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117-647: In 2023, Gordion was listed as UNESCO World Heritage Site . The English placename Gordion comes from Ancient Greek Górdion ( Γόρδιον ), itself from the Phrygian name Gordum , meaning "city". In antiquity, the Sakarya river flowed on the east side of the Citadel Mound, just beyond the Küçük Höyük fort. Its course changed several times, ultimately moving to the west side of the mound, where it

234-569: A Celtic people who first came to Anatolia as mercenaries hired by Nicomedes I of Bithynia . The Galatians ultimately settled in Phrygia, including at Gordion. The settlement at Gordion during the Hellenistic period shows a distinctly residential character, with large houses built over the public buildings on the Citadel Mound and no evidence of habitation in the Lower or Outer Towns. In 189 BCE,

351-741: A non-governmental organization in the service of international educational development since December 1925 and joined UNESCO in 1969, after having established a joint commission in 1952. After the signing of the Atlantic Charter and the Declaration of the United Nations , the Conference of Allied Ministers of Education (CAME) began meetings in London which continued from 16 November 1942 to 5 December 1945. On 30 October 1943,

468-550: A paramount power existed, such as the princely states under the British Raj . In Botswana , South Africa , Ghana and Uganda , the ancient kingdoms and chiefdoms that were met by the colonialists when they first arrived on the continent are now constitutionally protected as regional or sectional entities. Furthermore, in Nigeria , though the hundreds of sub-regional polities that exist there are not provided for in

585-423: A personal union , separate independent states share the same person as monarch, but each realm retains separate laws and government. The fifteen separate Commonwealth realms are sometimes described as being in a personal union with King Charles III as monarch; however, they can also be described as being in a shared monarchy. A regent may rule when the monarch is a minor , absent, or debilitated. A pretender

702-622: A Cimmerian incursion and was probably accidental in nature, with no indications of a military attack. A date of c. 800 BCE for the Early Phrygian Destruction Level has been widely accepted by scholars working throughout Central Anatolia, with objections voiced only by Muscarella and Keenan. The c. 800 BCE destruction level marks the change from the Early Phrygian period to the Middle Phrygian. After

819-477: A Commission to study the feasibility of having nations freely share cultural, educational and scientific achievements. This new body, the International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation (ICIC), was created in 1922 and counted such figures as Henri Bergson , Albert Einstein , Marie Curie , Robert A. Millikan , and Gonzague de Reynold among its members (being thus a small commission of

936-482: A Preparatory Commission was established. The Preparatory Commission operated between 16 November 1945, and 4 November 1946 — the date when UNESCO's Constitution came into force with the deposit of the twentieth ratification by a member state. The first General Conference took place from 19 November to 10 December 1946, and elected Julian Huxley to Director-General. United States Army colonel, university president and civil rights advocate Blake R. Van Leer joined as

1053-679: A United Nations Conference for the establishment of an educational and cultural organization (ECO/CONF) was convened in London from 1 to 16 November 1945 with 44 governments represented. The idea of UNESCO was largely developed by Rab Butler , the Minister of Education for the United Kingdom, who had a great deal of influence in its development. At the ECO/CONF, the Constitution of UNESCO was introduced and signed by 37 countries, and

1170-663: A biennium, as well as links to relevant programmatic and financial documents. These two distinct sets of information are published on the IATI registry, respectively based on the IATI Activity Standard and the IATI Organization Standard. There have been proposals to establish two new UNESCO lists. The first proposed list will focus on movable cultural heritage such as artifacts, paintings, and biofacts. The list may include cultural objects, such as

1287-581: A co-principality. Located in the Pyrenees between Spain and France , it has two co-princes: the bishop of Urgell in Spain (a prince-bishop ) and the president of France (derived ex officio from the French kings, who themselves inherited the title from the counts of Foix). It is the only case in which an independent country's (co-)monarch is democratically elected by the citizens of another country. In

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1404-405: A conflagration on the eastern side of the Citadel Mound, likely dating to c. 800 BCE. This destruction level and the subsequent rebuilding of the site above it preserved the architecture and many of the finds from the Early Phrygian period. The Early Phrygian period at the site is thus better understood than the Middle Phrygian. There is ample evidence of widespread burning of the eastern portion of

1521-538: A constitution. Many are so-called crowned republics , surviving particularly in small states. In some nations, however, such as Morocco , Qatar , Liechtenstein , and Thailand , the hereditary monarch has more political influence than any other single source of authority in the state, even if it is by a constitutional mandate. According to a 2020 study, monarchy arose as a system of governance because of an efficiency in governing large populations and expansive territories during periods when coordinating such populations

1638-498: A declaration of anthropologists (among them was Claude Lévi-Strauss ) and other scientists in 1950 and concluding with the 1978 Declaration on Race and Racial Prejudice . In 1955, the Republic of South Africa withdrew from UNESCO saying that some of the organization's publications amounted to "interference" in the country's "racial problems". It rejoined the organization in 1994 under the leadership of Nelson Mandela . One of

1755-552: A full member. As a result, the United States withdrew its funding, which had accounted for about 22% of UNESCO's budget. Israel also reacted to Palestine's admittance to UNESCO by freezing Israeli payments to UNESCO and imposing sanctions on the Palestinian Authority , stating that Palestine's admittance would be detrimental "to potential peace talks". Two years after stopping payment of its dues to UNESCO,

1872-547: A global movement in 1990 to provide basic education for all children, youths and adults. In 2000, World Education Forum in Dakar , Senegal, led member governments to commit for achieving basic education for all in 2015. The World Declaration on Higher Education was adopted by UNESCO's World Conference on Higher Education on 9 October 1998, with the aim of setting global standards on the ideals and accessibility of higher education . UNESCO's early activities in culture included

