175-703: Gomal University ( Urdu : جامعہ گومل), is a public research university located in Dera Ismail Khan , Khyber Pakhtunkhwa , Pakistan. Founded and established in 1974, the university is one of the oldest institutions in the country and occupies one of the largest campuses in the Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa province. Gomal University is one of the reputable universities in Pakistan offering a wide range of courses both at undergraduate, postgraduate, and doctoral levels besides research degree programs in most of
350-642: A dialect continuum ranging from Persianised to Sanskritised vocabulary, but now they are more and more different in words due to politics. Old Urdu dictionaries also contain most of the Sanskrit words now present in Hindi. Mutual intelligibility decreases in literary and specialised contexts that rely on academic or technical vocabulary. In a longer conversation, differences in formal vocabulary and pronunciation of some Urdu phonemes are noticeable, though many native Hindi speakers also pronounce these phonemes. At
525-535: A last universal common ancestor that lived about 3.5 billion years ago . Geologists have developed a geologic time scale that divides the history of the Earth into major divisions, starting with four eons ( Hadean , Archean , Proterozoic , and Phanerozoic ), the first three of which are collectively known as the Precambrian , which lasted approximately 4 billion years. Each eon can be divided into eras, with
700-440: A lipid bilayer , including cholesterols that sit between phospholipids to maintain their fluidity at various temperatures. Cell membranes are semipermeable , allowing small molecules such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water to pass through while restricting the movement of larger molecules and charged particles such as ions . Cell membranes also contain membrane proteins , including integral membrane proteins that go across
875-443: A nucleus , and prokaryotic cells, which do not. Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms such as bacteria , whereas eukaryotes can be single-celled or multicellular. In multicellular organisms , every cell in the organism's body is derived ultimately from a single cell in a fertilized egg . Every cell is enclosed within a cell membrane that separates its cytoplasm from the extracellular space . A cell membrane consists of
1050-508: A number of shapes , ranging from spheres to rods and spirals . Bacteria were among the first life forms to appear on Earth, and are present in most of its habitats . Bacteria inhabit soil, water, acidic hot springs , radioactive waste , and the deep biosphere of the Earth's crust . Bacteria also live in symbiotic and parasitic relationships with plants and animals. Most bacteria have not been characterised, and only about 27 percent of
1225-474: A cell's size, shape, membrane potential , metabolic activity , and responsiveness to signals, which are largely due to highly controlled modifications in gene expression and epigenetics . With a few exceptions, cellular differentiation almost never involves a change in the DNA sequence itself. Thus, different cells can have very different physical characteristics despite having the same genome . Morphogenesis, or
1400-408: A chemical (e.g., nitrous acid , benzopyrene ) or radiation (e.g., x-ray , gamma ray , ultraviolet radiation , particles emitted by unstable isotopes). Mutations can lead to phenotypic effects such as loss-of-function, gain-of-function , and conditional mutations. Some mutations are beneficial, as they are a source of genetic variation for evolution. Others are harmful if they were to result in
1575-406: A core vocabulary of native Sanskrit and Prakrit derived words and a significant number of Arabic and Persian loanwords, with a consensus of linguists considering them to be two standardised forms of the same language and consider the differences to be sociolinguistic ; a few classify them separately. The two languages are often considered to be a single language (Hindustani or Hindi-Urdu) on
1750-1233: A few archaea have very different shapes, such as the flat and square cells of Haloquadratum walsbyi . Despite this morphological similarity to bacteria, archaea possess genes and several metabolic pathways that are more closely related to those of eukaryotes, notably for the enzymes involved in transcription and translation . Other aspects of archaeal biochemistry are unique, such as their reliance on ether lipids in their cell membranes , including archaeols . Archaea use more energy sources than eukaryotes: these range from organic compounds , such as sugars, to ammonia , metal ions or even hydrogen gas . Salt-tolerant archaea (the Haloarchaea ) use sunlight as an energy source, and other species of archaea fix carbon , but unlike plants and cyanobacteria , no known species of archaea does both. Archaea reproduce asexually by binary fission , fragmentation , or budding ; unlike bacteria, no known species of Archaea form endospores . The first observed archaea were extremophiles , living in extreme environments, such as hot springs and salt lakes with no other organisms. Improved molecular detection tools led to
1925-403: A final electron acceptor, which is usually the oxidized form of NADP , which is reduced to NADPH, a process that takes place in a protein complex called photosystem I (PSI). The transport of electrons is coupled to the movement of protons (or hydrogen) from the stroma to the thylakoid membrane, which forms a pH gradient across the membrane as hydrogen becomes more concentrated in the lumen than in
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#17327757835432100-490: A heavy influence on both as a co-official language. According to Bruce (2021), Urdu has adapted English words since the eighteenth century. A movement towards the hyper-Persianisation of an Urdu emerged in Pakistan since its independence in 1947 which is "as artificial as" the hyper-Sanskritised Hindi that has emerged in India; hyper-Persianisation of Urdu was prompted in part by the increasing Sanskritisation of Hindi. However,
2275-518: A literary medium for Indian writers from the Bombay Presidency, Bengal, Orissa Province, and Tamil Nadu as well. As Urdu and Hindi became means of religious and social construction for Muslims and Hindus respectively, each register developed its own script. According to Islamic tradition, Arabic , the language of Muhammad and the Qur'an , holds spiritual significance and power. Because Urdu
2450-769: A loss of function of genes needed for survival. Gene expression is the molecular process by which a genotype encoded in DNA gives rise to an observable phenotype in the proteins of an organism's body. This process is summarized by the central dogma of molecular biology , which was formulated by Francis Crick in 1958. According to the Central Dogma, genetic information flows from DNA to RNA to protein. There are two gene expression processes: transcription (DNA to RNA) and translation (RNA to protein). The regulation of gene expression by environmental factors and during different stages of development can occur at each step of
2625-417: A more successful evolutionary theory based on natural selection ; similar reasoning and evidence led Alfred Russel Wallace to independently reach the same conclusions. The basis for modern genetics began with the work of Gregor Mendel in 1865. This outlined the principles of biological inheritance. However, the significance of his work was not realized until the early 20th century when evolution became
2800-457: A new cycle. In contrast to mitosis, meiosis results in four haploid daughter cells by undergoing one round of DNA replication followed by two divisions. Homologous chromosomes are separated in the first division ( meiosis I ), and sister chromatids are separated in the second division ( meiosis II ). Both of these cell division cycles are used in the process of sexual reproduction at some point in their life cycle. Both are believed to be present in
2975-595: A notable novel being Umrao Jaan Ada . According to the Navadirul Alfaz by Khan-i Arzu, the "Zaban-e Urdu-e Shahi" [language of the Imperial Camp] had attained special importance in the time of Alamgir ". By the end of the reign of Aurangzeb in the early 1700s, the common language around Delhi began to be referred to as Zaban-e-Urdu , a name derived from the Turkic word ordu (army) or orda and
3150-702: A phonological level, speakers of both languages are frequently aware of the Perso-Arabic or Sanskrit origins of their word choice, which affects the pronunciation of those words. Urdu speakers will often insert vowels to break up consonant clusters found in words of Sanskritic origin, but will pronounce them correctly in Arabic and Persian loanwords. As a result of religious nationalism since the partition of British India and continued communal tensions, native speakers of both Hindi and Urdu frequently assert that they are distinct languages. The grammar of Hindi and Urdu
3325-589: A policy continued by the Mughal Empire , which extended over most of northern South Asia from the 16th to 18th centuries and cemented Persian influence on Hindustani. Urdu was patronised by the Nawab of Awadh and in Lucknow , the language was refined, being not only spoken in the court, but by the common people in the city—both Hindus and Muslims; the city of Lucknow gave birth to Urdu prose literature, with
3500-409: A process known as allopatric speciation . A phylogeny is an evolutionary history of a specific group of organisms or their genes. It can be represented using a phylogenetic tree , a diagram showing lines of descent among organisms or their genes. Each line drawn on the time axis of a tree represents a lineage of descendants of a particular species or population. When a lineage divides into two, it
3675-408: A region of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) that carries genetic information that controls form or function of an organism. DNA is composed of two polynucleotide chains that coil around each other to form a double helix . It is found as linear chromosomes in eukaryotes , and circular chromosomes in prokaryotes . The set of chromosomes in a cell is collectively known as its genome . In eukaryotes, DNA
