnar rather than tapering. Bamboos include some of the fastest-growing plants in the world, due to a unique rhizome -dependent system. Certain species of bamboo can grow 91 centimeters (36 inches) within a 24-hour period, at a rate of almost 40 millimeters ( 1 + 1 ⁄ 2  in) an hour (equivalent to 1 mm (0.04 in) every 90 seconds). Growth up to 120 centimeters (47.2 in) in 24 hours has been observed in

7192-410: The red panda of Nepal , and the bamboo lemurs of Madagascar . The red panda can eat up to 9 pounds (4.1 kg) a day which is also about the full body weight of the animal. With raw bamboo containing trace amounts of harmful cyanide with higher concentrations in bamboo shoots, the golden bamboo lemur ingests many times the quantity of the taxiphyllin -containing bamboo that would be lethal to

7316-519: The sap are at their lowest, as high sugar content increases the ease and rate of pest infestation. As compared to forest trees, bamboo species grow fast. Bamboo plantations can be readily harvested for a shorter period than tree plantations. Harvesting of bamboo is typically undertaken according to these cycles: Leaching is the removal of sap after harvest. In many areas of the world, the sap levels in harvested bamboo are reduced either through leaching or post-harvest photosynthesis. For example: In

7440-513: The semiaquatic Waiomys . All nine sciurids are from three endemic genera, Hyosciurus , Prosciurillus and Rubrisciurus . While over 20 bat species are present on Sulawesi, only a portion of these are endemic: Rhinolophus tatar , Scotophilus celebensis and the megabats Acerodon celebensis , Boneia bidens , Dobsonia exoleta , Harpyionycteris celebensis , Neopteryx frosti , Rousettus celebensis and Styloctenium wallacei . Bamboo Bamboos are

7564-414: The tongkonan that Torajans consider themselves related to parents, grandparents and more distant relatives. Torajans belong to more than one house as they trace descent bilaterally - that is, through both the male and female line. Upon marriage, Toraja men customarily live in their wives' home. If divorced, possession of the house is granted to the wife, although the husband may be compensated by being given

SECTION 60

#1732771918132

7688-401: The 19th century. Most Muslims are Sunnis . Christians form a substantial minority on the island. According to the demographer Toby Alice Volkman, 17% of Sulawesi's population is Protestant and less than 2% is Catholic . Christians are concentrated on the tip of the northern peninsula around the city of Manado , which is inhabited by the Minahasa , a predominantly Protestant people, and

7812-426: The 2000 census, the population of the provinces of Sulawesi was 14,946,488, about 7.25% of Indonesia's total population. By the 2010 Census, the total had reached 17,371,782, and the 2020 Census recorded a total of 19,896,951. The official estimate for mid-2023 was 20,568,411. The largest city on Sulawesi is Makassar . Religion in Sulawesi (2023) Islam is the majority religion in Sulawesi. The conversion of

7936-572: The Bare'e-Speaking Toradja of Central Celebes," which is invaluable for English-speaking researchers. One of the most recent publications is "When the bones are left," a study of the material culture of central Sulawesi, offering extensive analysis. Also worthy of study are the brilliant works of Monnig Atkinson on the Wana shamans who live in the Mori area. Population of Sulawesi by province (2020 Census) At

8060-517: The Himalayas. In Assam , India, for example, it is called khorisa . In Nepal , a delicacy popular across ethnic boundaries consists of bamboo shoots fermented with turmeric and oil, and cooked with potatoes into a dish that usually accompanies rice ( alu tama ( आलु तामा ) in Nepali ). In Indonesia , they are sliced thin and then boiled with santan (thick coconut milk) and spices to make

8184-447: The Kaili under Dutch rule. Some very surprising and interesting photographs were taken of shamans called Tadulako. Further Christian religious missions entered the area to make one of the most detailed ethnographic studies in the early 20th century. A Swede by the name of Walter Kaudern later studied much of the literature and produced a synthesis. Erskine Downs in the 1950s produced a summary of Kruyts and Andrianis work: "The religion of

8308-602: The Majapahit port in East Java. By 1400, a number of nascent agricultural principalities had arisen in the western Cenrana valley, as well as on the south coast and on the west coast near modern Parepare. The first Europeans to visit the island (which they believed to be an archipelago due to its contorted shape) were the Portuguese sailors Simão de Abreu in 1523, and Gomes de Sequeira (among others) in 1525, sent from