1989-439: A historical dynasty or bloodline. This usually means that the heir to the throne is known well in advance of becoming monarch to ensure a smooth succession. Primogeniture , in which the eldest child of the monarch is first in line to become monarch, is the most common system in hereditary monarchy. The order of succession is usually affected by rules on gender. Historically "agnatic primogeniture" or "patrilineal primogeniture"

2106-610: A larger federal , composite or unitary monarchy, realm and state. Monarchs can have various titles . Common European titles of monarchs (in that hierarchical order of nobility) are emperor or empress (from Latin : imperator or imperatrix ), king or queen , grand duke or grand duchess, prince or princess , duke or duchess. Some early modern European titles (especially in German states) included elector (German: Kurfürst , Prince-Elector, literally "electing prince"), margrave (German: Markgraf , equivalent to

2223-833: A leader of the entire Muslim community), padishah (emperor), sultan or sultana , shâhanshâh (emperor), shah , malik (king) or malikah (queen), emir (commander, prince) or emira (princess), sheikh or sheikha , imam (used in Oman ). East Asian titles of monarchs include huángdì (emperor) or nǚhuáng (empress regnant), tiānzǐ (son of heaven), tennō (emperor) or josei tennō (empress regnant), wang (king) or yeowang (queen regnant), hwangje (emperor) or yeoje (empress regnant). South Asian and South East Asian titles included mahārāja (high king) or maharani (high queen), raja (king) and rana (king) or rani (queen) and ratu (South East Asian queen). Historically, Mongolic and Turkic monarchs have used

2340-634: A member as well. The Constitution was amended in November 1954 when the General Conference resolved that members of the executive board would be representatives of the governments of the States of which they are nationals and would not, as before, act in their personal capacity. This change in governance distinguished UNESCO from its predecessor, the ICIC, in how member states would work together in

2457-531: A monarchy is deposed, often former monarchs and their descendants are given alternative titles (the King of Portugal was given the hereditary title Duke of Braganza ). A non-sovereign monarchy is one where the monarch is subject to a temporal authority higher than their own. Some are dependent on other powers (see vassals , suzerainty , puppet state , hegemony ). In the British colonial era, indirect rule under

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2574-427: A morally based, balanced monarchy was stressed as the ideal form of government, and little attention was paid to modern-day ideals of egalitarian democracy: e.g. Saint Thomas Aquinas unapologetically declared: "Tyranny is wont to occur not less but more frequently on the basis of polyarchy [rule by many, i.e. oligarchy or democracy] than on the basis of monarchy." ( On Kingship ). However, Thomas Aquinas also stated that

2691-444: A platform for the dialogue between cultures and provide a forum for international debate". Since March 2006 it has been available free online, with limited printed issues. Its articles express the opinions of the authors which are not necessarily the opinions of UNESCO. There was a hiatus in publishing between 2012 and 2017. In 1950, UNESCO initiated the quarterly review Impact of Science on Society (also known as Impact ) to discuss

2808-408: A ruling monarch, while " queen consort " refers to the wife of a reigning king. Rule may be hereditary in practice without being considered a monarchy: there have been some family dictatorships (and also political families ) in many democracies . The principal advantage of hereditary monarchy is the immediate continuity of leadership (as evidenced in the classic phrase " The King is dead. Long live

2925-668: A sculpted stone lion was discovered at the entrance to the South Gate. Since 2009, the project has undertaken a renewed program of architectural conservation on the Terrace Building Complex on the Citadel Mound, the large industrial quarter that burned in the Destruction Level c. 800 BCE. From 2014 to 2019, the architectural conservation team focused its efforts on restoring the South Bastion of

3042-403: A single at least nominally absolute ruler. In current usage the word monarchy usually refers to a traditional system of hereditary rule, as elective monarchies are quite rare. The similar form of societal hierarchy known as chiefdom or tribal kingship is prehistoric. Chiefdoms provided the concept of state formation, which started with civilizations such as Mesopotamia , Ancient Egypt and

3159-429: A situation known as diarchy . Historically this was the case in the ancient Greek city-state of Sparta . There are examples of joint sovereignty of spouses, parent and child or other relatives (such as William III and Mary II in the kingdoms of England and Scotland , Tsars Peter I and Ivan V of Russia , and Charles I and Joanna of Castile ). Andorra currently is the world's only constitutional diarchy,

3276-594: Is a form of government in which a person, the monarch , reigns as head of state for life or until abdication . The extent of the authority of the monarch may vary from restricted and largely symbolic ( constitutional monarchy ), to fully autocratic ( absolute monarchy ), and may have representational , executive , legislative , and judicial functions. The succession of monarchs has mostly been hereditary , often building dynasties . However, monarchies can also be elective and self-proclaimed . Aristocrats , though not inherent to monarchies, often function as

3393-401: Is a claimant to an abolished throne or a throne already occupied by somebody else. Abdication is the act of formally giving up one's monarchical power and status. Monarchs may mark the ceremonial beginning of their reigns with a coronation or enthronement . Monarchy, especially absolute monarchy, is sometimes linked to religious aspects; many monarchs once claimed the right to rule by

3510-407: Is a range of sub-national monarchical entities . Most of the modern monarchies are constitutional monarchies, retaining under a constitution unique legal and ceremonial roles for monarchs exercising limited or no political power, similar to heads of state in a parliamentary republic . Some countries have preserved the title of (say) "kingdom" while dispensing with an official serving monarch (note

3627-499: Is another example of an early major UNESCO project in the field of natural sciences. In 1968, UNESCO organized the first intergovernmental conference aimed at reconciling the environment and development, a problem that continues to be addressed in the field of sustainable development . The main outcome of the 1968 conference was the creation of UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere Programme . UNESCO has been credited with