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#17327757835433850-541: A role in the synthesis and packaging of proteins, respectively. Biomolecules such as proteins can be engulfed by lysosomes , another specialized organelle. Plant cells have additional organelles that distinguish them from animal cells such as a cell wall that provides support for the plant cell, chloroplasts that harvest sunlight energy to produce sugar, and vacuoles that provide storage and structural support as well as being involved in reproduction and breakdown of plant seeds. Eukaryotic cells also have cytoskeleton that
4025-507: A sectarian divide of "Urdu" for Muslims and "Hindi" for Hindus, a divide that was formalised with the partition of colonial India into the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan after independence (though there are Hindu poets who continue to write in Urdu, including Gopi Chand Narang and Gulzar ). Urdu had been used as a literary medium for British colonial Indian writers from
4200-436: A separate clade as some protists may be more closely related to plants, fungi, or animals than they are to other protists. Like groupings such as algae , invertebrates , or protozoans , the protist grouping is not a formal taxonomic group but is used for convenience. Most protists are unicellular; these are called microbial eukaryotes. Plants are mainly multicellular organisms , predominantly photosynthetic eukaryotes of
4375-481: A significant role in the development of the Urdu register. Hindi became the distinct register spoken by those who sought to construct a Hindu identity in the face of colonial rule. As Hindi separated from Hindustani to create a distinct spiritual identity, Urdu was employed to create a definitive Islamic identity for the Muslim population in India. Urdu's use was not confined only to northern India – it had been used as
4550-423: A single carbon atom can form four single covalent bonds such as in methane , two double covalent bonds such as in carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), or a triple covalent bond such as in carbon monoxide (CO). Moreover, carbon can form very long chains of interconnecting carbon–carbon bonds such as octane or ring-like structures such as glucose . The simplest form of an organic molecule is the hydrocarbon , which
4725-558: A single, coherent field. For instance, all organisms are made up of at least one cell that processes hereditary information encoded in genes , which can be transmitted to future generations. Another major theme is evolution , which explains the unity and diversity of life. Energy processing is also important to life as it allows organisms to move , grow, and reproduce . Finally, all organisms are able to regulate their own internal environments . Biologists are able to study life at multiple levels of organization , from
4900-446: A specific enzyme. Enzymes are crucial to metabolism because they allow organisms to drive desirable reactions that require energy that will not occur by themselves, by coupling them to spontaneous reactions that release energy. Enzymes act as catalysts —they allow a reaction to proceed more rapidly without being consumed by it—by reducing the amount of activation energy needed to convert reactants into products . Enzymes also allow
5075-614: A symbol of their religious identity. Hindus in northwestern India, under the Arya Samaj agitated against the sole use of the Perso-Arabic script and argued that the language should be written in the native Devanagari script, which triggered a backlash against the use of Hindi written in Devanagari by the Anjuman-e-Islamia of Lahore. Hindi in the Devanagari script and Urdu written in the Perso-Arabic script established
5250-399: A unified theory as the modern synthesis reconciled Darwinian evolution with classical genetics . In the 1940s and early 1950s, a series of experiments by Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase pointed to DNA as the component of chromosomes that held the trait-carrying units that had become known as genes . A focus on new kinds of model organisms such as viruses and bacteria, along with
5425-419: A uniting language. Urdu was chosen as a symbol of unity for the new Dominion of Pakistan in 1947, because it had already served as a lingua franca among Muslims in north and northwest of British Indian Empire . Urdu is also seen as a repertory for the cultural and social heritage of Pakistan. While Urdu and Islam together played important roles in developing the national identity of Pakistan, disputes in
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5600-421: A varied mix of traits, and reproduction is able to increase any population, Darwin argued that in the natural world, it was nature that played the role of humans in selecting for specific traits. Darwin inferred that individuals who possessed heritable traits better adapted to their environments are more likely to survive and produce more offspring than other individuals. He further inferred that this would lead to
5775-465: A vehicle of poetry, (especially under the Bahmanids ), and is known as Dakhini , which contains loanwords from Telugu and Marathi . From the 13th century until the end of the 18th century; the language now known as Urdu was called Hindi , Hindavi , Hindustani , Dehlavi , Dihlawi , Lahori , and Lashkari . The Delhi Sultanate established Persian as its official language in India,
5950-464: A very significant number among the nearly 800 districts of India, there is a small Urdu-speaking minority at least. In Araria district , Bihar, there is a plurality of Urdu speakers and near-plurality in Hyderabad district, Telangana (43.35% Telugu speakers and 43.24% Urdu speakers). Some Indian Muslim schools ( Madrasa ) teach Urdu as a first language and have their own syllabi and exams. In fact,
6125-492: A water molecule again. In pure water , the number of hydrogen ions balances (or equals) the number of hydroxyl ions, resulting in a pH that is neutral. Organic compounds are molecules that contain carbon bonded to another element such as hydrogen. With the exception of water, nearly all the molecules that make up each organism contain carbon. Carbon can form covalent bonds with up to four other atoms, enabling it to form diverse, large, and complex molecules. For example,
6300-648: Is a Persianised register of the Hindustani language , an Indo-Aryan language spoken chiefly in South Asia . It is the national language and lingua franca of Pakistan , where it is also an official language alongside English . In India , Urdu is an Eighth Schedule language , the status and cultural heritage of which are recognised by the Constitution of India ; and it also has an official status in several Indian states. In Nepal , Urdu
6475-444: Is a central feature of sexual reproduction in eukaryotes, and the most fundamental function of meiosis appears to be conservation of the integrity of the genome that is passed on to progeny by parents. Two aspects of sexual reproduction , meiotic recombination and outcrossing , are likely maintained respectively by the adaptive advantages of recombinational repair of genomic DNA damage and genetic complementation which masks
6650-641: Is a large family of organic compounds that are composed of hydrogen atoms bonded to a chain of carbon atoms. A hydrocarbon backbone can be substituted by other elements such as oxygen (O), hydrogen (H), phosphorus (P), and sulfur (S), which can change the chemical behavior of that compound. Groups of atoms that contain these elements (O-, H-, P-, and S-) and are bonded to a central carbon atom or skeleton are called functional groups . There are six prominent functional groups that can be found in organisms: amino group , carboxyl group , carbonyl group , hydroxyl group , phosphate group , and sulfhydryl group . In 1953,
6825-668: Is a registered regional dialect and in South Africa , it is a protected language in the constitution. It is also spoken as a minority language in Afghanistan and Bangladesh , with no official status. Urdu and Hindi share a common Sanskrit - and Prakrit -derived vocabulary base, phonology , syntax , and grammar, making them mutually intelligible during colloquial communication . While formal Urdu draws literary, political, and technical vocabulary from Persian , formal Hindi draws these aspects from Sanskrit; consequently,
7000-480: Is a small polar molecule with a bent shape formed by the polar covalent bonds of two hydrogen (H) atoms to one oxygen (O) atom (H 2 O). Because the O–H bonds are polar, the oxygen atom has a slight negative charge and the two hydrogen atoms have a slight positive charge. This polar property of water allows it to attract other water molecules via hydrogen bonds, which makes water cohesive . Surface tension results from
7175-918: Is a term of convenience as not all algae are closely related. Algae comprise several distinct clades such as glaucophytes , which are microscopic freshwater algae that may have resembled in form to the early unicellular ancestor of Plantae. Unlike glaucophytes, the other algal clades such as red and green algae are multicellular. Green algae comprise three major clades: chlorophytes , coleochaetophytes , and stoneworts . Fungi are eukaryotes that digest foods outside their bodies, secreting digestive enzymes that break down large food molecules before absorbing them through their cell membranes. Many fungi are also saprobes , feeding on dead organic matter, making them important decomposers in ecological systems. Animals are multicellular eukaryotes. With few exceptions, animals consume organic material , breathe oxygen , are able to move , can reproduce sexually , and grow from
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7350-403: Is catalyzed by lactate dehydrogenase in a reversible reaction. Lactate can also be used as an indirect precursor for liver glycogen. During recovery, when oxygen becomes available, NAD attaches to hydrogen from lactate to form ATP. In yeast, the waste products are ethanol and carbon dioxide. This type of fermentation is known as alcoholic or ethanol fermentation . The ATP generated in this process