8432-532: The Mamasa Toraja, however, are orientated to the direction of the river with their rice barns aligned perpendicular to the house. The tongkonan at Ke'te' Kesu' is reputed to be 500 years old; too old to trace a direct descendant from the founder to maintain the title that goes with the house. The buildings themselves, however, are constantly maintained and renewed, thus this age refers to the length of time years for which that particular site has been used as

8556-629: The Moluccas in search of gold, which the islands had the reputation of producing. A Portuguese base was installed in Makassar in the first decades of the 16th century, lasting until 1665, when it was taken by the Dutch. The Dutch had arrived in Sulawesi in 1605 and were quickly followed by the English, who established a factory in Makassar. From 1660, the Dutch were at war with Gowa , the major Makassar west coast power. In 1669, Admiral Speelman forced

8680-412: The Toraja. Good roads now reach Tana Toraja from Makassar , the largest city in Sulawesi. This brings in a seasonal influx of foreign tourists who, whilst injecting their money into the local economy, have not yet had much lasting impact on local people's lives. The word 'tongkonan' is derived from the Toraja word tongkon (‘to sit’) and literally means the place where family members meet. According to

8804-690: The Torajan myth , the first tongkonan house was built in heaven by Puang Matua , the Creator . It was built on four poles and the roof was made of Indian cloth . When the first Torajan ancestor descended to earth, he imitated the heavenly house and held a big ceremony. An alternative legend, describes the Toraja arriving from the north by boats, but caught in a fierce storm, their boats were so badly damaged that they used them as roofs for their new houses. There are three types of tongkonan. Tongkonan layuk

8928-589: The United States, the National Invasive Species Information Center agency of the Department of Agriculture has Golden Bamboo ( Phyllostachys aurea ) listed as an invasive species. Bamboo contains large amounts of protein and very low amounts of carbohydrates allowing this plant to be the source of food for many animals. Soft bamboo shoots , stems and leaves are the major food source of the giant panda of China,

9052-482: The age of the depiction of hunting a pig and buffalo thanks to the calcite 'popcorn', different isotope levels of radioactive uranium and thorium . In March 2020, two small stone ' plaquettes ' were found by Griffith University archaeologists in the Leang Bulu Bettue cave, dated to a time between 26,000 and 14,000 years ago. While one of the stones contained an anoa (water buffalo) and what may be

9176-490: The approval of law n~21,162 in the state of Paraná , which encourages Bamboo Culture aiming at the dissemination of its agricultural cultivation and the valorization of bamboo as an instrument for promoting the sustainable socioeconomic development of the State through its multiple functionalities. Bamboo cultivation neutralizes carbon emissions. Bamboo cultivation is cheap and in addition to adding value to its production chain, it

9300-453: The arrival of a group from east Borneo speaking a Proto- South Sulawesi language (PSS). Initial settlement was probably around the mouth of the Sa'dan river, on the northwest coast of the peninsula, although the south coast has also been suggested. Subsequent migrations across the mountainous landscape resulted in the geographical isolation of PSS speakers and the evolution of their languages into

9424-438: The community. This home would thus be developed into a grand building. The second type is tongkonan pekamberan , or tongkonan pekaindoran which belongs to the family group members and offspring of the founder. It is their duty to carry out local traditions (known as adat ). The last one is tongkonan batu , which belongs to the ordinary family members. Traditionally, only the nobility could afford to build large tongkonan and

9548-541: The correct time of year and then exposed to ground contact or rain will break down just as quickly as incorrectly harvested material. Gardeners working with bamboo plants have occasionally reported allergic reactions varying from no effects during previous exposures, to immediate itchiness and rash developing into red welts after several hours where the skin had been in contact with the plant ( contact allergy ), and in some cases into swollen eyelids and breathing difficulties (dyspnoea). A skin prick test using bamboo extract

9672-657: The culm hardens further. The shoot is now a fully mature culm. Over the next 2–5 years (depending on species), fungus begins to form on the outside of the culm, which eventually penetrates and overcomes the culm. Around 5–8 years later (species- and climate-dependent), the fungal growths cause the culm to collapse and decay. This brief life means culms are ready for harvest and suitable for use in construction within about three to seven years. Individual bamboo culms do not get any taller or larger in diameter in subsequent years than they do in their first year, and they do not replace any growth lost from pruning or natural breakage. Bamboo has