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3744-454: Is corrupted and manipulated by Israel's enemies... we are not going to be a member of an organisation that deliberately acts against us". 2023 saw Russia excluded from the executive committee for the first time, after failing to get sufficient votes. The United States stated its intent to rejoin UNESCO in 2023, 5 years after leaving, and to pay its $ 600 million in back dues. The United States

3861-461: Is governed by the General Conference composed of member states and associate members, which meets biannually to set the agency's programs and budget. It also elects members of the executive board, which manages UNESCO's work, and appoints every four years a Director-General, who serves as UNESCO's chief administrator. UNESCO and its mandate for international cooperation can be traced back to a League of Nations resolution on 21 September 1921, to elect

3978-663: Is now. This was a relatively recent change, most likely occurring during the 19th century. Gordion was inhabited from at least the Early Bronze Age , c. 2300 BCE. By the end of this period it displayed ceramic commonalities with communities as far west as the Troad and as far east as Cilicia . During the Middle Bronze Age , Gordion came under the influence of the Hittites , with administrative seals evident at

4095-462: Is wielded by free citizens and their assemblies. The 4th-century BCE Hindu text Arthasastra laid out the ethics of monarchism. In antiquity, some monarchies were abolished in favour of such assemblies in Rome ( Roman Republic , 509 BCE), and Athens ( Athenian democracy , 500 BCE). By the 17th century, monarchy was challenged by evolving parliamentarism e.g. through regional assemblies (such as

4212-844: The Acropolis of Athens (Greece). The organization's work on heritage led to the adoption, in 1972, of the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. In 1976, the World Heritage Committee was established and the first sites were included on the World Heritage List in 1978. Since then important legal instruments on cultural heritage and diversity have been adopted by UNESCO member states in 2003 (Convention for

4329-529: The Brygians . There were several monumental construction projects on the citadel during the 10th and 9th centuries, the Early Phrygian period, resulting in a circuit wall around the Citadel Mound with an extensive gate complex. The East Citadel Gate provided both increased defense and a projection of power; it is still preserved to a height of ten meters, making it the best preserved example in Anatolia. Around

4446-638: The Central African Republic declared himself Emperor of the Central African Empire in 1976. Yuan Shikai , the first formal President of the Republic of China , crowned himself Emperor of the short-lived " Empire of China " a few years after the Republic of China was founded. Most monarchies only have a single person acting as monarch at any given time, although two monarchs have ruled simultaneously in some countries,

4563-511: The Egyptian , Chinese , Indian , Mesopotamian , Sudanic , reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion , and others, the monarch held sacral functions directly connected to sacrifice and was sometimes identified with having divine ancestry , possibly establishing a notion of the divine right of kings . Polybius identified monarchy as one of three "benign" basic forms of government (monarchy, aristocracy , and democracy ), opposed to

4680-459: The Gordion tumuli ; and the study of well-known 8th century Greek ceramics in post-Destruction Level contexts. Taken altogether, this research indicated that the date of the conflagration was approximately one hundred years earlier than previously thought, c. 800 BCE. Initial criticism of the radiocarbon analysis focused on the preliminary publication of five samples but was subsequently refuted by

4797-867: The Icelandic Commonwealth , the Swiss Landsgemeinde and later Tagsatzung , and the High Medieval communal movement linked to the rise of medieval town privileges ) and by modern anti-monarchism e.g. of the temporary overthrow of the English monarchy by the Parliament of England in 1649, the American Revolution of 1776 and the French Revolution of 1789. One of many opponents of that trend

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4914-468: The Indus Valley civilization . In some parts of the world, chiefdoms became monarchies. Some of the oldest recorded and evidenced monarchies were Narmer , Pharaoh of Ancient Egypt c.  3100 BCE , and Enmebaragesi , a Sumerian King of Kish c.  2600 BCE . From earliest records, monarchs could be directly hereditary, while others were elected from among eligible members. With

5031-781: The International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia , launched in 1960. The purpose of the campaign was to move the Great Temple of Abu Simbel to keep it from being swamped by the Nile after the construction of the Aswan Dam . During the 20-year campaign, 22 monuments and architectural complexes were relocated. This was the first and largest in a series of campaigns including Mohenjo-daro (Pakistan), Fes (Morocco), Kathmandu (Nepal), Borobudur (Indonesia) and

5148-1002: The Jōmon Venus of Japan, the Mona Lisa of France, the Gebel el-Arak Knife of Egypt , The Ninth Wave of Russia, the Seated Woman of Çatalhöyük of Turkey, the David (Michelangelo) of Italy, the Mathura Herakles of India, the Manunggul Jar of the Philippines, the Crown of Baekje of South Korea, The Hay Wain of the United Kingdom and the Benin Bronzes of Nigeria. The second proposed list will focus on

5265-709: The Museum of Anatolian Civilizations in Ankara, the Istanbul Archaeological Museums , and the Gordion Museum , located in Yassıhöyük itself. The Gordion Project renewed excavations in 2013, focusing on the southern fortifications and revealing a new approach and gateway to the Citadel Mound. This new South Gate was originally constructed during the 9th century BC, broadly contemporaneous with

5382-491: The United Nations member states (except Israel and Liechtenstein ), as well as Cook Islands , Niue and Palestine . The United States and Israel left UNESCO on 31 December 2018, but the United States rejoined in 2023. As of June 2023 , there have been 11 Directors-General of UNESCO since its inception – nine men and two women. The 11 Directors-General of UNESCO have come from six regions within

5499-401: The acropolis of the city. The wagon was associated with Midas or Gordias (or both) and was connected with the dynasty's rise to power. A local prophecy had decreed that whoever could loosen the knot was destined to become the ruler of Asia. The Roman period at Gordion stretches from the 1st century CE through the 4th century, with a series of occupations and abandonments on the western part of