7525-441: Is made by substrate-level phosphorylation , which does not require oxygen. Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to convert light energy into chemical energy that can later be released to fuel the organism's metabolic activities via cellular respiration. This chemical energy is stored in carbohydrate molecules, such as sugars, which are synthesized from carbon dioxide and water. In most cases, oxygen
7700-535: Is made up of microtubules , intermediate filaments , and microfilaments , all of which provide support for the cell and are involved in the movement of the cell and its organelles. In terms of their structural composition, the microtubules are made up of tubulin (e.g., α-tubulin and β-tubulin ) whereas intermediate filaments are made up of fibrous proteins. Microfilaments are made up of actin molecules that interact with other strands of proteins. All cells require energy to sustain cellular processes. Metabolism
7875-526: Is mainly in the cell nucleus . In prokaryotes, the DNA is held within the nucleoid . The genetic information is held within genes, and the complete assemblage in an organism is called its genotype . DNA replication is a semiconservative process whereby each strand serves as a template for a new strand of DNA. Mutations are heritable changes in DNA. They can arise spontaneously as a result of replication errors that were not corrected by proofreading or can be induced by an environmental mutagen such as
8050-527: Is not officially recognised by the Government of Bangladesh . The Urdu spoken by Stranded Pakistanis in Bangladesh is different from this dialect. Many bilingual or multi-lingual Urdu speakers, being familiar with both Urdu and English, display code-switching (referred to as " Urdish ") in certain localities and between certain social groups. On 14 August 2015, the Government of Pakistan launched
8225-399: Is one of the key ways a cell releases chemical energy to fuel cellular activity. The overall reaction occurs in a series of biochemical steps, some of which are redox reactions. Although cellular respiration is technically a combustion reaction , it clearly does not resemble one when it occurs in a cell because of the slow, controlled release of energy from the series of reactions. Sugar in
8400-488: Is one variety, is spoken much more widely, forming the third most commonly spoken language in the world, after Mandarin and English . The syntax (grammar), morphology , and the core vocabulary of Urdu and Hindi are essentially identical – thus linguists usually count them as one single language, while some contend that they are considered as two different languages for socio-political reasons. Owing to interaction with other languages, Urdu has become localised wherever it
8575-407: Is pulled to the separate poles of the bacterium as it increases the size to prepare for splitting. Growth of a new cell wall begins to separate the bacterium (triggered by FtsZ polymerization and "Z-ring" formation). The new cell wall ( septum ) fully develops, resulting in the complete split of the bacterium. The new daughter cells have tightly coiled DNA rods, ribosomes , and plasmids . Meiosis
8750-593: Is read and written as in other parts of India. A number of daily newspapers and several monthly magazines in Urdu are published in these states. Dhakaiya Urdu is a dialect native to the city of Old Dhaka in Bangladesh , dating back to the Mughal era . However, its popularity, even among native speakers, has been gradually declining since the Bengali Language Movement in the 20th century. It
8925-399: Is released as a waste product. Most plants, algae , and cyanobacteria perform photosynthesis, which is largely responsible for producing and maintaining the oxygen content of the Earth's atmosphere, and supplies most of the energy necessary for life on Earth. Photosynthesis has four stages: Light absorption , electron transport, ATP synthesis, and carbon fixation . Light absorption is
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#17327757835439100-412: Is represented as a fork or split on the phylogenetic tree. Phylogenetic trees are the basis for comparing and grouping different species. Different species that share a feature inherited from a common ancestor are described as having homologous features (or synapomorphy ). Phylogeny provides the basis of biological classification. This classification system is rank-based, with the highest rank being
9275-552: Is said to have arisen as the "language of the camp", or " Zaban-i-Ordu " means " Language of High camps " or natively " Lashkari Zaban " means " Language of Army " even though term Urdu held different meanings at that time. It is recorded that Aurangzeb spoke in Hindvi, which was most likely Persianized, as there are substantial evidence that Hindvi was written in the Persian script in this period. During this time period Urdu
9450-486: Is shared, though formal Urdu makes more use of the Persian "-e-" izafat grammatical construct (as in Hammam-e-Qadimi , or Nishan-e-Haider ) than does Hindi. The following table shows the number of Urdu speakers in some countries. Biological science Biology is the scientific study of life . It is a natural science with a broad scope but has several unifying themes that tie it together as
9625-729: Is spoken by large numbers of migrant South Asian workers in the major urban centres of the Persian Gulf countries. Urdu is also spoken by large numbers of immigrants and their children in the major urban centres of the United Kingdom , the United States, Canada, Germany, New Zealand, Norway, and Australia. Along with Arabic , Urdu is among the immigrant languages with the most speakers in Catalonia . Religious and social atmospheres in early nineteenth century India played
9800-492: Is spoken, including in Pakistan. Urdu in Pakistan has undergone changes and has incorporated and borrowed many words from regional languages, thus allowing speakers of the language in Pakistan to distinguish themselves more easily and giving the language a decidedly Pakistani flavor. Similarly, the Urdu spoken in India can also be distinguished into many dialects such as the Standard Urdu of Lucknow and Delhi , as well as
9975-468: Is the process by which genes and traits are passed on from parents to offspring. It has several principles. The first is that genetic characteristics, alleles , are discrete and have alternate forms (e.g., purple vs. white or tall vs. dwarf), each inherited from one of two parents. Based on the law of dominance and uniformity , which states that some alleles are dominant while others are recessive ; an organism with at least one dominant allele will display
10150-485: Is the set of chemical reactions in an organism. The three main purposes of metabolism are: the conversion of food to energy to run cellular processes; the conversion of food/fuel to monomer building blocks; and the elimination of metabolic wastes . These enzyme-catalyzed reactions allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments. Metabolic reactions may be categorized as catabolic —the breaking down of compounds (for example,
10325-410: Is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms . Molecular biology is the branch of biology that seeks to understand the molecular basis of biological activity in and between cells, including molecular synthesis, modification, mechanisms, and interactions. Life arose from the Earth's first ocean, which formed some 3.8 billion years ago. Since then, water continues to be
10500-493: Is to store, transmit, and express hereditary information. Cell theory states that cells are the fundamental units of life, that all living things are composed of one or more cells, and that all cells arise from preexisting cells through cell division . Most cells are very small, with diameters ranging from 1 to 100 micrometers and are therefore only visible under a light or electron microscope . There are generally two types of cells: eukaryotic cells, which contain
10675-481: Is used in education , literature , office and court business, although in practice, English is used instead of Urdu in the higher echelons of government. Article 251(1) of the Pakistani Constitution mandates that Urdu be implemented as the sole language of government, though English continues to be the most widely used language at the higher echelons of Pakistani government. Urdu is also one of
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#173277578354310850-575: The Bombay , Bengal , Orissa , and Hyderabad State as well. Before independence, Muslim League leader Muhammad Ali Jinnah advocated the use of Urdu, which he used as a symbol of national cohesion in Pakistan. After the Bengali language movement and the separation of former East Pakistan , Urdu was recognised as the sole national language of Pakistan in 1973, although English and regional languages were also granted official recognition. Following
11025-644: The Cambrian explosion . During the Permian period, synapsids , including the ancestors of mammals , dominated the land, but most of this group became extinct in the Permian–Triassic extinction event 252 million years ago. During the recovery from this catastrophe, archosaurs became the most abundant land vertebrates; one archosaur group, the dinosaurs, dominated the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods. After
11200-671: The Central Hindi Directorate was established earlier in 1960, and the promotion of Hindi is better funded and more advanced, while the status of Urdu has been undermined by the promotion of Hindi. Private Indian organisations such as the Anjuman-e-Tariqqi Urdu, Deeni Talimi Council and Urdu Mushafiz Dasta promote the use and preservation of Urdu, with the Anjuman successfully launching a campaign that reintroduced Urdu as an official language of Bihar in
11375-495: The Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event 66 million years ago killed off the non-avian dinosaurs, mammals increased rapidly in size and diversity . Such mass extinctions may have accelerated evolution by providing opportunities for new groups of organisms to diversify. Bacteria are a type of cell that constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms . Typically a few micrometers in length, bacteria have