9796-492: The deadly 2018 and 2021 quakes. Off the eastern coast of Sulawesi, the North Banda Sea was created through subduction rollback during the early Miocene. Evidence for this tectonic event lies with the extensive interconnected fault network found in the area, a volcanic seamount with its surrounding ridges, and an accretionary wedge. Off the coast of east Selawesti and Banggai is an accumulation of carbonate rocks from

9920-580: The eight families of the South Sulawesi language group. If each group can be said to have a homeland, that of the Bugis – today the most numerous group – was around lakes Témpé and Sidénréng in the Walennaé depression. Here for some 2,000 years lived the linguistic group that would become the modern Bugis; the archaic name of this group (which is preserved in other local languages) was Ugiq. Despite

10044-423: The elaborate ceremonies associated with them. Ordinary residences, known as banua are smaller, less decorated homes versions of tongkonan , through which families’ descent would also be traced. Generally speaking their occupants would be families of lower social status, families that once constituted part of a greater family's fiefdom. These homes may also be converted into tongkonan after several generations of

10168-645: The fact that today they are closely linked with the Makassarese , the closest linguistic neighbors of the Bugis are the Torajans . Pre-1200 Bugis society was most likely organized into chiefdoms . Some anthropologists have speculated these chiefdoms would have warred and, in times of peace, interbred. Further, they have speculated that personal security would have been negligible and head-hunting an established cultural practice. The political economy would have been

10292-399: The floors. Nowadays, zinc roofing sheets and nails are increasingly used. In larger Tana Toraja villages, houses are arranged in a row, side by side, with their roofs on a north-south alignment with the front gable facing north. Opposite each house is the family's rice barn, or alang customarily a symbol of family wealth, and together they form a second row of parallel buildings. Houses of

10416-440: The form of buffalo . Water is also a common theme in designs and represents life, fertility and prolific rice fields. Buffalo horns hung in a vertical array on the front gable are a sign of prestige and are customarily used to signify the wealth of the household. Furthermore, a buffalo head made from painted wood and buffalo-dung, but crowned with real horns, is mounted on the façades. Although still commanding great prestige in

10540-405: The ground at their full diameter and grow to their full height in a single growing season of three to four months. During this time, each new shoot grows vertically into a culm with no branching out until the majority of the mature height is reached. Then, the branches extend from the nodes and leafing out occurs. In the next year, the pulpy wall of each culm slowly hardens. During the third year,

10664-429: The growth pattern of the rhizomes is to simply expand the root mass gradually, similar to ornamental grasses. Running bamboos need to be controlled during cultivation because of their potential for aggressive behavior. They spread mainly through their rhizomes , which can spread widely underground and send up new culms to break through the surface. Running bamboo species are highly variable in their tendency to spread; this

10788-516: The hardiest bamboo species are grown in USDA plant hardiness zone 5, although they typically defoliate and may even lose all above-ground growth, yet the rhizomes survive and send up shoots again the next spring. In milder climates, such as USDA zone 7 and above, most bamboo remain fully leafed out and green year-round. Bamboos seldom and unpredictably flower and the frequency of flowering varies greatly from species to species. Once flowering takes place,

10912-422: The horizontal tie beams . The tops of the piles are notched for the longitudinal and transverse beams that support the upper structure. The remainder of the sub-structure is assembled in-situ . The transverse beams are fitted into the notched piles, and then notched to fit the longitudinal beams. Side panels, which are often decorated, are then formed on these main horizontal beams. The distinctive curved roof shape

11036-457: The individual designs represent what is important to the particular family, some also represent the social status of the family associated with the tongkonan. Other houses have no carvings or painting; their surfaces are simply bare weather-worn timbers. Circular motifs represent the sun, the symbol of power. Golden kris ('daggers') motifs symbolise wealth. Geometric spiralling designs and motifs are used that include buffalo heads - representing

11160-463: The instance of Japanese giant timber bamboo ( Phyllostachys bambusoides ). This rapid growth and tolerance for marginal land , make bamboo a good candidate for afforestation , carbon sequestration and climate change mitigation . Bamboo is versatile and has notable economic and cultural significance in South Asia , Southeast Asia , and East Asia , being used for building materials , as