5616-1131: The non-governmental , intergovernmental and private sector . Headquartered in Paris , France, UNESCO has 53 regional field offices and 199 national commissions. UNESCO was founded in 1945 as the successor to the League of Nations ' International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation . UNESCO's founding mission, which was shaped by the events of World War II , is to advance peace , sustainable development and human rights by facilitating collaboration and dialogue among nations. It pursues this objective through five major programme areas: education, natural sciences , social / human sciences , culture and communication/information. UNESCO sponsors projects that improve literacy , provide technical training and education, advance science, protect independent media and press freedom , preserve regional and cultural history , and promote cultural diversity . The organization prominently helps establish and secure World Heritage Sites of cultural and natural importance. UNESCO

5733-572: The "royal religion of Melchizedek " is emphasised against the priestly claims of the rival papal ideology. In Saudi Arabia , the king is a head of state who is both the absolute monarch of the country and the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques of Islam (خادم الحرمين الشريفين). The roles of monarchs can overlap with other monarchies through personal union or dynastic union , with maybe becoming institutional real union and possibly

5850-600: The 6th century. Around 500 BCE, a semi-subterranean structure, the Painted House, was added to the east side of the Citadel Mound. It featured a program of wall frescoes showing the procession of women. It is perhaps associated with cultic activity, although the nature of this is uncertain. The 4th century BCE at Gordion began with the combination of an earthquake and the attack of the Spartan king Agesilaos . The subsequent century saw an absence of monumental buildings on

5967-588: The Cimmerians overran the city. There are over one hundred tumuli in the vicinity of Gordion, dating from the 9th to the 6th centuries BCE. The largest of these burial mounds have traditionally been associated with kings, especially Tumulus MM. There are two main necropoleis, the Northeast Ridge and the South Ridge. Tumulus W at Gordion, dating to c. 850 BCE, is the earliest known at the site and

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6084-450: The Citadel Mound of Gordion, in a level referred to by the initial excavator, Rodney S. Young , as the Destruction Level. This event, and the subsequent deposition of up to five meters of clay above the burnt level, sealed and preserved many buildings and hundreds of objects from the Early Phrygian phase, providing an astonishing insight into the character of the elite district of an Iron Age citadel, unique in Anatolian archaeology. As such,

6201-403: The Citadel Mound through remote sensing. The use of magnetometry , electrical resistivity tomography , and ground-penetrating radar have allowed for a more complete reconstruction of the defense network and urban districts of the city during the Iron Age, providing evidence for a ditch and wall system surrounding the Outer Town to the west and confirming the existence of a second fort protecting

6318-409: The Citadel Mound, and, in fact, stone from many of the earlier structures was used for smaller buildings elsewhere around the site. The advent of Alexander in 333 BCE precipitated a major change at the site, with worship of Greek deities, inscriptions in Greek, and Greek pottery all replacing their Phrygian predecessors at the site. The middle of the 3rd century BCE saw the arrival of the Galatians ,

6435-436: The Citadel Mound. The Roman road between Ancyra and Pessinus passed through Gordion, which may have been known as Vindia or Vinda at this time. The Roman buildings at Gordion were oriented to cardinal directions and built as part of a deliberate refoundation that included leveling the surface of the western part of the mound. The area of the Common Cemetery includes Roman burials from the 2nd to 4th centuries CE. Evidence for

6552-497: The Crown to create a state identity, which is to be carried and occupied by the monarch, but represents the monarchy even in absence and succession of the monarch. Nevertheless, monarchies can also be bound to territories (e.g., the King of Norway ) and peoples (e.g., the King of the Belgians ). In a hereditary monarchy , the position of monarch is inherited according to a statutory or customary order of succession , usually within one royal family tracing its origin through

6669-691: The Directors-General of UNESCO since its establishment in 1946 is as follows: This is the list of the sessions of the UNESCO General Conference held since 1946: Ahmet Altay Cengizer Biennial elections are held, with 58 elected representatives holding office for four years. [REDACTED]   Finland [REDACTED]   Portugal [REDACTED]   Turkey [REDACTED]   Albania [REDACTED]   Belarus [REDACTED]   Bulgaria [REDACTED]   Cuba [REDACTED]   Grenada [REDACTED]   Jamaica [REDACTED]   Saint Lucia [REDACTED]   Saint Vincent and

6786-475: The Early Phrygian Destruction Level provides well-dated comparative material for other sites in the region and constitutes a key fixed point in Central Anatolian chronology. Archaeologists at first interpreted the Destruction Level as the remains of a Cimmerian attack , c. 700 BCE, an event referred to much later by Strabo and Eusebius as resulting in the death of King Midas . Initial radiocarbon data analyzed by Young cast some doubt on this interpretation, but

6903-405: The Early Phrygian phase of the East Citadel Gate. The South Gate approach saw further modification with bastions added in the 8th and 6th centuries, and the walled causeway leading to the gate ultimately reached over 65 m long, the longest known for a citadel gate in Anatolia. As elsewhere on the Citadel Mound, the Middle Phrygian phase of the South Gate made use of large polychromatic blocks. In 2017

7020-435: The East Citadel Gate, affected by an earthquake in 1999. This project consolidated cracked stones, reinstalled them in the wall faces with stainless-steel supports, and addressed the drainage of the South Bastion through the repair of damaged masonry and the installation of a new capping support system. Since 2007, another primary focus of the Gordion Project has been the exploration of the city's defensive fortifications beyond