11550-687: The Dakhni ( Deccan ) of South India. Because of Urdu's similarity to Hindi , speakers of the two languages can easily understand one another if both sides refrain from using literary vocabulary. Although Urdu is widely spoken and understood throughout all of Pakistan, only 9% of Pakistan's population spoke Urdu according to the 2023 Pakistani census . Most of the nearly three million Afghan refugees of different ethnic origins (such as Pashtun , Tajik , Uzbek , Hazarvi , and Turkmen ) who stayed in Pakistan for over twenty-five years have also become fluent in Urdu. Muhajirs since 1947 have historically formed
11725-527: The Devanagari and Latin script ( Roman Urdu ) to allow its survival, or whether this will only hasten its demise and that the language can only be preserved if expressed in the Perso-Arabic script. For Pakistan, Willoughby & Aftab (2020) argued that Urdu originally had the image of a refined elite language of the Enlightenment, progress and emancipation, which contributed to the success of
11900-527: The Ilm Pakistan movement, with a uniform curriculum in Urdish. Ahsan Iqbal , Federal Minister of Pakistan, said "Now the government is working on a new curriculum to provide a new medium to the students which will be the combination of both Urdu and English and will name it Urdish." Standard Urdu is often compared with Standard Hindi . Both Urdu and Hindi, which are considered standard registers of
12075-610: The Khariboli dialect of the Delhi region). Dakhni (also known as Dakani, Deccani, Desia, Mirgan) is spoken in Deccan region of southern India . It is distinct by its mixture of vocabulary from Marathi and Konkani , as well as some vocabulary from Arabic, Persian and Chagatai that are not found in the standard dialect of Urdu. Dakhini is widely spoken in all parts of Maharashtra , Telangana , Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka . Urdu
12250-535: The Miller–Urey experiment showed that organic compounds could be synthesized abiotically within a closed system mimicking the conditions of early Earth , thus suggesting that complex organic molecules could have arisen spontaneously in early Earth (see abiogenesis ). Macromolecules are large molecules made up of smaller subunits or monomers . Monomers include sugars, amino acids, and nucleotides. Carbohydrates include monomers and polymers of sugars. Lipids are
12425-492: The Precambrian about 1.5 billion years ago and can be classified into eight major clades : alveolates , excavates , stramenopiles , plants, rhizarians , amoebozoans , fungi , and animals. Five of these clades are collectively known as protists , which are mostly microscopic eukaryotic organisms that are not plants, fungi, or animals. While it is likely that protists share a common ancestor (the last eukaryotic common ancestor ), protists by themselves do not constitute
12600-482: The Punjabi elite of Pakistan, have adopted Urdu as a mother tongue and identify with both an Urdu speaker as well as Punjabi identity. Urdu was chosen as a symbol of unity for the new state of Pakistan in 1947, because it had already served as a lingua franca among Muslims in north and northwest British India . It is written, spoken and used in all provinces/territories of Pakistan , and together with English as
12775-727: The activator is the transcription factor that stimulates transcription when it binds to the sequence near or at the promoter. Negative regulation occurs when another transcription factor called a repressor binds to a DNA sequence called an operator , which is part of an operon, to prevent transcription. Repressors can be inhibited by compounds called inducers (e.g., allolactose ), thereby allowing transcription to occur. Specific genes that can be activated by inducers are called inducible genes , in contrast to constitutive genes that are almost constantly active. In contrast to both, structural genes encode proteins that are not involved in gene regulation. In addition to regulatory events involving
12950-592: The bacterial phyla have species that can be grown in the laboratory. Archaea constitute the other domain of prokaryotic cells and were initially classified as bacteria, receiving the name archaebacteria (in the Archaebacteria kingdom ), a term that has fallen out of use. Archaeal cells have unique properties separating them from the other two domains , Bacteria and Eukaryota . Archaea are further divided into multiple recognized phyla . Archaea and bacteria are generally similar in size and shape, although
13125-404: The cell . In 1838, Schleiden and Schwann began promoting the now universal ideas that (1) the basic unit of organisms is the cell and (2) that individual cells have all the characteristics of life, although they opposed the idea that (3) all cells come from the division of other cells, continuing to support spontaneous generation . However, Robert Remak and Rudolf Virchow were able to reify
13300-403: The cell membrane of another cell or located deep inside a cell. There are generally four types of chemical signals: autocrine , paracrine , juxtacrine , and hormones . In autocrine signaling, the ligand affects the same cell that releases it. Tumor cells, for example, can reproduce uncontrollably because they release signals that initiate their own self-division. In paracrine signaling,
13475-416: The circulatory systems of animals or vascular systems of plants to reach their target cells. Once a ligand binds with a receptor, it can influence the behavior of another cell, depending on the type of receptor. For instance, neurotransmitters that bind with an inotropic receptor can alter the excitability of a target cell. Other types of receptors include protein kinase receptors (e.g., receptor for
13650-461: The cycling of nutrients and energy through their biophysical environment . The earliest of roots of science, which included medicine, can be traced to ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia in around 3000 to 1200 BCE . Their contributions shaped ancient Greek natural philosophy . Ancient Greek philosophers such as Aristotle (384–322 BCE) contributed extensively to the development of biological knowledge. He explored biological causation and
13825-399: The de jure legal status and de facto political status of Urdu, how much Urdu is used as language of instruction and chosen by students in higher education, and how the maintenance and development of Urdu is financially and institutionally supported by governments and NGOs. In India, although Urdu is not and never was used exclusively by Muslims (and Hindi never exclusively by Hindus),
14000-528: The domain followed by kingdom , phylum , class , order , family , genus , and species . All organisms can be classified as belonging to one of three domains : Archaea (originally Archaebacteria), bacteria (originally eubacteria), or eukarya (includes the fungi, plant, and animal kingdoms). The history of life on Earth traces how organisms have evolved from the earliest emergence of life to present day. Earth formed about 4.5 billion years ago and all life on Earth, both living and extinct, descended from
14175-481: The duplication of its DNA and some of its organelles , and the subsequent partitioning of its cytoplasm into two daughter cells in a process called cell division . In eukaryotes (i.e., animal, plant, fungal , and protist cells), there are two distinct types of cell division: mitosis and meiosis . Mitosis is part of the cell cycle, in which replicated chromosomes are separated into two new nuclei. Cell division gives rise to genetically identical cells in which
14350-403: The kingdom Plantae, which would exclude fungi and some algae . Plant cells were derived by endosymbiosis of a cyanobacterium into an early eukaryote about one billion years ago, which gave rise to chloroplasts. The first several clades that emerged following primary endosymbiosis were aquatic and most of the aquatic photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms are collectively described as algae, which
14525-423: The microscope . It was then that scholars discovered spermatozoa , bacteria, infusoria and the diversity of microscopic life. Investigations by Jan Swammerdam led to new interest in entomology and helped to develop techniques of microscopic dissection and staining . Advances in microscopy had a profound impact on biological thinking. In the early 19th century, biologists pointed to the central importance of
14700-412: The mitochondrial cristae . Oxidative phosphorylation comprises the electron transport chain, which is a series of four protein complexes that transfer electrons from one complex to another, thereby releasing energy from NADH and FADH 2 that is coupled to the pumping of protons (hydrogen ions) across the inner mitochondrial membrane ( chemiosmosis ), which generates a proton motive force . Energy from
14875-445: The molecular biology of a cell to the anatomy and physiology of plants and animals, and evolution of populations. Hence, there are multiple subdisciplines within biology , each defined by the nature of their research questions and the tools that they use. Like other scientists, biologists use the scientific method to make observations , pose questions, generate hypotheses , perform experiments, and form conclusions about
15050-546: The phenotype of that dominant allele. During gamete formation, the alleles for each gene segregate, so that each gamete carries only one allele for each gene. Heterozygotic individuals produce gametes with an equal frequency of two alleles. Finally, the law of independent assortment , states that genes of different traits can segregate independently during the formation of gametes, i.e., genes are unlinked. An exception to this rule would include traits that are sex-linked . Test crosses can be performed to experimentally determine
15225-497: The regulation of the rate of a metabolic reaction, for example in response to changes in the cell's environment or to signals from other cells. Cellular respiration is a set of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in cells to convert chemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products. The reactions involved in respiration are catabolic reactions , which break large molecules into smaller ones, releasing energy. Respiration