11284-423: The island and separates the island from Borneo. The name Sulawesi possibly comes from the words sula ("island") and besi ("iron") and may refer to the historical export of iron from the rich Lake Matano iron deposits . The name came into common use in English following Indonesian independence . The name Celebes was originally given to the island by Portuguese explorers . While its direct translation

11408-401: The island are the provincial capitals of Makassar , Manado , Palu , Kendari , and Gorontalo (the provincial capital of West Sulawesi – the town of Mamuju – is not a city); there are six other cities – Bitung, Palopo, Bau-Bau, Parepare, Kotamobagu and Tomohun. Sulawesi is part of Wallacea , meaning that it has a mix of both Indomalayan and Australasian species that reached

11532-432: The island are the seafaring and once piratical Muslim Bugis and Makassarese residing in the island's south-west, and the strongly Christian Minahasa of the northern peninsula. The Toraja of South Sulawesi are, however, arguably one of the most distinctive of ethnic groups in all Indonesia. The name Toraja is of Bugis origin and is given to the people of rugged northern part of the south peninsula. The Toraja are

11656-417: The island by crossing deep-water oceanic barriers . The flora includes one native eucalypt, E. deglupta . There are 8 national parks on the island, of which 4 are mostly marine . The parks with the largest terrestrial area are Bogani Nani Wartabone with 2,871 km and Lore Lindu National Park with 2,290 km . Bunaken National Park , which protects a rich coral ecosystem, has been proposed as

11780-603: The island is believed to have been formed by the collision of terranes from the Asian Plate (forming the west and southwest) and from the Australian Plate (forming the southeast and Banggai ), with island arcs previously in the Pacific (forming the north and east peninsulas). Because of its several tectonic origins, various faults scar the land and as a result the island is prone to earthquakes , including

11904-478: The larger bamboos, particularly species in the genus Phyllostachys , are known as "timber bamboos". Bamboo is typically harvested as a source material for construction, food, crafts and other manufactured goods. In Brazil, the Brazilian Center for Innovation and Sustainability - CEBIS , a non-profit organization, promotes the development of Brazil's bamboo production chain. Last year , it helped with

12028-626: The late Miocene. These carbonates are likely pinnacle reefs and the carbonate platform  has a total thickness of around 180–770 meters. Sulawesi, in contrast to most of the other islands in the biogeographical region of Wallacea , is not truly oceanic, but a composite island at the centre of the Asia-Australia collision zone . Parts of the island were formerly attached to either the Asian or Australian continental margin and became separated from these areas by vicariant processes . In

12152-402: The latter into South Sulawesi and Southeast Sulawesi. Today, it is subdivided into six provinces : Gorontalo , West Sulawesi , South Sulawesi , Central Sulawesi , Southeast Sulawesi , and North Sulawesi . Among these, the newest provinces are Gorontalo, established in 2000 from part of North Sulawesi, and West Sulawesi, established in 2004 from part of South Sulawesi. The largest cities on

12276-645: The lowlands of the south western peninsula (South Sulawesi) to Islam occurred in the early 17th century. The kingdom of Luwu in the Gulf of Bone was the first to embrace Islam in February 1605; the Makassar kingdom of Gowa-Talloq, centred on the modern-day city of Makassar , followed suit in September. However, the Gorontalo and the Mongondow peoples of the northern peninsula largely converted to Islam only in

12400-550: The megaliths is unknown. Approximately 30 of the megaliths represent human forms. Other megaliths are in form of large pots ( Kalamba ) and stone plates ( Tutu'na ). A burial of a woman associated with the hunter-gatherer Toalean culture dating to 7,000 years ago has yielded DNA that has provided rare insight into early migrations in and through the region. In October 2014, it was announced that cave paintings in Maros had been dated as being approximately 40,000 years old. One of

12524-512: The middle. The past geological history has allowed for a large accumulation of carbonates which could lead to a higher potential of oil and gas occurrences. However, the faults present in the basin makes it a very complicated system. The oldest evidence for humans on Sulawesi are stone tools produced by archaic humans , dating from over 200,000 to 100,000 years ago, that were found at the Talepu site in southwestern Sulawesi. Before October 2014,

12648-605: The most basal grass genera, mostly because of the presence of bracteate , indeterminate inflorescences, "pseudospikelets", and flowers with three lodicules , six stamens , and three stigmata . Following more recent molecular phylogenetic research, many tribes and genera of grasses formerly included in the Bambusoideae are now classified in other subfamilies, e.g. the Anomochlooideae , the Puelioideae , and