7137-544: The Elder Natural History 5.42; Arrian Anabasis 1.29.1–2, 2.3.1; Suda omi.221; Stephanus of Byzantium Ethnica G211.1. UNESCO The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO ; pronounced / j uː ˈ n ɛ s k oʊ / ) is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) with the aim of promoting world peace and security through international cooperation in education, arts, sciences and culture. It has 194 member states and 12 associate members, as well as partners in

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7254-465: The Faithful"), Hünkar-i Khanedan-i Âl-i Osman , "Sovereign of the Sublime House of Osman"), Duli Yang Maha Mulia Seri Paduka Baginda ("Majesty"), Jeonha ("Majesty"), Tennō Heika (literally "His Majesty the heavenly sovereign"), Bìxià ("Bottom of the Steps"). Sometimes titles are used to express claims to territories that are not held in fact (for example, English claims to the French throne ), or titles not recognised ( antipopes ). Also, after

7371-431: The French title marquis , literally "count of the borderland"), and burgrave (German: Burggraf , literally "count of the castle"). Lesser titles include count and princely count . Slavic titles include knyaz and tsar (ц︢рь) or tsaritsa (царица), a word derived from the Roman imperial title Caesar . In the Muslim world , titles of monarchs include caliph (successor to the Islamic prophet Muhammad and

7488-465: The Great and the Achaemenid Empire into Anatolia, beginning in 546 BCE, spelled the end of any Lydian control and of Phrygian autonomy at Gordion. The most famous king of Phrygia was Midas , who reigned during the Middle Phrygian period at Gordion. He was likely on the throne at Gordion by c. 740 BCE, based on the completion of Tumulus MM around that time. Contemporary Assyrian sources dating between c. 718 and 709 BCE call him Mit-ta-a . According to

7605-444: The Greek historian Herodotus , King Midas was the first foreigner to make an offering at the sanctuary of Delphi's Temple of Apollo , dedicating the throne from which he gave judgment. During his reign, according to Strabo , the nomadic Cimmerians invaded Asia Minor, and in 710/709 BCE, Midas was forced to ask for help from the Assyrian king Sargon II . In Strabo's account, King Midas committed suicide by drinking bull's blood when

7722-1763: The Grenadines [REDACTED]   Venezuela [REDACTED]   Bangladesh [REDACTED]   China [REDACTED]   India [REDACTED]   Indonesia [REDACTED]   Japan [REDACTED]   Philippines [REDACTED]   Burundi [REDACTED]   Equatorial Guinea [REDACTED]   Ethiopia [REDACTED]   Madagascar [REDACTED]   Zambia [REDACTED]   Zimbabwe [REDACTED]   Egypt [REDACTED]   Jordan [REDACTED]   Morocco [REDACTED]   France [REDACTED]   Germany [REDACTED]   Italy [REDACTED]   Netherlands [REDACTED]   Spain [REDACTED]    Switzerland [REDACTED]   Hungary [REDACTED]   Poland [REDACTED]   Russia [REDACTED]   Serbia [REDACTED]   Argentina [REDACTED]   Brazil [REDACTED]   Dominican Republic [REDACTED]   Uruguay [REDACTED]   Afghanistan [REDACTED]   Kyrgyzstan [REDACTED]   Philippines [REDACTED]   Pakistan [REDACTED]   South Korea [REDACTED]   Thailand [REDACTED]   Benin [REDACTED]   Congo [REDACTED]   Guinea [REDACTED]   Ghana [REDACTED]   Kenya [REDACTED]   Namibia [REDACTED]   Senegal [REDACTED]   Togo [REDACTED]   Saudi Arabia [REDACTED]   UAE [REDACTED]   Tunisia Monarchy Philosophers Works A monarchy

7839-407: The King! "). Some monarchies are not hereditary. In an elective monarchy , monarchs are elected or appointed by some body (an electoral college ) for life or a defined period. Four elective monarchies exist today: Cambodia , Malaysia and the United Arab Emirates are 20th-century creations, while one (the papacy ) is ancient. A self-proclaimed monarchy is established when a person claims

7956-411: The League of Nations essentially centred on Western Europe ). The International Institute for Intellectual Cooperation (IIIC) was then created in Paris in September 1924, to act as the executing agency for the ICIC. However, the onset of World War II largely interrupted the work of these predecessor organizations. As for private initiatives, the International Bureau of Education (IBE) began to work as

8073-496: The Lower Town at Kuş Tepe to the north. The results of the excavations at Gordion are the subject of study for an international team of scholars, with ongoing research into all periods of the site's history. Gordion is mentioned in the following ancient sources: Xenophon Hellenica 1.4.1; Hellenica Oxyrhynchia 21.6; Plutarch Life of Alexander 18; Justin, History of the World 11.7; Polybius Histories 21.37.1; Livy History of Rome 38.18; Strabo Geography 12.5.3, 12.8.9; Pliny

8190-444: The Medieval Period at Gordion is sparse but suggests habitation during the 13th and 14th centuries CE with at least some fortification. Recent excavations have revealed lime-coated pits and ovens on the western side of the Citadel Mound, signalling food preparation and storage. Gordion lay along the front lines of the 1921 Battle of the Sakarya , the turning point of the Greco-Turkish War of 1919–1922 . The Citadel Mound and several of

8307-423: The Roman consul Gnaeus Manlius Vulso campaigned through Galatia, forcing the inhabitants of Gordion to temporarily abandon the site. Gordion was briefly reinhabited but abandoned again sometime during the 1st century BCE. According to ancient tradition, in 333 BCE Alexander the Great cut (or otherwise unfastened) the Gordian Knot : this intricate knot joined the yoke to the pole of a Phrygian wagon that stood on

8424-888: The Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage ) and 2005 ( Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions ). An intergovernmental meeting of UNESCO in Paris in December 1951 led to the creation of the European Council for Nuclear Research , which was responsible for establishing the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) later on, in 1954. Arid Zone programming, 1948–1966,