15400-547: The 18th century and two similar standard forms came into existence in Delhi and Lucknow . Since the partition of India in 1947, a third standard has arisen in the Pakistani city of Karachi . Deccani , an older form used in southern India , became a court language of the Deccan sultanates by the 16th century. Urdu has a few recognised dialects, including Dakhni , Dhakaiya , Rekhta , and Modern Vernacular Urdu (based on
15575-483: The 1950s (particularly those in East Pakistan , where Bengali was the dominant language), challenged the idea of Urdu as a national symbol and its practicality as the lingua franca . The significance of Urdu as a national symbol was downplayed by these disputes when English and Bengali were also accepted as official languages in the former East Pakistan (now Bangladesh ). Urdu is the sole national, and one of
15750-479: The 1960s, the Urdu lobby and eventually the Urdu language in Pakistan has been associated with religious Islamism and political national conservatism (and eventually the lower and lower-middle classes, alongside regional languages such as Punjabi, Sindhi, and Balochi), while English has been associated with the internationally oriented secular and progressive left (and eventually the upper and upper-middle classes). Despite governmental attempts at Urduisation of Pakistan,
15925-718: The 1970s. In the former Jammu and Kashmir state , section 145 of the Kashmir Constitution stated: "The official language of the State shall be Urdu but the English language shall unless the Legislature by law otherwise provides, continue to be used for all the official purposes of the State for which it was being used immediately before the commencement of the Constitution." Urdu became a literary language in
16100-690: The 1979 Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan and subsequent arrival of millions of Afghan refugees who have lived in Pakistan for many decades, many Afghans, including those who moved back to Afghanistan, have also become fluent in Hindi-Urdu, an occurrence aided by exposure to the Indian media, chiefly Hindi-Urdu Bollywood films and songs. There have been attempts to purge Urdu of native Prakrit and Sanskrit words, and Hindi of Persian loanwords – new vocabulary draws primarily from Persian and Arabic for Urdu and from Sanskrit for Hindi. English has exerted
16275-594: The Capital was relocated to Delhi and named Shahjahanabad and the Bazar of the town was named Urdu e Muallah. In the Akbar era the word Rekhta was used to describe Urdu for the first time. It was originally a Persian word that meant "to create a mixture". Amir Khusrau was the first person to use the same word for Poetry. Before the standardisation of Urdu into colonial administration, British officers often referred to
16450-596: The Delhi region of India the native language was Khariboli , whose earliest form is known as Old Hindi (or Hindavi). It belongs to the Western Hindi group of the Central Indo-Aryan languages. The contact of Hindu and Muslim cultures during the period of Islamic conquests in the Indian subcontinent (12th to 16th centuries) led to the development of Hindustani as a product of a composite Ganga-Jamuni tehzeeb . In cities such as Delhi,
16625-703: The Department of Pharmacy started its classes. The faculty of agriculture was established and began its classes in December 1979. The Institute of Engineering and Technology of Gomal University grants Bachelor of Science degrees in tele-systems , electronics , and telecommunications engineering disciplines. The school also awards a Master of Science degree in Telecommunications Network . Gomal University also grants undergraduate degrees in law . The institute also awards bachelor's degrees in
16800-426: The English liked to use the name "Moors" for Urdu: I have a deep knowledge [ je possède à fond ] of the common tongue of India, called Moors by the English, and Ourdouzebain by the natives of the land. Several works of Sufi writers like Ashraf Jahangir Semnani used similar names for the Urdu language. Shah Abdul Qadir Raipuri was the first person who translated The Quran into Urdu. During Shahjahan's time,
16975-636: The Heathens, or from the Persians, or other Nations. In 1715, a complete literary Diwan in Rekhta was written by Nawab Sadruddin Khan . An Urdu-Persian dictionary was written by Khan-i Arzu in 1751 in the reign of Ahmad Shah Bahadur . The name Urdu was first introduced by the poet Ghulam Hamadani Mushafi around 1780. As a literary language, Urdu took shape in courtly, elite settings. While Urdu retained
17150-405: The Indian government do not actively support the preservation of Urdu in professional and official spaces. Because the Pakistani government proclaimed Urdu the national language at Partition, the Indian state and some religious nationalists began in part to regard Urdu as a 'foreign' language, to be viewed with suspicion. Urdu advocates in India disagree whether it should be allowed to write Urdu in
17325-481: The Phanerozoic eon that began 539 million years ago being subdivided into Paleozoic , Mesozoic , and Cenozoic eras. These three eras together comprise eleven periods ( Cambrian , Ordovician , Silurian , Devonian , Carboniferous , Permian , Triassic , Jurassic , Cretaceous , Tertiary , and Quaternary ). The similarities among all known present-day species indicate that they have diverged through
17500-445: The absorption of vocabulary from various regional Pakistani languages, while some Urdu vocabularies has also been assimilated by Pakistan's regional languages. Some who are from a non-Urdu background now can read and write only Urdu. With such a large number of people(s) speaking Urdu, the language has acquired a peculiar Pakistani flavor further distinguishing it from the Urdu spoken by native speakers, resulting in more diversity within
17675-696: The accumulation of favorable traits over successive generations, thereby increasing the match between the organisms and their environment. A species is a group of organisms that mate with one another and speciation is the process by which one lineage splits into two lineages as a result of having evolved independently from each other. For speciation to occur, there has to be reproductive isolation . Reproductive isolation can result from incompatibilities between genes as described by Bateson–Dobzhansky–Muller model . Reproductive isolation also tends to increase with genetic divergence . Speciation can occur when there are physical barriers that divide an ancestral species,
17850-407: The ancient language Old Hindi began to acquire many Persian loanwords and continued to be called "Hindi" and later, also "Hindustani". An early literary tradition of Hindavi was founded by Amir Khusrau in the late 13th century. After the conquest of the Deccan , and a subsequent immigration of noble Muslim families into the south, a form of the language flourished in medieval India as
18025-589: The body plan and the number, identity, and pattern of body parts. Among the most important toolkit genes are the Hox genes . Hox genes determine where repeating parts, such as the many vertebrae of snakes, will grow in a developing embryo or larva. Evolution is a central organizing concept in biology. It is the change in heritable characteristics of populations over successive generations . In artificial selection , animals were selectively bred for specific traits. Given that traits are inherited, populations contain
18200-450: The breaking down of glucose to pyruvate by cellular respiration ); or anabolic —the building up ( synthesis ) of compounds (such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids). Usually, catabolism releases energy, and anabolism consumes energy. The chemical reactions of metabolism are organized into metabolic pathways , in which one chemical is transformed through a series of steps into another chemical, each step being facilitated by
18375-410: The cohesive force due to the attraction between molecules at the surface of the liquid. Water is also adhesive as it is able to adhere to the surface of any polar or charged non-water molecules. Water is denser as a liquid than it is as a solid (or ice). This unique property of water allows ice to float above liquid water such as ponds, lakes, and oceans, thereby insulating the liquid below from
18550-433: The cold air above. Water has the capacity to absorb energy, giving it a higher specific heat capacity than other solvents such as ethanol . Thus, a large amount of energy is needed to break the hydrogen bonds between water molecules to convert liquid water into water vapor . As a molecule, water is not completely stable as each water molecule continuously dissociates into hydrogen and hydroxyl ions before reforming into
18725-599: The court language of various Indo-Islamic empires . Religious, social, and political factors arose during the European colonial period that advocated a distinction between Urdu and Hindi, leading to the Hindi–Urdu controversy . According to 2022 estimates by Ethnologue and The World Factbook , produced by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), Urdu is the 10th-most widely spoken language in
18900-501: The cytoplasm of a cell, there are many biomolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids . In addition to biomolecules, eukaryotic cells have specialized structures called organelles that have their own lipid bilayers or are spatially units. These organelles include the cell nucleus , which contains most of the cell's DNA, or mitochondria , which generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to power cellular processes. Other organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus play
19075-455: The cytoplasm, where it is converted to waste products that may be removed from the cell. This serves the purpose of oxidizing the electron carriers so that they can perform glycolysis again and removing the excess pyruvate. Fermentation oxidizes NADH to NAD so it can be re-used in glycolysis. In the absence of oxygen, fermentation prevents the buildup of NADH in the cytoplasm and provides NAD for glycolysis. This waste product varies depending on