12772-613: The northern Minahasa Peninsula , the East Peninsula , the South Peninsula , and the Southeast Peninsula . Three gulfs separate these peninsulas: the Gulf of Tomini between the northern Minahasa and East peninsulas, the Tolo Gulf between the East and Southeast peninsulas, and the Bone Gulf between the South and Southeast peninsulas. The Strait of Makassar runs along the western side of

12896-675: The northernmost Sangir and Talaud Islands . The Toraja people of Tana Toraja in South Sulawesi have largely converted to Christianity since Indonesia's independence. There are also substantial numbers of Christians around Lake Poso in Central Sulawesi, among the Pamona speaking peoples of Central Sulawesi, and near Mamasa. Though most people identify themselves as Muslims or Christians, they often subscribe to local beliefs and deities as well . Smaller communities of Buddhists and Hindus are also found on Sulawesi, usually among

13020-448: The outside walls of tongkonan are often decorated by red, black, and yellow colored wood, with patterns carved into it. Toraja society, however, is highly hierarchical and traditionally villagers have only been able to decorate their houses according to their social status, with the elite being the only ones who could carve their entire house exteriors with incised designs. Most carvings on tongkonan represent prosperity and fertility with

13144-403: The process of water leaching, the bamboo is dried slowly and evenly in the shade to avoid cracking in the outer skin of the bamboo, thereby reducing opportunities for pest infestation. Durability of bamboo in construction is directly related to how well it is handled from the moment of planting through harvesting, transportation, storage, design, construction, and maintenance. Bamboo harvested at

13268-455: The rainy season may be fermented to make ulanzi (a sweet wine) or simply made into a soft drink. Bamboo leaves are also used as wrappers for steamed dumplings which usually contains glutinous rice and other ingredients, such as the zongzi from China. Pickled bamboo shoots (Nepali: तामा tama ) are cooked with black-eyed beans as a delicacy in Nepal. Many Nepalese restaurants around

13392-507: The rapid growth, bamboo is an effective climate change mitigation and carbon sequestration crop, absorbing between 100 and 400 tonnes of carbon per hectare (40–160 tonnes per acre). In 1997, an international intergovernmental organization was established to promote the development of bamboo cultivation, the International Bamboo and Rattan Organisation . Bamboo is harvested from both cultivated and wild stands, and some of

13516-463: The rest are centered on the native religions. The Toraja are largely Christian and animist. Toraja are divided into different geographic groups, the most important being Mamasa, centred on the isolated Kalumpang valley and the Sa’dan of the southern Toraja lands. Known as 'Tana Toraja', Sa'dan has the market towns of Makale and Rantepao . There have never been any strong lasting political grouping within

13640-418: The rice barn which can be dismantled and reassembled. A tongkonan , however, is never removed, in part because of the large number of placentae buried on the east side of the house (east is associated with life). The tongkonan is traditionally seen as the navel of the universe and a miniature cosmos; and in those some regions, it is the meeting place of the north-south and east-west axes. It faces north, to

13764-429: The richly carved tongkonan as a symbol of the Toraja ethnic group, tongkonans carved with geometric designs are often seen as symbols of Toraja ethnic identity and not just as symbols of elite identity. Sulawesi Sulawesi ( / ˌ s uː l ə ˈ w eɪ s i / SOO -lə- WAY -see ), also known as Celebes ( / ˈ s ɛ l ɪ b iː z , s ə ˈ l iː b iː z / SEL -ib-eez, sə- LEE -beez ),

13888-486: The right bank of the Walanae River at Barru (now part of Bone Regency ), which were thought to date to the Pleistocene on the basis of their association with vertebrate fossils, are now thought to date to perhaps 50,000 BC. Following Peter Bellwood's model of a southward migration of Austronesian-speaking farmers (AN), radiocarbon dates from caves in Maros suggest a date in the mid-second millennium BC for

14012-548: The ruler, Sultan Hasanuddin, to sign the Treaty of Bongaya , which handed control of trade to the Dutch East India Company . The Dutch were aided in their conquest by the Bugis warlord Arung Palakka, ruler of the Bugis kingdom of Bone . The Dutch built a fort at Ujung Pandang, while Arung Palakka became the regional overlord and Bone the dominant kingdom. Political and cultural development seems to have slowed as