8541-548: The United States and Israel lost UNESCO voting rights in 2013 without losing the right to be elected; thus, the United States was elected as a member of the executive board for the period 2016–19. In 2019, Israel left UNESCO after 69 years of membership, with Israel's ambassador to the UN Danny Danon writing: "UNESCO is the body that continually rewrites history, including by erasing the Jewish connection to Jerusalem... it

8658-534: The advocacy of monarchies is called monarchism . As such republics have become the opposing and alternative form of government to monarchy, despite some having seen infringements through lifelong or even hereditary heads of state, such as in North Korea . With the rise of republicanism, a diverse division between republicanism developed in the 19th-century politics (such as anti-monarchist radicalism ) and conservative or even reactionary monarchism . In

8775-757: The commission, the Nobel Peace Prize laureate Seán MacBride ). The same year, UNESCO created the International Programme for the Development of Communication (IPDC), a multilateral forum designed to promote media development in developing countries. In 1993, UNESCO's General Conference endorsed the Windhoek Declaration on media independence and pluralism, which led the UN General Assembly to declare

8892-596: The current constitution, they are nevertheless legally recognised aspects of the structure of governance that operates in the nation. For example, the Yoruba city-state of Akure in south-western Nigeria is something of an elective monarchy: its reigning Oba Deji has to be chosen by an electoral college of nobles from amongst a finite collection of royal princes of the realm upon the death or removal of an incumbent. In addition to these five countries, non-sovereign monarchies of varied sizes and complexities exist all over

9009-507: The date of 700 BCE was widely used. Beginning in 2000, a renewed program of radiocarbon dating , dendrochronological analysis , and a closer examination of the objects in the Destruction Level began. Three factors were of particular importance: the establishment of the date of Tumulus MM at c. 740 BCE based on dendrochronology; the comparison of Destruction Level objects with those in Tumulus MM and other independently dated assemblages in

9126-533: The date of its adoption, 3 May, as World Press Freedom Day . Since 1997, UNESCO has awarded the UNESCO / Guillermo Cano World Press Freedom Prize every 3 May. UNESCO admitted Palestine as a member in 2011. Laws passed in the United States after Palestine applied for UNESCO and WHO membership in April 1989 mean that the United States cannot contribute financially to any UN organization that accepts Palestine as

9243-489: The diffusion of national science bureaucracies. In the field of communication, the "free flow of ideas by word and image" has been in UNESCO's constitution since it was established, following the experience of the Second World War when control of information was a factor in indoctrinating populations for aggression. In the years immediately following World War II, efforts were concentrated on reconstruction and on

9360-565: The early work of UNESCO in the education field was a pilot project on fundamental education in the Marbial Valley, Haiti, which was launched in 1947. Following this project one of expert missions to other countries, included a 1949 mission to Afghanistan. UNESCO recommended in 1948 that Member countries should make free primary education compulsory and universal. The World Conference on Education for All , in Jomtien , Thailand, started

9477-549: The example of Francoist Spain from 1947 to 1975) or while relying on a long-term regency (as in the case of Hungary in the Horthy era from 1920 to 1944). The word "monarch" (Late Latin: monarchia ) comes from the Ancient Greek word μονάρχης ( monárkhēs ), derived from μόνος ( mónos , "one, single") and ἄρχω ( árkhō , "to rule"): compare ἄρχων ( árkhōn , "ruler, chief"). It referred to

9594-401: The fire, the inhabitants of Gordion completed a massive construction program on the Citadel Mound that included the laying of up to five meters of clay to raise the height of the mound. The citadel was rebuilt on a largely similar plan, a process of monumentality that required an immense amount of labor and planning. The fortifications at Gordion at this time expanded to include a pair of forts to

9711-464: The first known anywhere in Anatolia. Tumuli are associated with inhumation burials at Gordion until the late 7th century, when cremation began at the site. The two traditions then coexisted through the 6th century BCE. Tumulus MM (for "Midas Mound"), the Great Tumulus, is the largest burial mound at Gordion, standing over fifty meters high today, with a diameter of about three hundred meters. It

9828-448: The following 20th century many countries abolished the monarchy and became republics, especially in the wake of World War I and World War II . Today forty-three sovereign nations in the world have a monarch , including fifteen Commonwealth realms that have Charles III as the head of state. Most modern monarchs are constitutional monarchs , who retain a unique legal and ceremonial role but exercise limited or no political power under

9945-546: The fort at Küçük Höyük. The Persian attackers built a large siege ramp to assault the fortress, still visible today. After its conquest, Gordion became part of the satrapy of Hellespontine Phrygia , which had Daskyleion on the Sea of Marmara , not Gordion, as its capital. Despite its relegation in status, Gordion initially continued to prosper under the Achaemenids, with tumulus burials and monumental buildings maintained through

10062-640: The guests at the banquet ate lamb or goat stew and drank a mixed fermented beverage . Now generally assumed to be the tomb of Midas' father Gordias , it was probably the first monumental project of Midas after his accession. Following the campaigns of Cyrus the Great in Anatolia in the 540s BCE, Gordion became part of the Achaemenid Persian Empire . There is extensive evidence for the Persian siege of 546 BCE at Gordion, mainly associated with

10179-475: The ideal monarchical system would also have at lower levels of government both an aristocracy and elements of democracy in order to create a balance of power. The monarch would also be subject to both natural and divine law, and to the Church in matters of religion. In Dante Alighieri 's De Monarchia , a spiritualised, imperial Catholic monarchy is strongly promoted according to a Ghibelline world-view in which