19250-571: The departments. It consisted of four faculties of science, with a strong emphasis on natural and medical sciences courses. Gomal University is affiliated with the Higher Education Commission and the National Testing Service . The university was founded by Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto , and the donation came from Nawab Allah Nawaz Khan , who donated a large area of his land to the establishment of
19425-418: The development of body form, is the result of spatial differences in gene expression. A small fraction of the genes in an organism's genome called the developmental-genetic toolkit control the development of that organism. These toolkit genes are highly conserved among phyla , meaning that they are ancient and very similar in widely separated groups of animals. Differences in deployment of toolkit genes affect
19600-440: The developmental fate of a cell, which becomes more restrictive during development. Differentiation is the process by which specialized cells arise from less specialized cells such as stem cells . Stem cells are undifferentiated or partially differentiated cells that can differentiate into various types of cells and proliferate indefinitely to produce more of the same stem cell. Cellular differentiation dramatically changes
19775-411: The discovery of archaea in almost every habitat , including soil, oceans, and marshlands . Archaea are particularly numerous in the oceans, and the archaea in plankton may be one of the most abundant groups of organisms on the planet. Archaea are a major part of Earth's life . They are part of the microbiota of all organisms. In the human microbiome , they are important in the gut , mouth, and on
19950-420: The discovery of the double-helical structure of DNA by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953, marked the transition to the era of molecular genetics . From the 1950s onwards, biology has been vastly extended in the molecular domain. The genetic code was cracked by Har Gobind Khorana , Robert W. Holley and Marshall Warren Nirenberg after DNA was understood to contain codons . The Human Genome Project
20125-598: The diversity of life. His successor, Theophrastus , began the scientific study of plants. Scholars of the medieval Islamic world who wrote on biology included al-Jahiz (781–869), Al-Dīnawarī (828–896), who wrote on botany, and Rhazes (865–925) who wrote on anatomy and physiology . Medicine was especially well studied by Islamic scholars working in Greek philosopher traditions, while natural history drew heavily on Aristotelian thought. Biology began to quickly develop with Anton van Leeuwenhoek 's dramatic improvement of
20300-634: The earliest terrestrial ecosystems , at least 2.7 billion years ago. Microorganisms are thought to have paved the way for the inception of land plants in the Ordovician period. Land plants were so successful that they are thought to have contributed to the Late Devonian extinction event . Ediacara biota appear during the Ediacaran period, while vertebrates , along with most other modern phyla originated about 525 million years ago during
20475-415: The early 21st century an increasing percentage of Indian Muslims began switching to Hindi due to socio-economic factors, such as Urdu being abandoned as the language of instruction in much of India, and having limited employment opportunities compared to Hindi, English and regional languages. The number of Urdu speakers in India fell 1.5% between 2001 and 2011 (then 5.08 million Urdu speakers), especially in
20650-497: The establishment of Gomal University in D.I.Khan , Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa Province . Prime Minister Bhutto laid down the foundation stone of Gomal University on 1 May 1974 putting forward his educational policy of highly educated Pakistan to meet the challenges of the modern world in every aspect of life. Notably, the donations and land were provided by Nawab Allah Nawaz Khan who served as the university's first and founding vice-chancellor . Nawaz Khan donated 11000 Kn agricultural land to
20825-460: The establishment of the university. The Act No. X of 1974 provides the constitutional establishment of the university as a public research university categorization of the Ministry of Education . The post-graduate schools of Physics, Mathematics, Chemistry, States, and Economics were founded in 1974. The business school and the school of mass communication were founded in 1974 as well. In 1975,
21000-414: The exalted camp . Earlier it was known as Hindvi, Hindi and Hindustani . Urdu, like Hindi , is a form of Hindustani language . Some linguists have suggested that the earliest forms of Urdu evolved from the medieval (6th to 13th century) Apabhraṃśa register of the preceding Shauraseni language , a Middle Indo-Aryan language that is also the ancestor of other modern Indo-Aryan languages. In
21175-481: The expression of deleterious recessive mutations . The beneficial effect of genetic complementation, derived from outcrossing (cross-fertilization) is also referred to as hybrid vigor or heterosis. Charles Darwin in his 1878 book The Effects of Cross and Self-Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom at the start of chapter XII noted “The first and most important of the conclusions which may be drawn from
21350-499: The following degrees: In 2020, multiple women including students and faculty accused Professor Hafiz Salahuddin of sexual misconduct. The university then fired him after allegations of sexual harassment against him were proved. In 2021, Assistant Professor Muhammad Zubair of Political Science was fired after allegations of sexual harassment against him were proven. Urdu Urdu ( / ˈ ʊər d uː / ; اُردُو , pronounced [ʊɾduː] , ALA-LC : Urdū )
21525-513: The following disciplines: In 2003, Abdul Qadeer Khan helped the university financially in building an auditorium that was named after him. The Law College is one of the constituent colleges of Gomal University dedicated to the promotion of legal education. The Law College grants the LLB degree and it consisted of 11 registered faculty members in the Law college. The Gomal College of Veterinary Sciences
21700-455: The form of glucose is the main nutrient used by animal and plant cells in respiration. Cellular respiration involving oxygen is called aerobic respiration, which has four stages: glycolysis , citric acid cycle (or Krebs cycle), electron transport chain , and oxidative phosphorylation . Glycolysis is a metabolic process that occurs in the cytoplasm whereby glucose is converted into two pyruvates , with two net molecules of ATP being produced at
21875-529: The grammar and core Indo-Aryan vocabulary of the local Indian dialect Khariboli, it adopted the Nastaleeq writing system – which was developed as a style of Persian calligraphy. Throughout the history of the language, Urdu has been referred to by several other names: Hindi, Hindavi, Rekhta, Urdu-e-Muallah, Dakhini , Moors and Dehlavi . In 1773, the Swiss French soldier Antoine Polier notes that
22050-426: The hormone insulin ) and G protein-coupled receptors . Activation of G protein-coupled receptors can initiate second messenger cascades. The process by which a chemical or physical signal is transmitted through a cell as a series of molecular events is called signal transduction . The cell cycle is a series of events that take place in a cell that cause it to divide into two daughter cells. These events include
22225-480: The independence movement. But after the 1947 Partition , when it was chosen as the national language of Pakistan to unite all inhabitants with one linguistic identity, it faced serious competition primarily from Bengali (spoken by 56% of the total population, mostly in East Pakistan until that attained independence in 1971 as Bangladesh ), and after 1971 from English. Both pro-independence elites that formed
22400-414: The initial step of photosynthesis whereby light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll pigments attached to proteins in the thylakoid membranes . The absorbed light energy is used to remove electrons from a donor (water) to a primary electron acceptor, a quinone designated as Q. In the second stage, electrons move from the quinone primary electron acceptor through a series of electron carriers until they reach
22575-554: The language as " Moors " or "Moorish jargon". John Gilchrist was the first in British India to begin a systematic study on Urdu and began to use the term "Hindustani" what the majority of Europeans called "Moors", authoring the book The Strangers's East Indian Guide to the Hindoostanee or Grand Popular Language of India (improperly Called Moors) . Urdu was then promoted in colonial India by British policies to counter
22750-458: The language in the Perso-Arabic script in courts and government offices, though Hindus continued to employ the Devanagari script in certain literary and religious contexts. Through the late 19th century, people did not view Urdu and Hindi as being two distinct languages, though in urban areas, the standardised Hindustani language was increasingly being referred to as Urdu and written in the Perso-Arabic script. Urdu and English replaced Persian as
22925-575: The language of Bollywood films tend to contain a large number of Persian and Arabic words and thus considered to be "Urdu" in a sense, especially in songs. India has more than 3,000 Urdu publications, including 405 daily Urdu newspapers. Newspapers such as Neshat News Urdu , Sahara Urdu , Daily Salar , Hindustan Express , Daily Pasban , Siasat Daily , The Munsif Daily and Inqilab are published and distributed in Bangalore, Malegaon, Mysore, Hyderabad, and Mumbai . Outside South Asia, it
23100-883: The language. In India, Urdu is spoken in places where there are large Muslim minorities or cities that were bases for Muslim empires in the past. These include parts of Uttar Pradesh , Madhya Pradesh , Bihar , Telangana , Andhra Pradesh , Maharashtra ( Marathwada and Konkanis), Karnataka and cities such as Hyderabad , Lucknow , Delhi , Malerkotla , Bareilly , Meerut , Saharanpur , Muzaffarnagar , Roorkee , Deoband , Moradabad , Azamgarh , Bijnor , Najibabad , Rampur , Aligarh , Allahabad , Gorakhpur , Agra , Firozabad , Kanpur , Badaun , Bhopal , Hyderabad , Aurangabad , Bangalore , Kolkata , Mysore , Patna , Darbhanga , Gaya , Madhubani , Samastipur , Siwan , Saharsa , Supaul , Muzaffarpur , Nalanda , Munger , Bhagalpur , Araria , Gulbarga , Parbhani , Nanded , Malegaon , Bidar , Ajmer , and Ahmedabad . In