14136-404: The same line have lived in them and after suitable rites have been carried out, but due to prohibitive costs, this has traditionally been rare. The former exclusivity of the tongkonan is also diminishing as many Toraja commoners find employment in other parts of Indonesia and remit funds back to their families, enabling in some cases the construction of larger Tongkonan by commoners. Gables and

14260-480: The settlement of South Sulawesi by modern humans had been dated to c. 30,000 BC on the basis of radiocarbon dates obtained from rock shelters in Maros. No earlier evidence of human occupation had at that point been found, but the island almost certainly formed part of the land bridge used for the settlement of Australia and New Guinea by at least 40,000 BC. There is no evidence of Homo erectus having reached Sulawesi; crude stone tools first discovered in 1947 on

14384-708: The south. In the Americas, bamboo has a native range from 47 °S in southern Argentina and the beech forests of central Chile , through the South American tropical rainforests, to the Andes in Ecuador near 4,300 m (14,000 ft), with a noticeable gap through the Atacama Desert . Three species of bamboo, all in the genus Arundinaria , are also native through Central America and Mexico, northward into

14508-451: The stalks of the tiny bamboo Raddiella vanessiae of the savannas of French Guiana measure only 10–20 millimeters (0.4–0.8 in) in length by about 2 millimeters (0.08 in) in width. The origin of the word "bamboo" is uncertain, but it probably comes from the Dutch or Portuguese language, which originally borrowed it from Malay or Kannada . In bamboo, as in other grasses,

14632-500: The tender shoots are grated into juliennes and fermented to prepare kardi . The name is derived from the Sanskrit word for bamboo shoot, karira . This fermented bamboo shoot is used in various culinary preparations, notably amil , a sour vegetable soup. It is also made into pancakes using rice flour as a binding agent. The shoots that have turned a little fibrous are fermented, dried, and ground to sand-sized particles to prepare

14756-662: The west, the opening of the Makassar Strait separated West Sulawesi from Sundaland in the Eocene c. 45 Mya. In the east, the traditional view of collisions of multiple micro-continental fragments sliced from New Guinea with an active volcanic margin in West Sulawesi at different times since the Early Miocene c. 20 Mya has recently been replaced by the hypothesis that extensional fragmentation has followed

14880-428: The world serve this dish as aloo bodi tama . Fresh bamboo shoots are sliced and pickled with mustard seeds and turmeric and kept in glass jar in direct sunlight for the best taste. It is used alongside many dried beans in cooking during winters. Baby shoots ( Nepali : tusa ) of a very different variety of bamboo (Nepali: निगालो Nigalo ) native to Nepal is cooked as a curry in hilly regions. In Sambalpur , India,

15004-486: The world. The largest of these are the two species of anoa or dwarf buffalo. Other artiodactyl species inhabiting Sulawesi are the warty pig and the babirusas , which are aberrant pigs. The only native carnivoran is the Sulawesi palm civet ( Asian palm and Malayan civets have been introduced ). Primates present include a number of nocturnal tarsiers ( T. fuscus , Dian's , Gursky's , Jatna's , Wallace's ,

15128-417: The “head of the sky” where Puang Matua resides. The alang , or rice granaries, across the yard, face south or the posterior, as this is the direction from which trouble and disease exit. In some regions, the house is entered via a door on the northern end of the east wall, and in others, at the western end of the north wall. A person, thus, walks towards the southwest or southeast as they enter. The tongkonan

15252-461: Was dated to 2nd–7th century AD by Bosch (1933). In 1975, small locally made Buddhist statues from 10th-11th century were also discovered in Bontoharu, on the island of Selayar , South Sulawesi. Starting in the 13th century, access to prestige trade goods and to sources of iron started to alter long-standing cultural patterns and to permit ambitious individuals to build larger political units. It

15376-591: Was positive for the immunoglobulin E (IgE) in an available case study. The shoots (newly emerged culms) of bamboo contain the toxin taxiphyllin (a cyanogenic glycoside ), which produces cyanide in the gut. The shoots of most species are edible either raw or cooked, with the tough sheath removed. Cooking removes the slight bitterness. The shoots are used in numerous Asian dishes and broths, and are available in supermarkets in various sliced forms, in both fresh and canned versions. The bamboo shoot in its fermented state forms an important ingredient in cuisines across

#131868