10296-540: The identification of needs for means of mass communication around the world. UNESCO started organizing training and education for journalists in the 1950s. In response to calls for a " New World Information and Communication Order " in the late 1970s, UNESCO established the International Commission for the Study of Communication Problems, which produced the 1980 MacBride report (named after the chair of

10413-529: The influence of science on society. The journal ceased publication in 1992. UNESCO also published Museum International Quarterly from the year 1948. UNESCO has official relations with 322 international non-governmental organizations (NGOs). Most of these are what UNESCO calls "operational"; a select few are "formal". The highest form of affiliation to UNESCO is "formal associate", and the 22 NGOs with formal associate (ASC) relations occupying offices at UNESCO are: The institutes are specialized departments of

10530-435: The largest, Megaron 3, perhaps serving as an audience hall. The Megarons include several pebble mosaic floors with elaborate geometric designs, among the earliest known examples of their type. The Terrace Building, a complex of eight interconnected buildings stretching over one hundred meters in length, was a locus of grinding, cooking, and weaving, as well as storage. The remains of the Early Phrygian period were preserved due to

10647-518: The leadership through transitioning to a democratic constitutional monarchy . The prospect of retaining the ruler appeals to opposition groups who value both democracy and stability, but it also has implications for their ability to organize and sustain mass protest." Monarchies are associated with hereditary reign , in which monarchs reign for life and the responsibilities and power of the position pass to their child or another member of their family when they die. Most monarchs, both historically and in

10764-580: The modern-day, have been born and brought up within a royal family , the centre of the royal household and court . Growing up in a royal family (called a dynasty when it continues for several generations ), future monarchs are often trained for their expected future responsibilities as monarch. Different systems of hereditary succession have been used, such as proximity of blood , primogeniture , and agnatic seniority ( Salic law ). While most monarchs in history have been male, many female monarchs also have reigned. The term " queen regnant " refers to

10881-425: The monarch, which is a common reason for monarchs carrying several titles. Monarchies were the most common form of government until the 20th century, when republics replaced many monarchies , notably at the end of World War I . As of 2024 , forty-three sovereign nations in the world have a monarch, including fifteen Commonwealth realms that share King Charles III as their head of state. Other than that, there

10998-552: The monarchy without any historical ties to a previous dynasty. There are examples of republican leaders who have proclaimed themselves monarchs: Napoleon I of France declared himself Emperor of the French and ruled the First French Empire after having held the title of First Consul of the French Republic for five years from his seizing power in the coup of 18 Brumaire . President Jean-Bédel Bokassa of

11115-775: The necessity for an international organization was expressed in the Moscow Declaration, agreed upon by China , the United Kingdom, the United States and the USSR. This was followed by the Dumbarton Oaks Conference proposals of 9 October 1944. Upon the proposal of CAME and in accordance with the recommendations of the United Nations Conference on International Organization (UNCIO), held in San Francisco from April to June 1945,

11232-645: The north and south of the Citadel Mound connected by a circuit wall that enclosed an area over twenty-five hectares, the Lower Town. Beyond the Lower Town, settlement continued in the Outer Town, protected by a further wall and ditch. Settlement stretched onto the Northeast Ridge, where a series of houses were destroyed in an attack by an unknown enemy around 700 BCE. During the Middle Phrygian period, Gordion grew to its largest size, encompassing an area of settlement of approximately one hundred hectares. At this time

11349-582: The organization that support UNESCO's programme, providing specialized support for cluster and national offices. UNESCO awards 26 prizes in education, natural sciences, social and human sciences, culture, communication and information as well as peace: International Days observed at UNESCO are provided in the table below: As of July 2023 , UNESCO has 194 member states and 12 associate members. Some members are not independent states and some members have additional National Organizing Committees from some of their dependent territories . UNESCO state parties are

11466-561: The organization's fields of competence. As member states worked together over time to realize UNESCO's mandate, political and historical factors have shaped the organization's operations in particular during the Cold War , the decolonization process, and the dissolution of the Soviet Union . Among the major achievements of the organization is its work against racism, for example through influential statements on race starting with

11583-476: The organization: West Europe (5), Central America (1), North America (2), West Africa (1), East Asia (1), and East Europe (1). To date, there has been no elected Director-General from the remaining ten regions within UNESCO: Southeast Asia, South Asia, Central and North Asia, Middle East, North Africa, East Africa, Central Africa, South Africa, Australia-Oceania, and South America. The list of

11700-427: The political influence of Phrygia in Anatolia increased substantially. During the 9th and 8th centuries BCE, the city grew into the capital of a kingdom that controlled much of Asia Minor west of the river Halys . In the course of the 6th century BCE, the kingdom of Lydia , Phrygia's neighbor to the southwest, began to exert influence within Anatolia, likely at the expense of Phrygian control. The incursion of Cyrus

11817-615: The pool of persons from which the monarch is chosen, and to fill the constituting institutions (e.g. diet and court ), giving many monarchies oligarchic elements. The political legitimacy of the inherited, elected or proclaimed monarchy has most often been based on claims of representation of people and land through some form of relation (e.g. kinship ) and divine right or other achieved status . Monarchs can carry various titles such as emperor , empress , king , and queen . Monarchies can form federations , personal unions and realms with vassals through personal association with

11934-403: The publication of fifteen more short-lived samples, each the average of dozens of barley, lentil, and flax seeds from the Destruction Level. These all indicated a range c. 840–795 BCE, most likely between 830/815 and 810/800 BCE, and were in no way compatible with a c. 700 BCE date, even with extreme adjustments to the outliers within the data. Consequently, the fire can no longer be associated with

12051-404: The rest of the continent of Africa . Monarchies pre-date polities like nation states and even territorial states . A nation or constitution is not necessary in a monarchy since a person, the monarch, binds the separate territories and political legitimacy (e.g. in personal union) together. Monarchies, though, have applied state symbols like insignia or abstracts like the concept of