23275-406: The last eukaryotic common ancestor. Prokaryotes (i.e., archaea and bacteria) can also undergo cell division (or binary fission ). Unlike the processes of mitosis and meiosis in eukaryotes, binary fission in prokaryotes takes place without the formation of a spindle apparatus on the cell. Before binary fission, DNA in the bacterium is tightly coiled. After it has uncoiled and duplicated, it
23450-759: The leadership of the Muslim League in Pakistan and the Hindu-dominated Congress Party in India had been educated in English during the British colonial period, and continued to operate in English and send their children to English-medium schools as they continued dominate both countries' post-Partition politics. Although the Anglicized elite in Pakistan has made attempts at Urduisation of education with varying degrees of success, no successful attempts were ever made to Urduise politics,
23625-466: The legal system, the army, or the economy, all of which remained solidly Anglophone. Even the regime of general Zia-ul-Haq (1977–1988), who came from a middle-class Punjabi family and initially fervently supported a rapid and complete Urduisation of Pakistani society (earning him the honorary title of the 'Patron of Urdu' in 1981), failed to make significant achievements, and by 1987 had abandoned most of his efforts in favour of pro-English policies. Since
23800-405: The ligand diffuses to nearby cells and affects them. For example, brain cells called neurons release ligands called neurotransmitters that diffuse across a synaptic cleft to bind with a receptor on an adjacent cell such as another neuron or muscle cell . In juxtacrine signaling, there is direct contact between the signaling and responding cells. Finally, hormones are ligands that travel through
23975-404: The main languages of instruction, although the people from differing provinces may have different native languages. Urdu is taught as a compulsory subject up to higher secondary school in both English and Urdu medium school systems, which has produced millions of second-language Urdu speakers among people whose native language is one of the other languages of Pakistan – which in turn has led to
24150-457: The majority population in the city of Karachi , however. Many newspapers are published in Urdu in Pakistan, including the Daily Jang , Nawa-i-Waqt , and Millat . No region in Pakistan uses Urdu as its mother tongue, though it is spoken as the first language of Muslim migrants (known as Muhajirs ) in Pakistan who left India after independence in 1947. Other communities, most notably
24325-444: The membrane serving as membrane transporters , and peripheral proteins that loosely attach to the outer side of the cell membrane, acting as enzymes shaping the cell. Cell membranes are involved in various cellular processes such as cell adhesion , storing electrical energy , and cell signalling and serve as the attachment surface for several extracellular structures such as a cell wall , glycocalyx , and cytoskeleton . Within
24500-403: The mitotic phase of an animal cell cycle—the division of the mother cell into two genetically identical daughter cells. The cell cycle is a vital process by which a single-celled fertilized egg develops into a mature organism, as well as the process by which hair, skin, blood cells , and some internal organs are renewed. After cell division, each of the daughter cells begin the interphase of
24675-403: The most Urdu-speaking states of Uttar Pradesh (c. 8% to 5%) and Bihar (c. 11.5% to 8.5%), even though the number of Muslims in these two states grew in the same period. Although Urdu is still very prominent in early 21st-century Indian pop culture, ranging from Bollywood to social media, knowledge of the Urdu script and the publication of books in Urdu have steadily declined, while policies of
24850-437: The most abundant molecule in every organism. Water is important to life because it is an effective solvent , capable of dissolving solutes such as sodium and chloride ions or other small molecules to form an aqueous solution . Once dissolved in water, these solutes are more likely to come in contact with one another and therefore take part in chemical reactions that sustain life. In terms of its molecular structure , water
25025-564: The most alive language and moving ahead with times" in India. This phenomenon pertains to the decrease in relative and absolute numbers of native Urdu speakers as opposed to speakers of other languages; declining (advanced) knowledge of Urdu's Perso-Arabic script, Urdu vocabulary and grammar; the role of translation and transliteration of literature from and into Urdu; the shifting cultural image of Urdu and socio-economic status associated with Urdu speakers (which negatively impacts especially their employment opportunities in both countries),
25200-441: The observations given in this volume, is that generally cross-fertilisation is beneficial and self-fertilisation often injurious, at least with the plants on which I experimented.” Genetic variation , often produced as a byproduct of sexual reproduction, may provide long-term advantages to those sexual lineages that engage in outcrossing . Genetics is the scientific study of inheritance. Mendelian inheritance , specifically,
25375-461: The official languages in northern parts of India in 1837. In colonial Indian Islamic schools, Muslims were taught Persian and Arabic as the languages of Indo-Islamic civilisation ; the British, in order to promote literacy among Indian Muslims and attract them to attend government schools, started to teach Urdu written in the Perso-Arabic script in these governmental educational institutions and after this time, Urdu began to be seen by Indian Muslims as
25550-578: The officially recognised languages in India and also has the status of "additional official language" in the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh , Uttar Pradesh , Bihar , Jharkhand , West Bengal , Telangana and the national capital territory Delhi . Also as one of the five official languages of Jammu and Kashmir . India established the governmental Bureau for the Promotion of Urdu in 1969, although
25725-438: The ongoing Hindi–Urdu controversy and modern cultural association of each language with the two religions has led to fewer Hindus using Urdu. In the 20th century, Indian Muslims gradually began to collectively embrace Urdu (for example, 'post-independence Muslim politics of Bihar saw a mobilisation around the Urdu language as tool of empowerment for minorities especially coming from weaker socio-economic backgrounds' ), but in
25900-517: The only class of macromolecules that are not made up of polymers. They include steroids , phospholipids , and fats, largely nonpolar and hydrophobic (water-repelling) substances. Proteins are the most diverse of the macromolecules. They include enzymes , transport proteins , large signaling molecules, antibodies , and structural proteins . The basic unit (or monomer) of a protein is an amino acid . Twenty amino acids are used in proteins. Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides . Their function
26075-404: The organism. In skeletal muscles, the waste product is lactic acid . This type of fermentation is called lactic acid fermentation . In strenuous exercise, when energy demands exceed energy supply, the respiratory chain cannot process all of the hydrogen atoms joined by NADH. During anaerobic glycolysis, NAD regenerates when pairs of hydrogen combine with pyruvate to form lactate. Lactate formation
26250-849: The physics department gained independence from Peshawar University the following year. Earlier, the Physics Department was established in the Government Post-Graduate College (GPGC) under the University of Peshawar in 1968 and was transferred to Gomal University in 1974. During the same time, scientist Abdul Qadeer Khan joined the research faculty and briefly taught courses on physics as a visiting professor. Gomal University currently focuses its research and development in radiation physics , particle physics , plasma physics , and computational physics (as well as Monte Carlo integration ). Gomal University offers
26425-518: The position and prestige of English only grew stronger in the meantime. There are over 100 million native speakers of Urdu in India and Pakistan together: there were 50.8 million Urdu speakers in India (4.34% of the total population) as per the 2011 census; and approximately 16 million in Pakistan in 2006. There are several hundred thousand in the United Kingdom, Saudi Arabia, United States, and Bangladesh . However, Hindustani, of which Urdu
26600-428: The possibility of common descent . Serious evolutionary thinking originated with the works of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck , who presented a coherent theory of evolution. The British naturalist Charles Darwin , combining the biogeographical approach of Humboldt , the uniformitarian geology of Lyell , Malthus's writings on population growth, and his own morphological expertise and extensive natural observations, forged
26775-484: The previous emphasis on Persian. In colonial India, "ordinary Muslims and Hindus alike spoke the same language in the United Provinces in the nineteenth century, namely Hindustani, whether called by that name or whether called Hindi, Urdu, or one of the regional dialects such as Braj or Awadhi ." Elites from Muslim communities, as well as a minority of Hindu elites, such as Munshis of Hindu origin, wrote
26950-907: The process of evolution from their common ancestor. Biologists regard the ubiquity of the genetic code as evidence of universal common descent for all bacteria , archaea , and eukaryotes . Microbial mats of coexisting bacteria and archaea were the dominant form of life in the early Archean eon and many of the major steps in early evolution are thought to have taken place in this environment. The earliest evidence of eukaryotes dates from 1.85 billion years ago, and while they may have been present earlier, their diversification accelerated when they started using oxygen in their metabolism . Later, around 1.7 billion years ago, multicellular organisms began to appear, with differentiated cells performing specialised functions. Algae-like multicellular land plants are dated back to about 1 billion years ago, although evidence suggests that microorganisms formed
27125-539: The process such as transcription , RNA splicing , translation , and post-translational modification of a protein. Gene expression can be influenced by positive or negative regulation, depending on which of the two types of regulatory proteins called transcription factors bind to the DNA sequence close to or at a promoter. A cluster of genes that share the same promoter is called an operon , found mainly in prokaryotes and some lower eukaryotes (e.g., Caenorhabditis elegans ). In positive regulation of gene expression,
27300-517: The promoter, gene expression can also be regulated by epigenetic changes to chromatin , which is a complex of DNA and protein found in eukaryotic cells. Development is the process by which a multicellular organism (plant or animal) goes through a series of changes, starting from a single cell, and taking on various forms that are characteristic of its life cycle. There are four key processes that underlie development: Determination , differentiation , morphogenesis , and growth. Determination sets
27475-406: The proton motive force drives the enzyme ATP synthase to synthesize more ATPs by phosphorylating ADPs . The transfer of electrons terminates with molecular oxygen being the final electron acceptor . If oxygen were not present, pyruvate would not be metabolized by cellular respiration but undergoes a process of fermentation . The pyruvate is not transported into the mitochondrion but remains in
27650-646: The same language, Hindustani (or Hindi-Urdu), share a core vocabulary and grammar . Apart from religious associations, the differences are largely restricted to the standard forms : Standard Urdu is conventionally written in the Nastaliq style of the Persian alphabet and relies heavily on Persian and Arabic as a source for technical and literary vocabulary, whereas Standard Hindi is conventionally written in Devanāgarī and draws on Sanskrit . However, both share
27825-449: The same time. Each pyruvate is then oxidized into acetyl-CoA by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex , which also generates NADH and carbon dioxide. Acetyl-CoA enters the citric acid cycle, which takes places inside the mitochondrial matrix. At the end of the cycle, the total yield from 1 glucose (or 2 pyruvates) is 6 NADH, 2 FADH 2 , and 2 ATP molecules. Finally, the next stage is oxidative phosphorylation, which in eukaryotes, occurs in
28000-680: The second and third stages, respectively, provide the energy and electrons to drive the synthesis of glucose by fixing atmospheric carbon dioxide into existing organic carbon compounds, such as ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) in a sequence of light-independent (or dark) reactions called the Calvin cycle . Cell signaling (or communication) is the ability of cells to receive, process, and transmit signals with its environment and with itself. Signals can be non-chemical such as light, electrical impulses , and heat, or chemical signals (or ligands ) that interact with receptors , which can be found embedded in
28175-553: The skin. Their morphological, metabolic, and geographical diversity permits them to play multiple ecological roles: carbon fixation; nitrogen cycling; organic compound turnover; and maintaining microbial symbiotic and syntrophic communities, for example. Eukaryotes are hypothesized to have split from archaea, which was followed by their endosymbioses with bacteria (or symbiogenesis ) that gave rise to mitochondria and chloroplasts, both of which are now part of modern-day eukaryotic cells. The major lineages of eukaryotes diversified in
28350-479: The stroma. This is analogous to the proton-motive force generated across the inner mitochondrial membrane in aerobic respiration. During the third stage of photosynthesis, the movement of protons down their concentration gradients from the thylakoid lumen to the stroma through the ATP synthase is coupled to the synthesis of ATP by that same ATP synthase. The NADPH and ATPs generated by the light-dependent reactions in
28525-583: The style of Urdu spoken on a day-to-day basis in Pakistan is akin to neutral Hindustani that serves as the lingua franca of the northern Indian subcontinent. Since at least 1977, some commentators such as journalist Khushwant Singh have characterised Urdu as a "dying language", though others, such as Indian poet and writer Gulzar (who is popular in both countries and both language communities, but writes only in Urdu (script) and has difficulties reading Devanagari, so he lets others 'transcribe' his work) have disagreed with this assessment and state that Urdu "is
28700-471: The third tenet, and by the 1860s most biologists accepted all three tenets which consolidated into cell theory . Meanwhile, taxonomy and classification became the focus of natural historians. Carl Linnaeus published a basic taxonomy for the natural world in 1735, and in the 1750s introduced scientific names for all his species. Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon , treated species as artificial categories and living forms as malleable—even suggesting
28875-439: The total number of chromosomes is maintained. In general, mitosis (division of the nucleus) is preceded by the S stage of interphase (during which the DNA is replicated) and is often followed by telophase and cytokinesis ; which divides the cytoplasm , organelles and cell membrane of one cell into two new cells containing roughly equal shares of these cellular components. The different stages of mitosis all together define
29050-618: The two languages' mutual intelligibility effectively decreases as the factor of formality increases. Urdu originated in the area of the Ganges-Yamuna Doab , though significant development occurred in the Deccan Plateau . In 1837, Urdu became an official language of the British East India Company , replacing Persian across northern India during Company rule ; Persian had until this point served as
29225-425: The two official languages of Pakistan (along with English). It is spoken and understood throughout the country, whereas the state-by-state languages (languages spoken throughout various regions) are the provincial languages , although only 7.57% of Pakistanis speak Urdu as their first language. Its official status has meant that Urdu is understood and spoken widely throughout Pakistan as a second or third language. It
29400-431: The underlying genotype of an organism with a dominant phenotype. A Punnett square can be used to predict the results of a test cross. The chromosome theory of inheritance , which states that genes are found on chromosomes, was supported by Thomas Morgans 's experiments with fruit flies , which established the sex linkage between eye color and sex in these insects. A gene is a unit of heredity that corresponds to
29575-407: The university. Nawab Allah Nawaz Khan Saddozai was also Gomal University's first vice-chancellor in 1974. Dr. Iftikhar Ahmad is the current vice-chancellor. Gomal University was established as a chartered and co-educational university. The university is the 12th oldest university in terms of HEC's seniority listings. The university was founded by Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto who laid
29750-455: The world , with 230 million total speakers, including those who speak it as a second language . The name Urdu was first used by the poet Ghulam Hamadani Mushafi around 1780 for Hindustani language even though he himself also used Hindavi term in his poetry to define the language. Ordu means army in the Turkic languages . In late 18th century, it was known as Zaban-e-Urdu-e-Mualla زبانِ اُرْدُوئے مُعَلّٰی means language of
29925-429: The world around them. Life on Earth, which emerged more than 3.7 billion years ago, is immensely diverse. Biologists have sought to study and classify the various forms of life, from prokaryotic organisms such as archaea and bacteria to eukaryotic organisms such as protists , fungi, plants, and animals. These various organisms contribute to the biodiversity of an ecosystem , where they play specialized roles in
30100-487: Was established as the Institute of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Sciences. The college grants Master of Philosophy and Doctor of Veterinary Medicine academic degrees. The college is under the jurisprudence of the Ministry of Food Agriculture and Livestock . The university offers master programmes in physics , chemistry , mathematics, economics , and biological science . The research on physics began in 1974 after
30275-611: Was intentioned as means of unification for Muslims in Northern India and later Pakistan, it adopted a modified Perso-Arabic script. Urdu continued its role in developing a Pakistani identity as the Islamic Republic of Pakistan was established with the intent to construct a homeland for the Muslims of Colonial India. Several languages and dialects spoken throughout the regions of Pakistan produced an imminent need for
30450-434: Was launched in 1990 to map the human genome . All organisms are made up of chemical elements ; oxygen , carbon , hydrogen , and nitrogen account for most (96%) of the mass of all organisms, with calcium , phosphorus , sulfur , sodium , chlorine , and magnesium constituting essentially all the remainder. Different elements can combine to form compounds such as water, which is fundamental to life. Biochemistry
30625-555: Was referred to as "Moors", which simply meant Muslim, by European writers. John Ovington wrote in 1689: The language of the Moors is different from that of the ancient original inhabitants of India but is obliged to these Gentiles for its characters. For though the Moors dialect is peculiar to themselves, yet it is destitute of Letters to express it; and therefore, in all their Writings in their Mother Tongue, they borrow their letters from
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