12168-494: The same time, c. 850 BCE, Tumulus W was constructed, the first known example of a tumulus burial in Anatolia and a marker of elite prominence at Gordion. Beyond the East Citadel Gate, a series of elite buildings occupied the eastern side of the mound. These included several megaron -plan buildings and the large interconnected Terrace Building Complex. The Megarons at Gordion likely served an administrative function, with

12285-748: The site. There is an extensive necropolis attested on the Northeast Ridge, with burials of the MH III-IV periods. Late Bronze Age Gordion was part of the Hittite Empire and located at the western edge of its heartland. There is a cultural change at Gordion in the Early Iron Age , with distinct differences from the Late Bronze Age in regard to architecture and ceramics. Ceramic and linguistic links with southeastern Europe point to an influx of Balkan migrants at this time, possibly

12402-479: The three "malignant" basic forms of government ( tyranny , oligarchy , and ochlocracy ). The monarch in classical antiquity is often identified as " king " or "ruler" (translating archon , basileus , rex , tyrannos , etc.) or as " queen " ( basilinna , basilissa , basileia or basilis ; regina ). Polybius originally understood monarchy as a component of republics, but since antiquity monarchy has contrasted with forms of republic, where executive power

12519-495: The title khan and khagan (emperor) or khatun and khanum ; Ancient Egyptian monarchs have used the title pharaoh for men and women. In Ethiopian Empire , monarchs used title nəgusä nägäst (king of kings) or nəgəstä nägäst (queen of kings). Many monarchs are addressed with particular styles or manners of address, like " Majesty ", " Royal Highness ", " By the Grace of God ", Amīr al-Mu'minīn ("Leader of

12636-538: The tumuli were used as defensive positions during the three weeks of fighting. The village of Bebi, located to the west of the Citadel Mound, was the main site of habitation in the area during the 19th and 20th centuries but was destroyed during the course of the battle. The modern village of Yassıhöyük was established in the aftermath of the Turkish War of Independence . It is part of the Polatlı district. The site

12753-535: The will of a deity ( Divine Right of Kings , Mandate of Heaven ), or a special connection to a deity ( sacred king ), or even purported to be divine kings, or incarnations of deities themselves ( imperial cult ). Many European monarchs have been styled Fidei defensor (Defender of the Faith); some hold official positions relating to the state religion or established church. In the Western political tradition,

12870-515: The world's living species, such as the komodo dragon of Indonesia, the panda of China, the bald eagle of North American countries, the aye-aye of Madagascar, the Asiatic lion of India, the kākāpō of New Zealand, and the mountain tapir of Colombia, Ecuador and Peru. UNESCO and its specialized institutions issue a number of magazines. Created in 1945, The UNESCO Courier magazine states its mission to "promote UNESCO's ideals, maintain

12987-453: Was Elizabeth Dawbarn , whose anonymous Dialogue between Clara Neville and Louisa Mills, on Loyalty (1794) features "silly Louisa, who admires liberty, Tom Paine and the US, [who is] lectured by Clara on God's approval of monarchy" and on the influence women can exert on men. Since then advocacy of the abolition of a monarchy or respectively of republics has been called republicanism , while

13104-829: Was built c. 740 BCE, and at that time was the largest tumulus in Anatolia, only surpassed c. 200 years later by the Tumulus of Alyattes in Lydia. Tumulus MM was excavated in 1957 by Young's team, revealing the remains of the royal occupant, resting on purple and golden textiles in an open log coffin, surrounded by a vast array of magnificent objects. The burial goods included pottery and bronze vessels containing organic residues, bronze fibulae (ancient safety pins), leather belts with bronze attachments, and an extraordinary collection of carved and inlaid wooden furniture , exceptional for its state of preservation. The Tumulus MM funeral ceremony has been reconstructed, and scientists have determined that

13221-441: Was difficult. The authors argue that monarchy declined as an efficient regime type with innovations in communications and transportation technology, as the efficiency of monarchy relative to other regime types declined. According to a 2023 study, monarchy has persisted as a regime type because it can accommodate demands for democratization better than other forms of autocratic rule: "Monarchies can democratize without destabilizing

13338-658: Was excavated by Gustav Körte and Alfred Körte in 1900 and then by the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology , under the direction of Rodney S. Young , between 1950 and 1973. Excavations have continued at the site under the auspices of the University of Pennsylvania Museum with an international team, directed by Keith DeVries (1977–1987), G. Kenneth Sams and Mary M. Voigt (1988–2006), G. Kenneth Sams and C. Brian Rose (2006–2012), and C. Brian Rose (2012–present). Finds from Gordion are on display at

13455-491: Was favoured, that is inheritance according to seniority of birth among the sons of a monarch or head of family , with sons and their male issue inheriting before brothers and their male issue, to the total exclusion of females and descendants through females from succession. This complete exclusion of females from dynastic succession is commonly referred to as application of the Salic law . Another variation on agnatic primogeniture

13572-594: Was readmitted by the UNESCO General Conference that July. UNESCO implements its activities through five programme areas: education, natural sciences, social and human sciences, culture, and communication and information. UNESCO does not accredit institutions of higher learning. The UNESCO transparency portal has been designed to enable public access to information regarding the Organization's activities, such as its aggregate budget for

13689-460: Was the so-called semi-Salic law, or "agnatic-cognatic primogeniture", which allowed women to succeed only at the extinction of all the male descendants in the male line of the particular legislator. Before primogeniture was enshrined in European law and tradition, kings would often secure the succession by having their successor (usually their eldest son) crowned during their own lifetime, so for

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